5 50 763 https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/ddd0bdeda788ee4c11d6ce4a8d4ba7b5.pdf 29ea0dcde14b493a3a3f4d6a87885146 PDF Text Text SLOVAKIA 80 Antonia M a z d n o v d: Slovak Piano Composition (A BRIEF SURVEY ) Conditions in 19th century Slovakia were so repressive, so debilitating to the spirit, that only under menacing hardships could the Slovaks develop their music on a n ational scale. The leadership concentrated on the nation's struggle for liberation from the Magyars. All its efforts and energies were directed toward Slovak national and cultural independence. The incipient cultivation of Slovak national art cut across the injustice of the Slovak position , and music, too, actively entered the fray. Slovak music and its origins cannot be evaluated from the perspective of modern musical art. While urban artistic culture at that period was comparatively highly developed in Slovakia, it represented cosmopolitan, not Slovak art. Therefore, the movement for authentic Slovak revival kept aloof from it and concentrated its cultural and artistic activity within certain cities like Turciansky Sv. Martin, Banska Bystrica, Liptovsky Sv. Mikulas, Dolny Kubin and several others, which likewise became important centers of patriotic and promotional movements. Music and song were completely at the service of national ideologies and struggles. Music no less than the other arts was expected to spark national consciousness and keep patriotism alive. Slovakia in that period possessed neither the means nor the conditions required for the cultivation of artistic music; consequently the character of its over-all musical life remained amateurish. Musical enthusiasts who happened to flourish were dilettantes devoid of professional training and only by way of exception did any of them attain artisticesthetic renown in competent circles. Folk creativity played a significant role in the growth and quality of Slovak national music. From the age of enlightenment it served as a powerful source of inspiration for artistic composition, chiefly under the influence of Romanticism, from which the entire Slovak national art evolved. A Slovak in the 19th century would have recognized �SLOVAKIA 81 in folk art (folksong) the most authentic expression of the national spirit, the personification of the nation's immortality and sole source of resistance in its struggle for self-identity. Eventually, toward the close of the 19th century, this trend resulted in conservatism and became a deterrent to fresh views in folk music and hampered any effort to raise the artistic standard of Slovak music. The earliest collections of folksongs were the basis from which piano compositions evolved. These consisted of simple arrangements of a primitive nature. In 1830 Martin Suchan arranged 12 songs from safarik's collection and in 1837 Ladislav Ftiredy composed piano arrangements for 25 pieces from Kollar's collection of patriotic songs. Toward the end of the 18th and on into the 19th century new musical creations appeared, combining Magyar elements with Slovak folksongs, resulting in the so-called neo-Hungarian song. The neo-Hungarian style, evident principally in the dance forms, also partly infiuenced emerging Slovak musical compositions in Slovak musical centers, as exemplified in the piano compositions of M. Godra, well-known songs like Matthew's Musing, Svihrovskd, and gypsy traces in M. Laciak's and M. Francisci's arrangements of folksongs. In the 1870's a counter influence arose against the gypsy influence in Slovak folksongs. The leading protagonist in the effort to offset foreign influence in music was the puristic oriented Milan Lichard. Early composers were prolific in their works for the piano. Paul Gerengay (1825-95) (Dance music: Recollection of Sitno) and Maximilian Hudec (1836-1911) ( Hurban March, Marina Quadrille) made a beginning. The most popular were the quadrilles, mazurkas, polkas, waltzes, etc. (Emigrant, by A. Krcmery; Quadrille of St. Martin, by Bella, Ladonka, by Laciak, a quartet, Tatra Flowers, by Boldis, and others). To this group belongs Michael Laciak ( 1826-1901) who, besides the piano variations for Our Times also attempted in his Instruction to standardize Slovak musical terminology. A. Horislav Skultety was a most productive composer. He composed about 6 stylistic dances for the piano. In this period l'..udovit Vansa (1835-73) received a thorough musical education and became a creative composer. For his own immediate :"'leeds and to his great personal satisfaction he produced Wreaths of Folksongs �82 SLOVAKIA for the piano. Similar aspirations were achieved by Stefan Fajnor ( 1844-1909) one of the most accomplished composers of a renaissance era. Originally he composed chamber music and was considerably influenced by the neo-Hungarian style, than finally turned to Slovak melodies in his Variations for piano and Fantasia of Slovak Folksongs. Vlastimir Melicko (1893-1946) the son of a musical family of the renowned Jan Melicko, already graced with a technical musical training, became a highly talented composer. He arranged dances for the piano and produced Slovak Rhapsody and Fantasia, based on Slovak folksongs. Associated with the activities of the Slovak Society in Budapest is the name of ~udovit Izak (Milos Lihovecky, 1862-1927) composer of a wide variety of works. For the piano he wrote the popular polka Anica and piano variations on the folksong Tecie voda, tecie. Another member of the Slovak Society was Milan Lichard (1853-1935). He obtained his specialized musical training at the Academy in Budapest. Noteworthy on his extensive list of compositions are his short piano pieces and two-piano rhapsodies, which in reality are outstanding collections of songs. Two other piano composers who lived and composed outside of Slovakia must be mentioned. Holding first place was Milos Francisci, a dentist (1854-1926). He was act~ve in the United States and besides choruses, he wrote for piano paraphrases of folksongs, entitled Trdvnice (two volumes of 100 songs each) and a Fantasia on Slovak songs for two pianos. Vladimir G. sasko (1875-1960) a piano virtuoso, also emigrated to the United States. He studied at the Academy of Music in Budapest and taught at the Chicago Musical College. He is the creator of many Slovak compositions: rhapsodies, Fantasia, based on Slovak folksongs and variations. Piano compositions and other unnamed works of these two composers were instrumental in making an impact on Slovak national consciousness in the United States. To this generation of Slovak creative artists, all of them composers in the Slovak national tradition, we further assign, Jan Levoslav Bella, Mikulas Mayzes, Viliam FigusBystry and Mikulas Schneider-Trnavsky. The initial efforts of this generation of composers sparked a national revival of native Slovak art, which also embraced music in its �SLOVAKIA 83 patriotic-awakening, informative and world-wide roles. These composers, by contrast with the former generation, already possessed all the marks of a creative artistic individuality. Their compositions continued to show the influence of the former esthetic revival based on the role of the folksong, which extended into the 1920's and 1940's, when a new generation of composers with modern artistic styles was emerging. One of the first musicians with a European outlook was Jan Levoslav Bella 0843-1936), the dean of Slovak composers, one of the founders of Slovak national musical culture. Self-educated in playing the piano, he did not indulge in piano composition in the later years of his mature mastery. His four-movement Sonata in B Minor, which to this day appears on programs, represents a work of perennial merit in music literature. Another outstanding composition is his fragmentary Sonata in C Minor, from the elaborate first movement of which has been constructed a Beethoven allegro and an impressively beautiful adagio. Minor works include: Variations for the song Pri Presporku and Leti roj, as well as a Sonatina in E Minor, all of which exemplify the music standard of his contemporaries. An enthusiastic admirer and promoter of Slovak folksongs, Viliam Figus-Bystry ( 1875-1937) directed his activity almost exclusively to using folksongs in classical music. Together with Milan Lichard and Stefan Fajnor, he dominated the so-called renaissance period of Slovak music, in which the composers for the most part were self-trained. The basic design of Figus's creations is derived from Slovak folksong arrangements. His piano compositions include One Thousand Slovak Folksongs, Flowers of the Field, a collection written for children ( 106 songs in simple arrangement for the piano), Dances, and a march Pages from an Album, Multicolored Leaves (10 compositions) Musical Miniatures (12 compositions). Probably the most extensive of his piano compositions is the four-part Slovak Sonata in the dorian mode, based on themes of Slovak folksongs . In his earlier years Figus also composed practical piano music in chamber style (polkas, marches, etc.). The overture for his opera Detvan has been arranged for four hands. One of the pioneers of the national realistic trend in �84 SLOVAKIA Slovak music was Mikulas Moyzes (1872-1944). The bulk of his compositions gravitated toward orchestral music. Most of his piano compositions he eventually transposed to orchestral arrangements. His best known works are the three-movement Sonatina and a series of 12 piano compositions, To our Youth. His remaining piano works consist of short forms like mazurkas, polonaises, preludes, impromptus, arabesques, meditations, etc. The inspirational basis for his entire repertoire is the Slovak folksong, from which he selected a typical Slovak melodic theme in order to develop an independent creation. Moyzes originated the ballad song with its deep realistic picturesqueness. Following Bella, the most impressive member of the older generation of composers was Mikulas SchneiderTrnavsky ( 1881-1959) a pioneer in the trend toward realism in Slovak national music and a friend of Zoltan Kodaly. The strong point in his creativeness was artistic variation in Slovak folksongs and classical song form composition comparable to the motifs in the style of Schubert and Mendelssohn. Schneider-Trnavsky was the first to develop the recitative-rhapsodic type of Slovak melody. Because of the wealth of his compositions in this category, his piano works are not extensive. His Opus 5 is a Brief Waltz (1898) and his popular instructive Slovak Sonatina is well-known and often concertized. Later appeared his Variation Line of Compositions (1944). The musical philosophy of M. SchneiderTrnavsky in all his creative effort stems from the Slovak folksong. His style and tools of expression are Post-Romantic. To this creative quartet of Slovak musicians (from the standpoint of age and style) one must add the names of Frico Kafenda and Alexander Albrecht. As composers they were not specifically aligned with the effort to promote Slovak national music, but they nevertheless made a valuable contribution to the advancement of Slovak musical art. And although they belonged to the Romantic school of composers, they formed a logical link in the historical development of Slovak music and provided an effective transition from the dilettante culture of the previous century to the Slovak avantgarde and indeed paved the way for it. �SLOVAKIA 85 The character of Frico Kafenda's creations (1883-1965) was decisively influenced by his training in Leipzig, where conservative traditions merged with the Post-Romantic school. Among his teachers were Robert Teich-Mtiller (piano ), Stefan Krehl and Heinrich Zollner (composition), Arthur Nikisch (conducting). He also attended lectures by Herrmann Kretschmar and Hugh Riemann. Kafenda's compositions frequently exhibit a subjective intimate character. The style of his music is marked by strict harmony and proficient contrapuntal writing. The core of his works comprises chamber, song-like, and instrumental compositions. His piano works consist of A Piano Suite in the ancient modes, Three Piano Compositions, and Variations and Fugues. Alexander Albrecht (1885-1958) can be described as the type of composer-synthesist, who radiates a variety of influences. He was an intimate friend of Bartok. He studied at the Conservatory of Budapest and his teachers were Istvan Thoman (piano), Hans Kassler (composition), and F. Szandtner (conducting). Hindemith's influence led him to combine classicism with modern elements of expression. His musical thought was expressed chiefly in lyrics, in the tender grazioso and the play!ul scherzo. Among his distinguished piano compositions, the following are outstanding: Scherzo in F Major (duet) (1899), Sonata in F Major, Scherzo (1907), (duet), Aphorisms, New Year Greeting, Moods (duet), Wild Rose Suite, (duet), Sonatina in three movements as a duet, humoresque (Excursion i n a Thunderstorm), Twelve short compositions (Success to Music, Little Johnny, In the Distance, Shepherd Dance, Joyful Awakening, Wedding Feast of the Crickets, In a Gay Room, Beginner in Dancing, Perfect Dancer, Dusk, Night, Going to Work in the Morning). His final composition is an instructive work, entitled Ten Duets, based on song themes and recitations from Jan Krasko's collection. After 1918 the newly evolved Slovak music style encountered many difficult challenges : to create a firm material basis for a national musical life and to establish a strong organizational position in competition with a fully developed appreciation of foreign music, which had found a ready response in the musical life of Slovakia. The spirit of competition generated much activity, cen- �86 SLOVAKIA tered in new musically-cul tural institutions, organizations and music schools. In these years, as it were in the shadow of the previously mentioned composers, there indeed arose a group of musicians, who adhered to ancient traditions, but their productions lacked any distinguishab le unity. Renowned at this time was Dezider Lauko (1872-1942) whose piano compositions can be compared with Liszt's in their brilliance and salon presentation. For the piano he wrote Slovak Moods, Piano Etudes for Children, Humoresques, three Valse Scherzandos, Rhapsody in Slovak Meadows, duets for Slovak Dances, and others. :r.uctmila Krizkova-Leh otska (1863-1945), the first Slovak woman composer, in addition to various piano works, directed her talent to composing for children. Angeia Cziczkova (1888-1973) specialized in pedagogical elements of music instruction as well as in composition. Her works consist of more than 100 compositions (Unisono with 54 exercises, Study in Octaves, Rhythmic Exercises with Variations, Technique in Trills, A Study in Chromatics, Preparing to Play Tremolo . In addition she wrote 48 compositions, Youth, 16 Short Preludes for piano. From among her classical selections are Twelve Sonatas, Slavic Fantasy, Prelude in A Flat Major, and Nine Preludes for piano. An individualisti c pattern was folloved by Fran.a Dostalik (1896-1944). His music portrays modern expression and shows some attempt at experimentat ion. Besides shorter forms for the piano, he wrote Detvan Sonatina which he later arranged as a piano duet. To this group of composers belong many others who flourished in the years before and after World War I. Their thought and inspiration sprang from a cultural climate where struggle for an independent national musical art predominated ; or it was derived from the uncertain period of new social-cultura l conditions during the first Republic, when new ideas of national musical culture among the younger generation clashed with the older music. Some of these composers achieved only amateur status; for others again the unfavorable conditions of Slovak cultural life in that period precluded any advancement even with specialized musical training. One of the most productive composers in this group (he has about 260 works to his credit) is Jozef Rosinsky �SLOVAKIA 87 (1897-1973). He obtained his education in Turin and in Rome (law); in Nice he studied piano and organ. His rich productivity comprises all genres. A listing of his piano works must include the following noteworthy selections: Mazurka in A Minor, Children's March, Trencin Bells, Fantasia alla Zingara, Prelude on Slovak Motifs, Plastic Pictures, Scherzo (duet), Slovak Gleanings, Ten Short Compositions, First Sonata, Second Sonata, Sonata for piano or harmonium, Echoes of Enchanted Nitra, and Slovak Concert Fantasia for piano and orchestra. Ladislav Stancek ( 1898) is a composer of the same calibre. His vast productivity was directed almost exclusively to program music. In Brno he studied organ under Tregler, composition under V. Petrzelka and 0. Chlubna and conducting under F. Neumann. Among his most popular piano compositions are: Child's Suite, Variations on an original theme and a collection entitled From Life. Representative of the culturally-enlightened and popular composition, anchored in the great traditions of the nationally-revived chorus and group singing in Slovakia, is Jan Valast'an Dolinsky (1892-1965). In the area of piano composition he left short forms: Complaint, Remembrance of May, Minuets in G Major and E Flat Major, Waltz in A Minor, Page From an Album, and Valse Triste. The works of Jan Krasko-Zapotocky (1893-1968) fall into the same category. He, too, was noted as an enlightened leader in the field of music instruction. Among his works are sonatinas and patriotic songs issued under the title, Echoes of Freedom. Jan Mory (1897) belongs to quite another class of composers. He dealt principally with operettic, popular, and dance music. For the piano he prepared instructional works for children, several duets and a collection entitled Children Sing and Play. The composers of yet another school react sensitively to the contemporary, employing methods-modern, technical, and expressive. Their common characteristic is a higher artistic and idealistic standard, without, however, a uniform productivity. An outstanding figure is Stefan Ladislav Nemeth-samorinsky (1896), a typical representative of Bratislava's musical life. In thought and artistry he belongs to the progressive Magyar musical culture as �88 SLOVAKIA represented in Bratislava by Bela Bartok and Alexander Albrecht. He studied piano, organ, and composition at the Academy of Music in Budapest and later attended the Graduate School of Franz Schmidt in Vienna. He can claim a valuable collection of piano works. He arranged 20 Slovak folksongs for piano under the title, For Youth. He wrote a very effective Slovak Rhapsody and Improvisation on a Slovak folksong . Other significant works include: Meditation on Paganini's Theme, a transcription of Beethoven's Romance in D Major for violin, Intermezzo for piano, Sonata with three movements, containing valuable content (Toccata and Fugue) Piano Concerto, and Transcription of Liszt's Prelude and Fugue on Bach's name for two pianos. A composer of an earlier generation with extensive production in music theory, writing, and pedagogy was Jan Fiser-Kveton (1896-1963). He studied composition and conducting at the Prague Conservatory under K. B. Jirak and J. B. Forster. In composition he reached out into diverse styles. In 1928 he produced Sonata in F Minor for piano and the best-loved compositions are his two-piano Suites for Youth. A distinctive role m Slovak musical life and composition was played by Michael Vilec (1902), who was associated in the early years of his creativity with Eastern Slovakia. His compositions reflect the influence of his teacher Zoltan Kodaly and are marked by impressionism. At first he had held himself aloof from the compositional efforts of his generation. His works are noted for their expressive folk elements, among which must be mentioned Bagatelles for piano, Ballade for two pianos, Sonata for piano, Rondo, Three Sonatinas, two series of duets From the Banks of the Danube, Conversation at the Piano, Two-Tone Inventions, Eight Studies on the Development of Interpretive Elements and Fantasia on the waltzes of Franz Schubert: Schubertiada for piano and orchestra. Together with Mikulas Mayzes, he wrote a significant two-volume School of Piano. The first third of the century saw the emergence of a young generation of Slovak composers with a new program and new ideals and goals: to create a style of music that would be contemporary, modern, deeply realistic and Slovak. These composers were determined to put an end to provincialism and dilettantism and at long last to incorpo- �SLOVAKIA 89 rate the culture of a highly talented Slovak nation into the great orchestra of European music. A Golden Age of musical composition was about to dawn throughout the world and Slovak piano creativity would play a responsible role in it. Another composer of contemporary music is Alexander Moyzes (1906). He obtained his musical training at the Prague Conservatory under the direction of such teachers as Otakar Sin and Rudolf Karel (composition), Otakar Ostrem (conducting), and B. A. Wiedermann (organ) . Moyzes is noted for his program music with its polished composition2.! technique, which combines classical and Post-Romantic principles with impulses of impressionism. In addition to his creative works, Moyzes actively promoted a new style of Slovak music by means of articles, critical essays, and reviews, in which he condemned in no uncertain terms both dilettantism and conservatism in Slovak musical life. In his capacity as music instructor he educated an entire generation of composers, who to this day occupy foremos t positions in Slovak musical circles. (Holoubek, Jurovsky, Kardos, Ocenas, Freso and several others) . Moyzes' creative works include basic instrumental and vocal genres. His principal compositions for the piano are: Sonata in E Minor (a transcription of Seven Compositions - 1942) which has been rated as one of the best Slovak piano compositions. Others are: Divertimento (1930), FoxEtude and Improptu (1935), Highwayman's Rhapsody (1957) . He also wrote Jazz Sonata (1932) for two pianos. Eugen Suchon (1908) shares with Moyzes the glory of initiating the Golden Age of Slovak musical art. He is at once its creator, its promoter, and its splendid flowering. He studied at the Academy of Music and Drama in Bratislava under the direction of Frico Kafenda and Jozef Vincourek. After graduation he continued his studies under Vitezoslav Novak at the Graduate School in Prague. Suchon's art is completely original. It matured under the impact of Slovak folk melodies combined with modern techniques. The blending of melody, harmony, rhyth::.n and form characterizes Suchoi'.t's music and gives it its national character. Omitting his earlier compositions, (1923-28), a list of his best known works includes the following: Short Suite with Passacaglia (1931), Ballade Suite (1936), which is a standard calling card among elite Slovak pianists; �90 SLOVAKIA Metamorphosis Suites (1953), which is a compendium of modern piano tunes with effective transition and harmonious techniques; Pictures from Slovakia, six series of piano compositions from 1956-1957; and a newer Rhapsodic Suite for piano and orchestra (1968). In 1969 he contributed Kaleidoscope (Evolution of Harmony) in which individual numbers are a succession of delicate musical miniatures. Jan Cikker (1911), pioneer of contemporary national opera, a celebrity known for his irrepressible vitality and vibrant energy, yet not without meditative depth, also belongs to the contemporary scene. He studied composition at the Prague Conservatory under Jaroslav Kricka, organ under B. A. Wiedermann, and conducting under Pavel Dedecek. At the Graduate School he was the student of Vitezoslav Novak and pursued conducting under Felix Weingartner. Cikker opened wide the concentrated art of folksong and dance and developed it into classical, highly spontaneous forms. He is a contemporary lyricist and dramatist. Although Cikker concentrated on operatic creations, he also wrote a considerable number of piano compositions: Sonata in E Minor (1927), while yet pursuing his studies, two compositions for piano In Solitude ( 1940), Piano Variations (1935), Lullaby (1942), Two Compositions for Youth (1948), Tatra's Brooks (three brilliant compositions for piano, 1954), and finally 15 piano water-colors, What the Children Narrated, also a Concertina for piano and orchestra. In addition there is his arrangement of Slovak Suites for orchestra and two pianos. The foremost personality in the field of Slovak music is Dezider Kardos (1914), a student of Alexander Moyzes and V. Novak, a.member of the central generation of composers (along with Ocenas, Jurovsky, Kresanek, Freso and Holoubek). Kardos concentrates his talent on the creation of monumental works, in which his technique is best applied. From among his numerous works the foremost are: Two Piano Compositions (1933), Piano Suite II (1937), Studies for Piano ( 1947), a series of piano compositions Bagatelles (1948), Cycle of 10 Piano Compositions for Youth (1956), many individual scores for children, and notably the interpretive, yet quite spontaneous three compositions To My Children (Banter, Humoresque, Toccatina). In 1969 �SLOVAKIA 91 he concluded Piano Concerto with orchestra. It was his first composition of the concert type. It is not a concert work in the traditional sense of the word. The piano is combined with the orchestral rhythm, but it continues to express the individual motifs and ideas. Another member of the central generation of composers is Ladislav Holoubek (1913). He studied composition under A. Moyzes, conducting under Jozef Vincourek, piano under Ernest Krizan. After completing his studies he pursued composition under V. Novak. Holoubek's artistry is best exemplified in his operatic creations. His works for piano are: Sonata in G Major (1931), Prelude, Passacaglia and Toccata (1934) , Four Fugues , II Sonata for Piano (1947), and a cycle for young advanced pianists, Children's Games and Joys . Prominent also as a representative member of the central generation of composers is Andrej Ocenas ( 1911). He studied in Bratislava under A. Moyzes (composition), conducting under Jozef Vincourek, and advanced composition under V. Novak in Prague. His production is characterized by design of splendor and monumentality. For the piano he wrote: First Letters (I Piano Suite), Fugue for piano, II Piano Suite, a piano fantasia Sleet, a series of piano compositions, New Spring, a piano suite Youth, a piano suite, Pictures from a Fable, Ballade, Piano Concerto with orchestra, several individual compositions and Flowers of the Field for young pianists. The creations of Ocenas are characterized by original reconstruction of genuine folklore; he therefore resembles the realists, Janacek and Moussorgsky. A lyrical composer with a feeling for poetic tonal-coloring detail was simon Jurovsky (1912-1963). A student of A. Moyzes (composition), Jozef Vincourek (conducting), he later studied in Vienna under Jozef Marx. In addition to a series of major forms, he left the following piano compositions: Piano Suite, 4 compositions for children, From a Child's Paradise, a suite from ballet, Chivalrous Ballade for piano, Peace Symphony, for concert piano and string orchestra. Tibor Freso ( 1918) belongs to a generation which injected a new creative spirit into Slovak music. He studied under the Italian composer, Ildebrand -Pizetti at the Academia �92 SLOVAKIA di Santa Cecilia in Rome. For piano he wrote a Miniature Suite, which is an effective recital composition with lesser technical demands; Russian Dance for piano, a piano suite In a Child's Room for very young pianists, and a succession of shorter works. Frantisek Babusek ( 1905-1954) a prominent broadcasting conductor, studied conducting under Pavel Dedecek and composition under V. Novak, Jozef Suk, and Jaroslav Kricka in Prague. To Babusek belongs well-deserved credit for producing original compositions and organizing periodic symphonic concerts. He wrote Prelude for piano and the majestic Concerto in D Minor, which in its claims is indeed somewhat exaggerated, but is a masterly composition in which Babusek amassed a whole assemblage of modern piano techniques, many-faceted rhythms and intricacies. The leading personality of Slovak musical science is Dr. Jozef Kresanek (1913). He was educated in composition under Rudolf Karl at the Prague Conservatory and at the Graduate School of V. Novak. Along with his scholarly pursuits, which netted him a long series of learned articles, and books, he composed many songs, choruses, chamber music as well as the following works for the piano: Piano Suite in four parts, I I Piano Suite, arrangements of Slovak folksongs for young pianists, Meadow Flowers, Elegy for piano, Highwayman's Ballade and others. His Scherzo for the piano is an outstanding work. The foremost exponent of Slovak musical theory and estheticism is Dr. Otto Ferenczy ( 1921) . As a composer he advanced on the knowledge of Bart6k and Stravinsky and was able to combine their thrust with the realism of the Slovak folksong. Characteristic of Ferenczy are his expressive elegance, his brilliance and intellectual humor. His works reflect inspiration from the eastern Slovak folksong and dance, and later from more imposing concert and symphonic works. From a wealth of creative works one must list his Intermezzo for piano, and Capriccio for piano and orchestra. He wrote an innovative piece entitled Partita for concert piano and orchestra. Jan Zimmer (1926) can be characterized as a highly productive artist and one of the most distinguished figures of a youthful generation of masters. He obtained his musical training at thP. Bratislava Conservatory, studying organ �SLOVAKIA 93 under Jozef Veber, piano under Frico Kafenda, and composition under Eugen Suchan. He also studied composition at the Franz Liszt Academy in Budapest, under Ferencz Farkas and is a graduate of the Salzburg Seminary in American studies (David Diamond). Zimmer himself is a piano virtuoso, appearing in concerts as the exclusive interpreter of his own compositions and constantly deals with problems involving the piano-solo and piano with orchestra. The blossoming of his style is based on the synthesis of neo-classical interpretive forms with the distinctive quality of sound. In all his works Zimmer explores new directions. Besides a lengthy list of other types of composition, he is credited also with numerous piano works as follows: Four Piano Compositions, Moods, I and II Sonatas for piano, Three Sonatas for 2 pianos, Tatry I-II (I and II suites for piano and orchestra), Three Sonatas for 2 pianos, Four Piano Concertos with orchestra, Concerto for piano without orchestra, A Piano Concerto, with solo part in the bass with orchestra, Three Preludes for piano, Rhapsody for piano and orchestra, Short Fantasia for piano and orchestra, Ten Children's Pieces, Concerto Grosso for 2 pianos, 2 string orchestras,· including percussion ·instruments. In contemporary musical life a place of distinction belongs to Rudolf Macudzinski (1907), master, pedagogue, and an outstanding Slovak piano virtuoso. A student of V. Kurz and Leos Janacek, he trained a significant number of young piano-artists. As an accomplished artist, he stands in the forefront of Slovak concert life and together with his wife Silvia Macudzinski often concertizes on two pianos, thus ably promoting this less known type of music. His talent and skill in composition takes many forms, but he excels chiefly in instrumental music. From his piano pieces we choose Two Romances, Sonatina, solo theme for piano, Meditation and Fugue for 2 pianos, Divertimento for two pianos, Bagatelles for 2 pianos, orchestral and concert arrangements, Valse-Improptu for piano and orchestra, Variazoni Olimpiche for piano and orchestra. Well known are his arrangements of folksongs for piano and his instructive and presentative works for youth, such as Study of Scales I and II, and Christmas Numbers I Can Play, and others. �94 SLOVAKIA Resembling Macudzinski in character and artistic creative thought, is the talented Slovak conductor, Dr. ~udovit Rajter (1906). He pursued his studies in Vienna under C. Kraus and A. Wunderer, as well as F. Schmidt and J. Marx. Later he continued his studies under Dohnanyi in Budapest. His creative works are not as numerous as those of Macudzinski, but artistically they are highly polished. His most important piano piece is Short Suite in the old style. Otherwise he composes for orchestra and chorus. Several composers align themselves with the tradition of artistic creativity based on the folklore of eastern Slovakia. One of these is Jozef Gresak (1907), who with his Piano Concerto introduced altogether unusual hues into piano tones and presented quite fascinating methodical problems about natural and unnatural fingerings and the central role of the thumb as the midpoint of a pianistic hand. An individual of remarkable stature in contemporary Slovak life is Julius Kowalski (1912). He studied composition and conducting at the Prague Conservatory under Rudolf Karl, Alojz Haba and Pavel Dedecek. He continued his studies at the Graduate School in Prague under Jozef Suk and Vaclav Talich, and later in Vienna under C. Kraus. His earlier compositions are influenced by the European avantgarde and Alojz Haba in his Four Pieces for piano, in Fantasia in the quarter-tone system; but his later works are influenced by the Post-Romantic tradition. As a pedagogue, he wrote much for children. His cycles From the World of Toys, five short recital pieces, are written for young pianists. The years after World War II witnessed the resurgence of a new segment of Slovak musical life, which achieved a natural fusion between folk art and the more exacting principles of classical music. Important for the development of the new genres was the appearance on the scene of artistic folk choirs, like the Slovak Artistic Collective, Lucnica, Military Artistic Choir, and others. Likewise important was the rise of opera scenarios and the use of radio, cinema, and television. With original composition all the Slovak artists participated in the development of these genres and simultaneously a young generation arose which �SLOVAKIA 95 also directed its activity to this new segment of Slovak musical life. A protagonist of modern Slovak musical achievement is Tibor Andrasovan (1917). He is a higly productive and successful Slovak composer in the field of operetta, film, scenario, and folk music. His Gypsy Dance for piano and orchestra stands as a worthy sample of his rich creativity, which gained for him both popularity and widespread accolades from an admiring public. A composer with similar tastes and merit is Bartolomej Urbanec (1918 ) . He studied composition and conducting under A. Mayzes, Eugen Suchan and Kornel Schimpel, and advanced conducting under Vaclav Talich. He is one of the pioneers of creative work for artistic folk choirs, such as the Slovak Artistic Collective, Lucnica, and others. His greatest works are Concertina for piano and orchestra and Three Romantic Pieces, which often appear on concert programs. By his creative compositions Teodor Hirner (1910) identifies himself with Eastern Slovakia. He wrote numerous compositions for various audiences. The familiar ones are Capriccio for piano and archestra, and his piano cycle Imagini. By character and musical ability Julius Letnan ( 19141973) falls into this group. His Sonata for piano causes amazement especially in its lyrical middle section where the presentation is colored with truly Slovak beauty and expression. The duet Dances and Songs for piano and orchestra is also included in this Sonata. Noteworthy is his work Ten Studies, in which he solves technical piano problems in modern style. With the great increase in educational and cultural programs on the radio, and the steadily mounting demands for high artistic standards in musical broadcasts, the number of musicians who turned their talents to the broadcasting arts has likewise increased. A veteran of this broadcasting activity was the pianist Janka Matuska (1897-1959 ) . He was a versatile composer, producing many works, especially for piano. His characteristic features are humor, laughter, optimism and emotional immediacy. The characteristic and typical examples of his notable talent are such short compositions as Imp in the Chimney, Musical Clock, Gi ant, �96 S LOVAKIA Rabbi t and Hunter, Hum oresque, Minuet, Valse Mignon, variations on folksong : Old M aids, Paraphrases on Slovak Folksongs , and a piano cycle, Slovak Land. A noteworthy representative of Slovak dance music and songs is Karol Elbert (1911). He wrote 3 jazz sonatas for piano. Ondrej Francisci (1915 ) dedicates his works principally to children and young people. He wrote 10 pieces for youth. In the 1950's a group of talented composers, pupils of Mayzes and Cikker, appeared on the scene. In their case there is no concern for program music or its style. The area of their creative interests is very broad and consists, above all, in contemporary musical art; not lacking, however , are positive efforts to come to terms with the impulses of serial and electronic music. A composer who divides his creative activity between theory and composition is the musical scholar, Dr. Ladislav Burlas (1922). In his compositions he inclines toward Bartok. The area of his brief forms is represented by Chaconne and Fugue for piano. Otherwise his chief interest and activity rest with folklore theory and composition. One of the most original composers in the effort for new artistic patterns is Ilja Zeljenka (1932 ) . His piano works excel in two Suites and a Sonata. Pavol Simai (1930) evinces fresh creative orientation in regard to Slovak folk themes. First he studied under Pavol Kados in Budapest, then in Bratislava under A. Moyzes and Jan Cikker; finally he came under Paul Dessau in Berlin. His compositions excel in unconventional lyricism, steeped in sentiment, as exemplified in his piano works: Pastoral for piano, a piano suite From Slovakia and a Sonata for piano. He also wrote numerous shorter forms, such as his Fugues, Invention, Song, Scherzo, Impressions. Mention must also be made of his Sonata Fragment, the Dead, and Pen and Ink Drawings. A composer noted for his scientific work in music theory is Dr. Ivan Hrusovsky (1927). In composition he was a student of A. Moyzes. His early works are characterized by principles of the new Romanticism and Impressionism, exemplifying the influence of his teacher. He manifests his individuality in his later compositions and his dominant characteristics are his inclination toward lyricism and his �SLOVAKIA 97 outstanding technique. Besides other works he wrote a Sonatina for piano, Piano Variations, Toccata for piano and a Piano Concerto with orchestra. His Sonata for piano is particularly valuable. In its three movements he incorporates all the concepts exemplifying piano techniques of the present day. Narcisa Donatova ( 1928 ) is an ambitious musician. The greater-lesser styles of vocal music are her domain, but she also writes piano pieces, such. as Suite for Youth , the suites How the Forests Reminisce, Talking Suite, the suite In n New School and others. Among her shorter works are Brioni Island, Marilyn Bridge, The Moon and the Ocean, and Red Lantern. The talented Jozef Malovec ( 1933) belongs to the youngest generation. Instrumental music is dominant in his limited production. He wrote two sonatinas for the piano. For the dissemination of cultural music to the rural areas much is being accomplished by these young musicians. One of them is Tibor Sladkovic (1928 ), known for his Ten Piano Variations. Peter Kolman ( 1937) may be classed among composers searching for fresh developmental methods. Hindemith and Schonberg exerted the greatest influence on his works. His two most serious pieces composed for piano are Three Miniatures and Three Compositions in memory of Schonberg. Dusan Martincek (1936) is a most versatile musician. He studied piano at the conservatory in Bratislava under the direction of Anna Kafenda, and composition privately under Jan Cikker and Jan Zimmer. He writes principally for piano; his models are eminent personalities in musical circles, such as A. N. Scriabin, S . V. Rachmaninoff, Bela Bartok, and D. D. Shostakovich. His works include: Rhapsody for piano and orchestra, Three Preludes , Six Etudes, Variations, Poem for piano (Sonata I), Three Preludes and Fugues , Two Dances with a Bulgarian Rhythm, D ialogues in the form of variations for piano and orchestra, T wo Romantic Preludes in memory of A. Scriabin, Concert Rhapsody Negrea, Seven Concert Etudes , containing interesting new problems in piano techniques; three waltzes, Quasi Valse, R eferences to Bagpipes, Introduction and Toccata for piano �98 SLOVAKIA and string orchestra, Three Sonatinas, five new Preludes and Fugues (1970). Ivan Parik (1936) has enjoyed close association with th~ vast panorama of European music. Originally he studied under Alexander Albrecht, composition under Andrej Ocemis, and conducting under K. Schimpel. Eventually he became a student of A. Moyzes. He is one of the most talented composers of the younger generation. In his search for contemporary and unconventional modes of expression, he attained admirable results in his works for piano: Rhapsody for piano, Night a sketch for two pianos, Suite for piano, Sketch for piano, Three Pieces for piano, Songs About Falling Leaves (4 compositions for piano) . Juraj Hatrik ( 1941) wrote Sonata in C Sharp M i nor for piano, Andante Semplice and Burlesque for piano, Toccata and Romantic Etude in F Sharp M i nor, Short Suite. For children he wrote the cycle The Last Vacation Day and for young clients a piano Concerto Facile. Miroslav Bazlik ( 1931) entered a music school upon the recommendation of Jan Cikker. His earliest productions, Sonata in B Minor for piano and bagatelles A Palette show a Post-Romantic and Impressionistic influence. In the following compositions he manifests an inclination toward neo-Classicism, as exemplified in Six Variations , Concert Etude, and Moment Musical. Marian Ivankovic (1931) has to his credit a number of works in various styles. He wrote Trifles for piano. Roman Berger, one of the youngest, wrote a Sonata for piano and a Suite (Prelude, Scherzo, Toccata). Jozef Sixta's first composition was Two Fugues . He also wrote Five Compositi ons and Fantasia for piano. To the afore-mentioned must be added Ivan Konecny, who wrote Two Bagatelles for piano, Variations , Two Fugues, and Three Compositions. Vladimir Bokes, son of the late Dr. Bokes, well-known musical author, made his debut in music composition with Partita for piano (Prelude, Aria, Capriccio). This brief survey gives some slight indication of the tireless effort and persistent struggle endured by the musically gifted Slovak nation, which ably shaped its musical culture despite turbulent times and developed it to match the music standards of greater nations. � SLOVAKIA 80 Antonia M a z d n o v d: Slovak Piano Composition (A BRIEF SURVEY ) Conditions in 19th century Slovakia were so repressive, so debilitating to the spirit, that only under menacing hardships could the Slovaks develop their music on a n ational scale. The leadership concentrated on the nation's struggle for liberation from the Magyars. All its efforts and energies were directed toward Slovak national and cultural independence. The incipient cultivation of Slovak national art cut across the injustice of the Slovak position , and music, too, actively entered the fray. Slovak music and its origins cannot be evaluated from the perspective of modern musical art. While urban artistic culture at that period was comparatively highly developed in Slovakia, it represented cosmopolitan, not Slovak art. Therefore, the movement for authentic Slovak revival kept aloof from it and concentrated its cultural and artistic activity within certain cities like Turciansky Sv. Martin, Banska Bystrica, Liptovsky Sv. Mikulas, Dolny Kubin and several others, which likewise became important centers of patriotic and promotional movements. Music and song were completely at the service of national ideologies and struggles. Music no less than the other arts was expected to spark national consciousness and keep patriotism alive. Slovakia in that period possessed neither the means nor the conditions required for the cultivation of artistic music; consequently the character of its over-all musical life remained amateurish. Musical enthusiasts who happened to flourish were dilettantes devoid of professional training and only by way of exception did any of them attain artisticesthetic renown in competent circles. Folk creativity played a significant role in the growth and quality of Slovak national music. From the age of enlightenment it served as a powerful source of inspiration for artistic composition, chiefly under the influence of Romanticism, from which the entire Slovak national art evolved. A Slovak in the 19th century would have recognized �SLOVAKIA 81 in folk art (folksong) the most authentic expression of the national spirit, the personification of the nation's immortality and sole source of resistance in its struggle for self-identity. Eventually, toward the close of the 19th century, this trend resulted in conservatism and became a deterrent to fresh views in folk music and hampered any effort to raise the artistic standard of Slovak music. The earliest collections of folksongs were the basis from which piano compositions evolved. These consisted of simple arrangements of a primitive nature. In 1830 Martin Suchan arranged 12 songs from safarik's collection and in 1837 Ladislav Ftiredy composed piano arrangements for 25 pieces from Kollar's collection of patriotic songs. Toward the end of the 18th and on into the 19th century new musical creations appeared, combining Magyar elements with Slovak folksongs, resulting in the so-called neo-Hungarian song. The neo-Hungarian style, evident principally in the dance forms, also partly infiuenced emerging Slovak musical compositions in Slovak musical centers, as exemplified in the piano compositions of M. Godra, well-known songs like Matthew's Musing, Svihrovskd, and gypsy traces in M. Laciak's and M. Francisci's arrangements of folksongs. In the 1870's a counter influence arose against the gypsy influence in Slovak folksongs. The leading protagonist in the effort to offset foreign influence in music was the puristic oriented Milan Lichard. Early composers were prolific in their works for the piano. Paul Gerengay (1825-95) (Dance music: Recollection of Sitno) and Maximilian Hudec (1836-1911) ( Hurban March, Marina Quadrille) made a beginning. The most popular were the quadrilles, mazurkas, polkas, waltzes, etc. (Emigrant, by A. Krcmery; Quadrille of St. Martin, by Bella, Ladonka, by Laciak, a quartet, Tatra Flowers, by Boldis, and others). To this group belongs Michael Laciak ( 1826-1901) who, besides the piano variations for Our Times also attempted in his Instruction to standardize Slovak musical terminology. A. Horislav Skultety was a most productive composer. He composed about 6 stylistic dances for the piano. In this period l'..udovit Vansa (1835-73) received a thorough musical education and became a creative composer. For his own immediate :"'leeds and to his great personal satisfaction he produced Wreaths of Folksongs �82 SLOVAKIA for the piano. Similar aspirations were achieved by Stefan Fajnor ( 1844-1909) one of the most accomplished composers of a renaissance era. Originally he composed chamber music and was considerably influenced by the neo-Hungarian style, than finally turned to Slovak melodies in his Variations for piano and Fantasia of Slovak Folksongs. Vlastimir Melicko (1893-1946) the son of a musical family of the renowned Jan Melicko, already graced with a technical musical training, became a highly talented composer. He arranged dances for the piano and produced Slovak Rhapsody and Fantasia, based on Slovak folksongs. Associated with the activities of the Slovak Society in Budapest is the name of ~udovit Izak (Milos Lihovecky, 1862-1927) composer of a wide variety of works. For the piano he wrote the popular polka Anica and piano variations on the folksong Tecie voda, tecie. Another member of the Slovak Society was Milan Lichard (1853-1935). He obtained his specialized musical training at the Academy in Budapest. Noteworthy on his extensive list of compositions are his short piano pieces and two-piano rhapsodies, which in reality are outstanding collections of songs. Two other piano composers who lived and composed outside of Slovakia must be mentioned. Holding first place was Milos Francisci, a dentist (1854-1926). He was act~ve in the United States and besides choruses, he wrote for piano paraphrases of folksongs, entitled Trdvnice (two volumes of 100 songs each) and a Fantasia on Slovak songs for two pianos. Vladimir G. sasko (1875-1960) a piano virtuoso, also emigrated to the United States. He studied at the Academy of Music in Budapest and taught at the Chicago Musical College. He is the creator of many Slovak compositions: rhapsodies, Fantasia, based on Slovak folksongs and variations. Piano compositions and other unnamed works of these two composers were instrumental in making an impact on Slovak national consciousness in the United States. To this generation of Slovak creative artists, all of them composers in the Slovak national tradition, we further assign, Jan Levoslav Bella, Mikulas Mayzes, Viliam FigusBystry and Mikulas Schneider-Trnavsky. The initial efforts of this generation of composers sparked a national revival of native Slovak art, which also embraced music in its �SLOVAKIA 83 patriotic-awakening, informative and world-wide roles. These composers, by contrast with the former generation, already possessed all the marks of a creative artistic individuality. Their compositions continued to show the influence of the former esthetic revival based on the role of the folksong, which extended into the 1920's and 1940's, when a new generation of composers with modern artistic styles was emerging. One of the first musicians with a European outlook was Jan Levoslav Bella 0843-1936), the dean of Slovak composers, one of the founders of Slovak national musical culture. Self-educated in playing the piano, he did not indulge in piano composition in the later years of his mature mastery. His four-movement Sonata in B Minor, which to this day appears on programs, represents a work of perennial merit in music literature. Another outstanding composition is his fragmentary Sonata in C Minor, from the elaborate first movement of which has been constructed a Beethoven allegro and an impressively beautiful adagio. Minor works include: Variations for the song Pri Presporku and Leti roj, as well as a Sonatina in E Minor, all of which exemplify the music standard of his contemporaries. An enthusiastic admirer and promoter of Slovak folksongs, Viliam Figus-Bystry ( 1875-1937) directed his activity almost exclusively to using folksongs in classical music. Together with Milan Lichard and Stefan Fajnor, he dominated the so-called renaissance period of Slovak music, in which the composers for the most part were self-trained. The basic design of Figus's creations is derived from Slovak folksong arrangements. His piano compositions include One Thousand Slovak Folksongs, Flowers of the Field, a collection written for children ( 106 songs in simple arrangement for the piano), Dances, and a march Pages from an Album, Multicolored Leaves (10 compositions) Musical Miniatures (12 compositions). Probably the most extensive of his piano compositions is the four-part Slovak Sonata in the dorian mode, based on themes of Slovak folksongs . In his earlier years Figus also composed practical piano music in chamber style (polkas, marches, etc.). The overture for his opera Detvan has been arranged for four hands. One of the pioneers of the national realistic trend in �84 SLOVAKIA Slovak music was Mikulas Moyzes (1872-1944). The bulk of his compositions gravitated toward orchestral music. Most of his piano compositions he eventually transposed to orchestral arrangements. His best known works are the three-movement Sonatina and a series of 12 piano compositions, To our Youth. His remaining piano works consist of short forms like mazurkas, polonaises, preludes, impromptus, arabesques, meditations, etc. The inspirational basis for his entire repertoire is the Slovak folksong, from which he selected a typical Slovak melodic theme in order to develop an independent creation. Moyzes originated the ballad song with its deep realistic picturesqueness. Following Bella, the most impressive member of the older generation of composers was Mikulas SchneiderTrnavsky ( 1881-1959) a pioneer in the trend toward realism in Slovak national music and a friend of Zoltan Kodaly. The strong point in his creativeness was artistic variation in Slovak folksongs and classical song form composition comparable to the motifs in the style of Schubert and Mendelssohn. Schneider-Trnavsky was the first to develop the recitative-rhapsodic type of Slovak melody. Because of the wealth of his compositions in this category, his piano works are not extensive. His Opus 5 is a Brief Waltz (1898) and his popular instructive Slovak Sonatina is well-known and often concertized. Later appeared his Variation Line of Compositions (1944). The musical philosophy of M. SchneiderTrnavsky in all his creative effort stems from the Slovak folksong. His style and tools of expression are Post-Romantic. To this creative quartet of Slovak musicians (from the standpoint of age and style) one must add the names of Frico Kafenda and Alexander Albrecht. As composers they were not specifically aligned with the effort to promote Slovak national music, but they nevertheless made a valuable contribution to the advancement of Slovak musical art. And although they belonged to the Romantic school of composers, they formed a logical link in the historical development of Slovak music and provided an effective transition from the dilettante culture of the previous century to the Slovak avantgarde and indeed paved the way for it. �SLOVAKIA 85 The character of Frico Kafenda's creations (1883-1965) was decisively influenced by his training in Leipzig, where conservative traditions merged with the Post-Romantic school. Among his teachers were Robert Teich-Mtiller (piano ), Stefan Krehl and Heinrich Zollner (composition), Arthur Nikisch (conducting). He also attended lectures by Herrmann Kretschmar and Hugh Riemann. Kafenda's compositions frequently exhibit a subjective intimate character. The style of his music is marked by strict harmony and proficient contrapuntal writing. The core of his works comprises chamber, song-like, and instrumental compositions. His piano works consist of A Piano Suite in the ancient modes, Three Piano Compositions, and Variations and Fugues. Alexander Albrecht (1885-1958) can be described as the type of composer-synthesist, who radiates a variety of influences. He was an intimate friend of Bartok. He studied at the Conservatory of Budapest and his teachers were Istvan Thoman (piano), Hans Kassler (composition), and F. Szandtner (conducting). Hindemith's influence led him to combine classicism with modern elements of expression. His musical thought was expressed chiefly in lyrics, in the tender grazioso and the play!ul scherzo. Among his distinguished piano compositions, the following are outstanding: Scherzo in F Major (duet) (1899), Sonata in F Major, Scherzo (1907), (duet), Aphorisms, New Year Greeting, Moods (duet), Wild Rose Suite, (duet), Sonatina in three movements as a duet, humoresque (Excursion i n a Thunderstorm), Twelve short compositions (Success to Music, Little Johnny, In the Distance, Shepherd Dance, Joyful Awakening, Wedding Feast of the Crickets, In a Gay Room, Beginner in Dancing, Perfect Dancer, Dusk, Night, Going to Work in the Morning). His final composition is an instructive work, entitled Ten Duets, based on song themes and recitations from Jan Krasko's collection. After 1918 the newly evolved Slovak music style encountered many difficult challenges : to create a firm material basis for a national musical life and to establish a strong organizational position in competition with a fully developed appreciation of foreign music, which had found a ready response in the musical life of Slovakia. The spirit of competition generated much activity, cen- �86 SLOVAKIA tered in new musically-cul tural institutions, organizations and music schools. In these years, as it were in the shadow of the previously mentioned composers, there indeed arose a group of musicians, who adhered to ancient traditions, but their productions lacked any distinguishab le unity. Renowned at this time was Dezider Lauko (1872-1942) whose piano compositions can be compared with Liszt's in their brilliance and salon presentation. For the piano he wrote Slovak Moods, Piano Etudes for Children, Humoresques, three Valse Scherzandos, Rhapsody in Slovak Meadows, duets for Slovak Dances, and others. :r.uctmila Krizkova-Leh otska (1863-1945), the first Slovak woman composer, in addition to various piano works, directed her talent to composing for children. Angeia Cziczkova (1888-1973) specialized in pedagogical elements of music instruction as well as in composition. Her works consist of more than 100 compositions (Unisono with 54 exercises, Study in Octaves, Rhythmic Exercises with Variations, Technique in Trills, A Study in Chromatics, Preparing to Play Tremolo . In addition she wrote 48 compositions, Youth, 16 Short Preludes for piano. From among her classical selections are Twelve Sonatas, Slavic Fantasy, Prelude in A Flat Major, and Nine Preludes for piano. An individualisti c pattern was folloved by Fran.a Dostalik (1896-1944). His music portrays modern expression and shows some attempt at experimentat ion. Besides shorter forms for the piano, he wrote Detvan Sonatina which he later arranged as a piano duet. To this group of composers belong many others who flourished in the years before and after World War I. Their thought and inspiration sprang from a cultural climate where struggle for an independent national musical art predominated ; or it was derived from the uncertain period of new social-cultura l conditions during the first Republic, when new ideas of national musical culture among the younger generation clashed with the older music. Some of these composers achieved only amateur status; for others again the unfavorable conditions of Slovak cultural life in that period precluded any advancement even with specialized musical training. One of the most productive composers in this group (he has about 260 works to his credit) is Jozef Rosinsky �SLOVAKIA 87 (1897-1973). He obtained his education in Turin and in Rome (law); in Nice he studied piano and organ. His rich productivity comprises all genres. A listing of his piano works must include the following noteworthy selections: Mazurka in A Minor, Children's March, Trencin Bells, Fantasia alla Zingara, Prelude on Slovak Motifs, Plastic Pictures, Scherzo (duet), Slovak Gleanings, Ten Short Compositions, First Sonata, Second Sonata, Sonata for piano or harmonium, Echoes of Enchanted Nitra, and Slovak Concert Fantasia for piano and orchestra. Ladislav Stancek ( 1898) is a composer of the same calibre. His vast productivity was directed almost exclusively to program music. In Brno he studied organ under Tregler, composition under V. Petrzelka and 0. Chlubna and conducting under F. Neumann. Among his most popular piano compositions are: Child's Suite, Variations on an original theme and a collection entitled From Life. Representative of the culturally-enlightened and popular composition, anchored in the great traditions of the nationally-revived chorus and group singing in Slovakia, is Jan Valast'an Dolinsky (1892-1965). In the area of piano composition he left short forms: Complaint, Remembrance of May, Minuets in G Major and E Flat Major, Waltz in A Minor, Page From an Album, and Valse Triste. The works of Jan Krasko-Zapotocky (1893-1968) fall into the same category. He, too, was noted as an enlightened leader in the field of music instruction. Among his works are sonatinas and patriotic songs issued under the title, Echoes of Freedom. Jan Mory (1897) belongs to quite another class of composers. He dealt principally with operettic, popular, and dance music. For the piano he prepared instructional works for children, several duets and a collection entitled Children Sing and Play. The composers of yet another school react sensitively to the contemporary, employing methods-modern, technical, and expressive. Their common characteristic is a higher artistic and idealistic standard, without, however, a uniform productivity. An outstanding figure is Stefan Ladislav Nemeth-samorinsky (1896), a typical representative of Bratislava's musical life. In thought and artistry he belongs to the progressive Magyar musical culture as �88 SLOVAKIA represented in Bratislava by Bela Bartok and Alexander Albrecht. He studied piano, organ, and composition at the Academy of Music in Budapest and later attended the Graduate School of Franz Schmidt in Vienna. He can claim a valuable collection of piano works. He arranged 20 Slovak folksongs for piano under the title, For Youth. He wrote a very effective Slovak Rhapsody and Improvisation on a Slovak folksong . Other significant works include: Meditation on Paganini's Theme, a transcription of Beethoven's Romance in D Major for violin, Intermezzo for piano, Sonata with three movements, containing valuable content (Toccata and Fugue) Piano Concerto, and Transcription of Liszt's Prelude and Fugue on Bach's name for two pianos. A composer of an earlier generation with extensive production in music theory, writing, and pedagogy was Jan Fiser-Kveton (1896-1963). He studied composition and conducting at the Prague Conservatory under K. B. Jirak and J. B. Forster. In composition he reached out into diverse styles. In 1928 he produced Sonata in F Minor for piano and the best-loved compositions are his two-piano Suites for Youth. A distinctive role m Slovak musical life and composition was played by Michael Vilec (1902), who was associated in the early years of his creativity with Eastern Slovakia. His compositions reflect the influence of his teacher Zoltan Kodaly and are marked by impressionism. At first he had held himself aloof from the compositional efforts of his generation. His works are noted for their expressive folk elements, among which must be mentioned Bagatelles for piano, Ballade for two pianos, Sonata for piano, Rondo, Three Sonatinas, two series of duets From the Banks of the Danube, Conversation at the Piano, Two-Tone Inventions, Eight Studies on the Development of Interpretive Elements and Fantasia on the waltzes of Franz Schubert: Schubertiada for piano and orchestra. Together with Mikulas Mayzes, he wrote a significant two-volume School of Piano. The first third of the century saw the emergence of a young generation of Slovak composers with a new program and new ideals and goals: to create a style of music that would be contemporary, modern, deeply realistic and Slovak. These composers were determined to put an end to provincialism and dilettantism and at long last to incorpo- �SLOVAKIA 89 rate the culture of a highly talented Slovak nation into the great orchestra of European music. A Golden Age of musical composition was about to dawn throughout the world and Slovak piano creativity would play a responsible role in it. Another composer of contemporary music is Alexander Moyzes (1906). He obtained his musical training at the Prague Conservatory under the direction of such teachers as Otakar Sin and Rudolf Karel (composition), Otakar Ostrem (conducting), and B. A. Wiedermann (organ) . Moyzes is noted for his program music with its polished composition2.! technique, which combines classical and Post-Romantic principles with impulses of impressionism. In addition to his creative works, Moyzes actively promoted a new style of Slovak music by means of articles, critical essays, and reviews, in which he condemned in no uncertain terms both dilettantism and conservatism in Slovak musical life. In his capacity as music instructor he educated an entire generation of composers, who to this day occupy foremos t positions in Slovak musical circles. (Holoubek, Jurovsky, Kardos, Ocenas, Freso and several others) . Moyzes' creative works include basic instrumental and vocal genres. His principal compositions for the piano are: Sonata in E Minor (a transcription of Seven Compositions - 1942) which has been rated as one of the best Slovak piano compositions. Others are: Divertimento (1930), FoxEtude and Improptu (1935), Highwayman's Rhapsody (1957) . He also wrote Jazz Sonata (1932) for two pianos. Eugen Suchon (1908) shares with Moyzes the glory of initiating the Golden Age of Slovak musical art. He is at once its creator, its promoter, and its splendid flowering. He studied at the Academy of Music and Drama in Bratislava under the direction of Frico Kafenda and Jozef Vincourek. After graduation he continued his studies under Vitezoslav Novak at the Graduate School in Prague. Suchon's art is completely original. It matured under the impact of Slovak folk melodies combined with modern techniques. The blending of melody, harmony, rhyth::.n and form characterizes Suchoi'.t's music and gives it its national character. Omitting his earlier compositions, (1923-28), a list of his best known works includes the following: Short Suite with Passacaglia (1931), Ballade Suite (1936), which is a standard calling card among elite Slovak pianists; �90 SLOVAKIA Metamorphosis Suites (1953), which is a compendium of modern piano tunes with effective transition and harmonious techniques; Pictures from Slovakia, six series of piano compositions from 1956-1957; and a newer Rhapsodic Suite for piano and orchestra (1968). In 1969 he contributed Kaleidoscope (Evolution of Harmony) in which individual numbers are a succession of delicate musical miniatures. Jan Cikker (1911), pioneer of contemporary national opera, a celebrity known for his irrepressible vitality and vibrant energy, yet not without meditative depth, also belongs to the contemporary scene. He studied composition at the Prague Conservatory under Jaroslav Kricka, organ under B. A. Wiedermann, and conducting under Pavel Dedecek. At the Graduate School he was the student of Vitezoslav Novak and pursued conducting under Felix Weingartner. Cikker opened wide the concentrated art of folksong and dance and developed it into classical, highly spontaneous forms. He is a contemporary lyricist and dramatist. Although Cikker concentrated on operatic creations, he also wrote a considerable number of piano compositions: Sonata in E Minor (1927), while yet pursuing his studies, two compositions for piano In Solitude ( 1940), Piano Variations (1935), Lullaby (1942), Two Compositions for Youth (1948), Tatra's Brooks (three brilliant compositions for piano, 1954), and finally 15 piano water-colors, What the Children Narrated, also a Concertina for piano and orchestra. In addition there is his arrangement of Slovak Suites for orchestra and two pianos. The foremost personality in the field of Slovak music is Dezider Kardos (1914), a student of Alexander Moyzes and V. Novak, a.member of the central generation of composers (along with Ocenas, Jurovsky, Kresanek, Freso and Holoubek). Kardos concentrates his talent on the creation of monumental works, in which his technique is best applied. From among his numerous works the foremost are: Two Piano Compositions (1933), Piano Suite II (1937), Studies for Piano ( 1947), a series of piano compositions Bagatelles (1948), Cycle of 10 Piano Compositions for Youth (1956), many individual scores for children, and notably the interpretive, yet quite spontaneous three compositions To My Children (Banter, Humoresque, Toccatina). In 1969 �SLOVAKIA 91 he concluded Piano Concerto with orchestra. It was his first composition of the concert type. It is not a concert work in the traditional sense of the word. The piano is combined with the orchestral rhythm, but it continues to express the individual motifs and ideas. Another member of the central generation of composers is Ladislav Holoubek (1913). He studied composition under A. Moyzes, conducting under Jozef Vincourek, piano under Ernest Krizan. After completing his studies he pursued composition under V. Novak. Holoubek's artistry is best exemplified in his operatic creations. His works for piano are: Sonata in G Major (1931), Prelude, Passacaglia and Toccata (1934) , Four Fugues , II Sonata for Piano (1947), and a cycle for young advanced pianists, Children's Games and Joys . Prominent also as a representative member of the central generation of composers is Andrej Ocenas ( 1911). He studied in Bratislava under A. Moyzes (composition), conducting under Jozef Vincourek, and advanced composition under V. Novak in Prague. His production is characterized by design of splendor and monumentality. For the piano he wrote: First Letters (I Piano Suite), Fugue for piano, II Piano Suite, a piano fantasia Sleet, a series of piano compositions, New Spring, a piano suite Youth, a piano suite, Pictures from a Fable, Ballade, Piano Concerto with orchestra, several individual compositions and Flowers of the Field for young pianists. The creations of Ocenas are characterized by original reconstruction of genuine folklore; he therefore resembles the realists, Janacek and Moussorgsky. A lyrical composer with a feeling for poetic tonal-coloring detail was simon Jurovsky (1912-1963). A student of A. Moyzes (composition), Jozef Vincourek (conducting), he later studied in Vienna under Jozef Marx. In addition to a series of major forms, he left the following piano compositions: Piano Suite, 4 compositions for children, From a Child's Paradise, a suite from ballet, Chivalrous Ballade for piano, Peace Symphony, for concert piano and string orchestra. Tibor Freso ( 1918) belongs to a generation which injected a new creative spirit into Slovak music. He studied under the Italian composer, Ildebrand -Pizetti at the Academia �92 SLOVAKIA di Santa Cecilia in Rome. For piano he wrote a Miniature Suite, which is an effective recital composition with lesser technical demands; Russian Dance for piano, a piano suite In a Child's Room for very young pianists, and a succession of shorter works. Frantisek Babusek ( 1905-1954) a prominent broadcasting conductor, studied conducting under Pavel Dedecek and composition under V. Novak, Jozef Suk, and Jaroslav Kricka in Prague. To Babusek belongs well-deserved credit for producing original compositions and organizing periodic symphonic concerts. He wrote Prelude for piano and the majestic Concerto in D Minor, which in its claims is indeed somewhat exaggerated, but is a masterly composition in which Babusek amassed a whole assemblage of modern piano techniques, many-faceted rhythms and intricacies. The leading personality of Slovak musical science is Dr. Jozef Kresanek (1913). He was educated in composition under Rudolf Karl at the Prague Conservatory and at the Graduate School of V. Novak. Along with his scholarly pursuits, which netted him a long series of learned articles, and books, he composed many songs, choruses, chamber music as well as the following works for the piano: Piano Suite in four parts, I I Piano Suite, arrangements of Slovak folksongs for young pianists, Meadow Flowers, Elegy for piano, Highwayman's Ballade and others. His Scherzo for the piano is an outstanding work. The foremost exponent of Slovak musical theory and estheticism is Dr. Otto Ferenczy ( 1921) . As a composer he advanced on the knowledge of Bart6k and Stravinsky and was able to combine their thrust with the realism of the Slovak folksong. Characteristic of Ferenczy are his expressive elegance, his brilliance and intellectual humor. His works reflect inspiration from the eastern Slovak folksong and dance, and later from more imposing concert and symphonic works. From a wealth of creative works one must list his Intermezzo for piano, and Capriccio for piano and orchestra. He wrote an innovative piece entitled Partita for concert piano and orchestra. Jan Zimmer (1926) can be characterized as a highly productive artist and one of the most distinguished figures of a youthful generation of masters. He obtained his musical training at thP. Bratislava Conservatory, studying organ �SLOVAKIA 93 under Jozef Veber, piano under Frico Kafenda, and composition under Eugen Suchan. He also studied composition at the Franz Liszt Academy in Budapest, under Ferencz Farkas and is a graduate of the Salzburg Seminary in American studies (David Diamond). Zimmer himself is a piano virtuoso, appearing in concerts as the exclusive interpreter of his own compositions and constantly deals with problems involving the piano-solo and piano with orchestra. The blossoming of his style is based on the synthesis of neo-classical interpretive forms with the distinctive quality of sound. In all his works Zimmer explores new directions. Besides a lengthy list of other types of composition, he is credited also with numerous piano works as follows: Four Piano Compositions, Moods, I and II Sonatas for piano, Three Sonatas for 2 pianos, Tatry I-II (I and II suites for piano and orchestra), Three Sonatas for 2 pianos, Four Piano Concertos with orchestra, Concerto for piano without orchestra, A Piano Concerto, with solo part in the bass with orchestra, Three Preludes for piano, Rhapsody for piano and orchestra, Short Fantasia for piano and orchestra, Ten Children's Pieces, Concerto Grosso for 2 pianos, 2 string orchestras,· including percussion ·instruments. In contemporary musical life a place of distinction belongs to Rudolf Macudzinski (1907), master, pedagogue, and an outstanding Slovak piano virtuoso. A student of V. Kurz and Leos Janacek, he trained a significant number of young piano-artists. As an accomplished artist, he stands in the forefront of Slovak concert life and together with his wife Silvia Macudzinski often concertizes on two pianos, thus ably promoting this less known type of music. His talent and skill in composition takes many forms, but he excels chiefly in instrumental music. From his piano pieces we choose Two Romances, Sonatina, solo theme for piano, Meditation and Fugue for 2 pianos, Divertimento for two pianos, Bagatelles for 2 pianos, orchestral and concert arrangements, Valse-Improptu for piano and orchestra, Variazoni Olimpiche for piano and orchestra. Well known are his arrangements of folksongs for piano and his instructive and presentative works for youth, such as Study of Scales I and II, and Christmas Numbers I Can Play, and others. �94 SLOVAKIA Resembling Macudzinski in character and artistic creative thought, is the talented Slovak conductor, Dr. ~udovit Rajter (1906). He pursued his studies in Vienna under C. Kraus and A. Wunderer, as well as F. Schmidt and J. Marx. Later he continued his studies under Dohnanyi in Budapest. His creative works are not as numerous as those of Macudzinski, but artistically they are highly polished. His most important piano piece is Short Suite in the old style. Otherwise he composes for orchestra and chorus. Several composers align themselves with the tradition of artistic creativity based on the folklore of eastern Slovakia. One of these is Jozef Gresak (1907), who with his Piano Concerto introduced altogether unusual hues into piano tones and presented quite fascinating methodical problems about natural and unnatural fingerings and the central role of the thumb as the midpoint of a pianistic hand. An individual of remarkable stature in contemporary Slovak life is Julius Kowalski (1912). He studied composition and conducting at the Prague Conservatory under Rudolf Karl, Alojz Haba and Pavel Dedecek. He continued his studies at the Graduate School in Prague under Jozef Suk and Vaclav Talich, and later in Vienna under C. Kraus. His earlier compositions are influenced by the European avantgarde and Alojz Haba in his Four Pieces for piano, in Fantasia in the quarter-tone system; but his later works are influenced by the Post-Romantic tradition. As a pedagogue, he wrote much for children. His cycles From the World of Toys, five short recital pieces, are written for young pianists. The years after World War II witnessed the resurgence of a new segment of Slovak musical life, which achieved a natural fusion between folk art and the more exacting principles of classical music. Important for the development of the new genres was the appearance on the scene of artistic folk choirs, like the Slovak Artistic Collective, Lucnica, Military Artistic Choir, and others. Likewise important was the rise of opera scenarios and the use of radio, cinema, and television. With original composition all the Slovak artists participated in the development of these genres and simultaneously a young generation arose which �SLOVAKIA 95 also directed its activity to this new segment of Slovak musical life. A protagonist of modern Slovak musical achievement is Tibor Andrasovan (1917). He is a higly productive and successful Slovak composer in the field of operetta, film, scenario, and folk music. His Gypsy Dance for piano and orchestra stands as a worthy sample of his rich creativity, which gained for him both popularity and widespread accolades from an admiring public. A composer with similar tastes and merit is Bartolomej Urbanec (1918 ) . He studied composition and conducting under A. Mayzes, Eugen Suchan and Kornel Schimpel, and advanced conducting under Vaclav Talich. He is one of the pioneers of creative work for artistic folk choirs, such as the Slovak Artistic Collective, Lucnica, and others. His greatest works are Concertina for piano and orchestra and Three Romantic Pieces, which often appear on concert programs. By his creative compositions Teodor Hirner (1910) identifies himself with Eastern Slovakia. He wrote numerous compositions for various audiences. The familiar ones are Capriccio for piano and archestra, and his piano cycle Imagini. By character and musical ability Julius Letnan ( 19141973) falls into this group. His Sonata for piano causes amazement especially in its lyrical middle section where the presentation is colored with truly Slovak beauty and expression. The duet Dances and Songs for piano and orchestra is also included in this Sonata. Noteworthy is his work Ten Studies, in which he solves technical piano problems in modern style. With the great increase in educational and cultural programs on the radio, and the steadily mounting demands for high artistic standards in musical broadcasts, the number of musicians who turned their talents to the broadcasting arts has likewise increased. A veteran of this broadcasting activity was the pianist Janka Matuska (1897-1959 ) . He was a versatile composer, producing many works, especially for piano. His characteristic features are humor, laughter, optimism and emotional immediacy. The characteristic and typical examples of his notable talent are such short compositions as Imp in the Chimney, Musical Clock, Gi ant, �96 S LOVAKIA Rabbi t and Hunter, Hum oresque, Minuet, Valse Mignon, variations on folksong : Old M aids, Paraphrases on Slovak Folksongs , and a piano cycle, Slovak Land. A noteworthy representative of Slovak dance music and songs is Karol Elbert (1911). He wrote 3 jazz sonatas for piano. Ondrej Francisci (1915 ) dedicates his works principally to children and young people. He wrote 10 pieces for youth. In the 1950's a group of talented composers, pupils of Mayzes and Cikker, appeared on the scene. In their case there is no concern for program music or its style. The area of their creative interests is very broad and consists, above all, in contemporary musical art; not lacking, however , are positive efforts to come to terms with the impulses of serial and electronic music. A composer who divides his creative activity between theory and composition is the musical scholar, Dr. Ladislav Burlas (1922). In his compositions he inclines toward Bartok. The area of his brief forms is represented by Chaconne and Fugue for piano. Otherwise his chief interest and activity rest with folklore theory and composition. One of the most original composers in the effort for new artistic patterns is Ilja Zeljenka (1932 ) . His piano works excel in two Suites and a Sonata. Pavol Simai (1930) evinces fresh creative orientation in regard to Slovak folk themes. First he studied under Pavol Kados in Budapest, then in Bratislava under A. Moyzes and Jan Cikker; finally he came under Paul Dessau in Berlin. His compositions excel in unconventional lyricism, steeped in sentiment, as exemplified in his piano works: Pastoral for piano, a piano suite From Slovakia and a Sonata for piano. He also wrote numerous shorter forms, such as his Fugues, Invention, Song, Scherzo, Impressions. Mention must also be made of his Sonata Fragment, the Dead, and Pen and Ink Drawings. A composer noted for his scientific work in music theory is Dr. Ivan Hrusovsky (1927). In composition he was a student of A. Moyzes. His early works are characterized by principles of the new Romanticism and Impressionism, exemplifying the influence of his teacher. He manifests his individuality in his later compositions and his dominant characteristics are his inclination toward lyricism and his �SLOVAKIA 97 outstanding technique. Besides other works he wrote a Sonatina for piano, Piano Variations, Toccata for piano and a Piano Concerto with orchestra. His Sonata for piano is particularly valuable. In its three movements he incorporates all the concepts exemplifying piano techniques of the present day. Narcisa Donatova ( 1928 ) is an ambitious musician. The greater-lesser styles of vocal music are her domain, but she also writes piano pieces, such. as Suite for Youth , the suites How the Forests Reminisce, Talking Suite, the suite In n New School and others. Among her shorter works are Brioni Island, Marilyn Bridge, The Moon and the Ocean, and Red Lantern. The talented Jozef Malovec ( 1933) belongs to the youngest generation. Instrumental music is dominant in his limited production. He wrote two sonatinas for the piano. For the dissemination of cultural music to the rural areas much is being accomplished by these young musicians. One of them is Tibor Sladkovic (1928 ), known for his Ten Piano Variations. Peter Kolman ( 1937) may be classed among composers searching for fresh developmental methods. Hindemith and Schonberg exerted the greatest influence on his works. His two most serious pieces composed for piano are Three Miniatures and Three Compositions in memory of Schonberg. Dusan Martincek (1936) is a most versatile musician. He studied piano at the conservatory in Bratislava under the direction of Anna Kafenda, and composition privately under Jan Cikker and Jan Zimmer. He writes principally for piano; his models are eminent personalities in musical circles, such as A. N. Scriabin, S . V. Rachmaninoff, Bela Bartok, and D. D. Shostakovich. His works include: Rhapsody for piano and orchestra, Three Preludes , Six Etudes, Variations, Poem for piano (Sonata I), Three Preludes and Fugues , Two Dances with a Bulgarian Rhythm, D ialogues in the form of variations for piano and orchestra, T wo Romantic Preludes in memory of A. Scriabin, Concert Rhapsody Negrea, Seven Concert Etudes , containing interesting new problems in piano techniques; three waltzes, Quasi Valse, R eferences to Bagpipes, Introduction and Toccata for piano �98 SLOVAKIA and string orchestra, Three Sonatinas, five new Preludes and Fugues (1970). Ivan Parik (1936) has enjoyed close association with th~ vast panorama of European music. Originally he studied under Alexander Albrecht, composition under Andrej Ocemis, and conducting under K. Schimpel. Eventually he became a student of A. Moyzes. He is one of the most talented composers of the younger generation. In his search for contemporary and unconventional modes of expression, he attained admirable results in his works for piano: Rhapsody for piano, Night a sketch for two pianos, Suite for piano, Sketch for piano, Three Pieces for piano, Songs About Falling Leaves (4 compositions for piano) . Juraj Hatrik ( 1941) wrote Sonata in C Sharp M i nor for piano, Andante Semplice and Burlesque for piano, Toccata and Romantic Etude in F Sharp M i nor, Short Suite. For children he wrote the cycle The Last Vacation Day and for young clients a piano Concerto Facile. Miroslav Bazlik ( 1931) entered a music school upon the recommendation of Jan Cikker. His earliest productions, Sonata in B Minor for piano and bagatelles A Palette show a Post-Romantic and Impressionistic influence. In the following compositions he manifests an inclination toward neo-Classicism, as exemplified in Six Variations , Concert Etude, and Moment Musical. Marian Ivankovic (1931) has to his credit a number of works in various styles. He wrote Trifles for piano. Roman Berger, one of the youngest, wrote a Sonata for piano and a Suite (Prelude, Scherzo, Toccata). Jozef Sixta's first composition was Two Fugues . He also wrote Five Compositi ons and Fantasia for piano. To the afore-mentioned must be added Ivan Konecny, who wrote Two Bagatelles for piano, Variations , Two Fugues, and Three Compositions. Vladimir Bokes, son of the late Dr. Bokes, well-known musical author, made his debut in music composition with Partita for piano (Prelude, Aria, Capriccio). This brief survey gives some slight indication of the tireless effort and persistent struggle endured by the musically gifted Slovak nation, which ably shaped its musical culture despite turbulent times and developed it to match the music standards of greater nations. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1975, Vol. 25 Description An account of the resource Vol. 25 (No. 48), 1975. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1975 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document SLOVAKIA 80 Antonia M a z d n o v d: Slovak Piano Composition (A BRIEF SURVEY ) Conditions in 19th century Slovakia were so repressive, so debilitating to the spirit, that only under menacing hardships could the Slovaks develop their music on a n ational scale. The leadership concentrated on the nation's struggle for liberation from the Magyars. All its efforts and energies were directed toward Slovak national and cultural independence. The incipient cultivation of Slovak national art cut across the injustice of the Slovak position , and music, too, actively entered the fray. Slovak music and its origins cannot be evaluated from the perspective of modern musical art. While urban artistic culture at that period was comparatively highly developed in Slovakia, it represented cosmopolitan, not Slovak art. Therefore, the movement for authentic Slovak revival kept aloof from it and concentrated its cultural and artistic activity within certain cities like Turciansky Sv. Martin, Banska Bystrica, Liptovsky Sv. Mikulas, Dolny Kubin and several others, which likewise became important centers of patriotic and promotional movements. Music and song were completely at the service of national ideologies and struggles. Music no less than the other arts was expected to spark national consciousness and keep patriotism alive. Slovakia in that period possessed neither the means nor the conditions required for the cultivation of artistic music; consequently the character of its over-all musical life remained amateurish. Musical enthusiasts who happened to flourish were dilettantes devoid of professional training and only by way of exception did any of them attain artisticesthetic renown in competent circles. Folk creativity played a significant role in the growth and quality of Slovak national music. From the age of enlightenment it served as a powerful source of inspiration for artistic composition, chiefly under the influence of Romanticism, from which the entire Slovak national art evolved. A Slovak in the 19th century would have recognized SLOVAKIA 81 in folk art (folksong) the most authentic expression of the national spirit, the personification of the nation's immortality and sole source of resistance in its struggle for self-identity. Eventually, toward the close of the 19th century, this trend resulted in conservatism and became a deterrent to fresh views in folk music and hampered any effort to raise the artistic standard of Slovak music. The earliest collections of folksongs were the basis from which piano compositions evolved. These consisted of simple arrangements of a primitive nature. In 1830 Martin Suchan arranged 12 songs from safarik's collection and in 1837 Ladislav Ftiredy composed piano arrangements for 25 pieces from Kollar's collection of patriotic songs. Toward the end of the 18th and on into the 19th century new musical creations appeared, combining Magyar elements with Slovak folksongs, resulting in the so-called neo-Hungarian song. The neo-Hungarian style, evident principally in the dance forms, also partly infiuenced emerging Slovak musical compositions in Slovak musical centers, as exemplified in the piano compositions of M. Godra, well-known songs like Matthew's Musing, Svihrovskd, and gypsy traces in M. Laciak's and M. Francisci's arrangements of folksongs. In the 1870's a counter influence arose against the gypsy influence in Slovak folksongs. The leading protagonist in the effort to offset foreign influence in music was the puristic oriented Milan Lichard. Early composers were prolific in their works for the piano. Paul Gerengay (1825-95) (Dance music: Recollection of Sitno) and Maximilian Hudec (1836-1911) ( Hurban March, Marina Quadrille) made a beginning. The most popular were the quadrilles, mazurkas, polkas, waltzes, etc. (Emigrant, by A. Krcmery; Quadrille of St. Martin, by Bella, Ladonka, by Laciak, a quartet, Tatra Flowers, by Boldis, and others). To this group belongs Michael Laciak ( 1826-1901) who, besides the piano variations for Our Times also attempted in his Instruction to standardize Slovak musical terminology. A. Horislav Skultety was a most productive composer. He composed about 6 stylistic dances for the piano. In this period l'..udovit Vansa (1835-73) received a thorough musical education and became a creative composer. For his own immediate :"'leeds and to his great personal satisfaction he produced Wreaths of Folksongs 82 SLOVAKIA for the piano. Similar aspirations were achieved by Stefan Fajnor ( 1844-1909) one of the most accomplished composers of a renaissance era. Originally he composed chamber music and was considerably influenced by the neo-Hungarian style, than finally turned to Slovak melodies in his Variations for piano and Fantasia of Slovak Folksongs. Vlastimir Melicko (1893-1946) the son of a musical family of the renowned Jan Melicko, already graced with a technical musical training, became a highly talented composer. He arranged dances for the piano and produced Slovak Rhapsody and Fantasia, based on Slovak folksongs. Associated with the activities of the Slovak Society in Budapest is the name of ~udovit Izak (Milos Lihovecky, 1862-1927) composer of a wide variety of works. For the piano he wrote the popular polka Anica and piano variations on the folksong Tecie voda, tecie. Another member of the Slovak Society was Milan Lichard (1853-1935). He obtained his specialized musical training at the Academy in Budapest. Noteworthy on his extensive list of compositions are his short piano pieces and two-piano rhapsodies, which in reality are outstanding collections of songs. Two other piano composers who lived and composed outside of Slovakia must be mentioned. Holding first place was Milos Francisci, a dentist (1854-1926). He was act~ve in the United States and besides choruses, he wrote for piano paraphrases of folksongs, entitled Trdvnice (two volumes of 100 songs each) and a Fantasia on Slovak songs for two pianos. Vladimir G. sasko (1875-1960) a piano virtuoso, also emigrated to the United States. He studied at the Academy of Music in Budapest and taught at the Chicago Musical College. He is the creator of many Slovak compositions: rhapsodies, Fantasia, based on Slovak folksongs and variations. Piano compositions and other unnamed works of these two composers were instrumental in making an impact on Slovak national consciousness in the United States. To this generation of Slovak creative artists, all of them composers in the Slovak national tradition, we further assign, Jan Levoslav Bella, Mikulas Mayzes, Viliam FigusBystry and Mikulas Schneider-Trnavsky. The initial efforts of this generation of composers sparked a national revival of native Slovak art, which also embraced music in its SLOVAKIA 83 patriotic-awakening, informative and world-wide roles. These composers, by contrast with the former generation, already possessed all the marks of a creative artistic individuality. Their compositions continued to show the influence of the former esthetic revival based on the role of the folksong, which extended into the 1920's and 1940's, when a new generation of composers with modern artistic styles was emerging. One of the first musicians with a European outlook was Jan Levoslav Bella 0843-1936), the dean of Slovak composers, one of the founders of Slovak national musical culture. Self-educated in playing the piano, he did not indulge in piano composition in the later years of his mature mastery. His four-movement Sonata in B Minor, which to this day appears on programs, represents a work of perennial merit in music literature. Another outstanding composition is his fragmentary Sonata in C Minor, from the elaborate first movement of which has been constructed a Beethoven allegro and an impressively beautiful adagio. Minor works include: Variations for the song Pri Presporku and Leti roj, as well as a Sonatina in E Minor, all of which exemplify the music standard of his contemporaries. An enthusiastic admirer and promoter of Slovak folksongs, Viliam Figus-Bystry ( 1875-1937) directed his activity almost exclusively to using folksongs in classical music. Together with Milan Lichard and Stefan Fajnor, he dominated the so-called renaissance period of Slovak music, in which the composers for the most part were self-trained. The basic design of Figus's creations is derived from Slovak folksong arrangements. His piano compositions include One Thousand Slovak Folksongs, Flowers of the Field, a collection written for children ( 106 songs in simple arrangement for the piano), Dances, and a march Pages from an Album, Multicolored Leaves (10 compositions) Musical Miniatures (12 compositions). Probably the most extensive of his piano compositions is the four-part Slovak Sonata in the dorian mode, based on themes of Slovak folksongs . In his earlier years Figus also composed practical piano music in chamber style (polkas, marches, etc.). The overture for his opera Detvan has been arranged for four hands. One of the pioneers of the national realistic trend in 84 SLOVAKIA Slovak music was Mikulas Moyzes (1872-1944). The bulk of his compositions gravitated toward orchestral music. Most of his piano compositions he eventually transposed to orchestral arrangements. His best known works are the three-movement Sonatina and a series of 12 piano compositions, To our Youth. His remaining piano works consist of short forms like mazurkas, polonaises, preludes, impromptus, arabesques, meditations, etc. The inspirational basis for his entire repertoire is the Slovak folksong, from which he selected a typical Slovak melodic theme in order to develop an independent creation. Moyzes originated the ballad song with its deep realistic picturesqueness. Following Bella, the most impressive member of the older generation of composers was Mikulas SchneiderTrnavsky ( 1881-1959) a pioneer in the trend toward realism in Slovak national music and a friend of Zoltan Kodaly. The strong point in his creativeness was artistic variation in Slovak folksongs and classical song form composition comparable to the motifs in the style of Schubert and Mendelssohn. Schneider-Trnavsky was the first to develop the recitative-rhapsodic type of Slovak melody. Because of the wealth of his compositions in this category, his piano works are not extensive. His Opus 5 is a Brief Waltz (1898) and his popular instructive Slovak Sonatina is well-known and often concertized. Later appeared his Variation Line of Compositions (1944). The musical philosophy of M. SchneiderTrnavsky in all his creative effort stems from the Slovak folksong. His style and tools of expression are Post-Romantic. To this creative quartet of Slovak musicians (from the standpoint of age and style) one must add the names of Frico Kafenda and Alexander Albrecht. As composers they were not specifically aligned with the effort to promote Slovak national music, but they nevertheless made a valuable contribution to the advancement of Slovak musical art. And although they belonged to the Romantic school of composers, they formed a logical link in the historical development of Slovak music and provided an effective transition from the dilettante culture of the previous century to the Slovak avantgarde and indeed paved the way for it. SLOVAKIA 85 The character of Frico Kafenda's creations (1883-1965) was decisively influenced by his training in Leipzig, where conservative traditions merged with the Post-Romantic school. Among his teachers were Robert Teich-Mtiller (piano ), Stefan Krehl and Heinrich Zollner (composition), Arthur Nikisch (conducting). He also attended lectures by Herrmann Kretschmar and Hugh Riemann. Kafenda's compositions frequently exhibit a subjective intimate character. The style of his music is marked by strict harmony and proficient contrapuntal writing. The core of his works comprises chamber, song-like, and instrumental compositions. His piano works consist of A Piano Suite in the ancient modes, Three Piano Compositions, and Variations and Fugues. Alexander Albrecht (1885-1958) can be described as the type of composer-synthesist, who radiates a variety of influences. He was an intimate friend of Bartok. He studied at the Conservatory of Budapest and his teachers were Istvan Thoman (piano), Hans Kassler (composition), and F. Szandtner (conducting). Hindemith's influence led him to combine classicism with modern elements of expression. His musical thought was expressed chiefly in lyrics, in the tender grazioso and the play!ul scherzo. Among his distinguished piano compositions, the following are outstanding: Scherzo in F Major (duet) (1899), Sonata in F Major, Scherzo (1907), (duet), Aphorisms, New Year Greeting, Moods (duet), Wild Rose Suite, (duet), Sonatina in three movements as a duet, humoresque (Excursion i n a Thunderstorm), Twelve short compositions (Success to Music, Little Johnny, In the Distance, Shepherd Dance, Joyful Awakening, Wedding Feast of the Crickets, In a Gay Room, Beginner in Dancing, Perfect Dancer, Dusk, Night, Going to Work in the Morning). His final composition is an instructive work, entitled Ten Duets, based on song themes and recitations from Jan Krasko's collection. After 1918 the newly evolved Slovak music style encountered many difficult challenges : to create a firm material basis for a national musical life and to establish a strong organizational position in competition with a fully developed appreciation of foreign music, which had found a ready response in the musical life of Slovakia. The spirit of competition generated much activity, cen- 86 SLOVAKIA tered in new musically-cul tural institutions, organizations and music schools. In these years, as it were in the shadow of the previously mentioned composers, there indeed arose a group of musicians, who adhered to ancient traditions, but their productions lacked any distinguishab le unity. Renowned at this time was Dezider Lauko (1872-1942) whose piano compositions can be compared with Liszt's in their brilliance and salon presentation. For the piano he wrote Slovak Moods, Piano Etudes for Children, Humoresques, three Valse Scherzandos, Rhapsody in Slovak Meadows, duets for Slovak Dances, and others. :r.uctmila Krizkova-Leh otska (1863-1945), the first Slovak woman composer, in addition to various piano works, directed her talent to composing for children. Angeia Cziczkova (1888-1973) specialized in pedagogical elements of music instruction as well as in composition. Her works consist of more than 100 compositions (Unisono with 54 exercises, Study in Octaves, Rhythmic Exercises with Variations, Technique in Trills, A Study in Chromatics, Preparing to Play Tremolo . In addition she wrote 48 compositions, Youth, 16 Short Preludes for piano. From among her classical selections are Twelve Sonatas, Slavic Fantasy, Prelude in A Flat Major, and Nine Preludes for piano. An individualisti c pattern was folloved by Fran.a Dostalik (1896-1944). His music portrays modern expression and shows some attempt at experimentat ion. Besides shorter forms for the piano, he wrote Detvan Sonatina which he later arranged as a piano duet. To this group of composers belong many others who flourished in the years before and after World War I. Their thought and inspiration sprang from a cultural climate where struggle for an independent national musical art predominated ; or it was derived from the uncertain period of new social-cultura l conditions during the first Republic, when new ideas of national musical culture among the younger generation clashed with the older music. Some of these composers achieved only amateur status; for others again the unfavorable conditions of Slovak cultural life in that period precluded any advancement even with specialized musical training. One of the most productive composers in this group (he has about 260 works to his credit) is Jozef Rosinsky SLOVAKIA 87 (1897-1973). He obtained his education in Turin and in Rome (law); in Nice he studied piano and organ. His rich productivity comprises all genres. A listing of his piano works must include the following noteworthy selections: Mazurka in A Minor, Children's March, Trencin Bells, Fantasia alla Zingara, Prelude on Slovak Motifs, Plastic Pictures, Scherzo (duet), Slovak Gleanings, Ten Short Compositions, First Sonata, Second Sonata, Sonata for piano or harmonium, Echoes of Enchanted Nitra, and Slovak Concert Fantasia for piano and orchestra. Ladislav Stancek ( 1898) is a composer of the same calibre. His vast productivity was directed almost exclusively to program music. In Brno he studied organ under Tregler, composition under V. Petrzelka and 0. Chlubna and conducting under F. Neumann. Among his most popular piano compositions are: Child's Suite, Variations on an original theme and a collection entitled From Life. Representative of the culturally-enlightened and popular composition, anchored in the great traditions of the nationally-revived chorus and group singing in Slovakia, is Jan Valast'an Dolinsky (1892-1965). In the area of piano composition he left short forms: Complaint, Remembrance of May, Minuets in G Major and E Flat Major, Waltz in A Minor, Page From an Album, and Valse Triste. The works of Jan Krasko-Zapotocky (1893-1968) fall into the same category. He, too, was noted as an enlightened leader in the field of music instruction. Among his works are sonatinas and patriotic songs issued under the title, Echoes of Freedom. Jan Mory (1897) belongs to quite another class of composers. He dealt principally with operettic, popular, and dance music. For the piano he prepared instructional works for children, several duets and a collection entitled Children Sing and Play. The composers of yet another school react sensitively to the contemporary, employing methods-modern, technical, and expressive. Their common characteristic is a higher artistic and idealistic standard, without, however, a uniform productivity. An outstanding figure is Stefan Ladislav Nemeth-samorinsky (1896), a typical representative of Bratislava's musical life. In thought and artistry he belongs to the progressive Magyar musical culture as 88 SLOVAKIA represented in Bratislava by Bela Bartok and Alexander Albrecht. He studied piano, organ, and composition at the Academy of Music in Budapest and later attended the Graduate School of Franz Schmidt in Vienna. He can claim a valuable collection of piano works. He arranged 20 Slovak folksongs for piano under the title, For Youth. He wrote a very effective Slovak Rhapsody and Improvisation on a Slovak folksong . Other significant works include: Meditation on Paganini's Theme, a transcription of Beethoven's Romance in D Major for violin, Intermezzo for piano, Sonata with three movements, containing valuable content (Toccata and Fugue) Piano Concerto, and Transcription of Liszt's Prelude and Fugue on Bach's name for two pianos. A composer of an earlier generation with extensive production in music theory, writing, and pedagogy was Jan Fiser-Kveton (1896-1963). He studied composition and conducting at the Prague Conservatory under K. B. Jirak and J. B. Forster. In composition he reached out into diverse styles. In 1928 he produced Sonata in F Minor for piano and the best-loved compositions are his two-piano Suites for Youth. A distinctive role m Slovak musical life and composition was played by Michael Vilec (1902), who was associated in the early years of his creativity with Eastern Slovakia. His compositions reflect the influence of his teacher Zoltan Kodaly and are marked by impressionism. At first he had held himself aloof from the compositional efforts of his generation. His works are noted for their expressive folk elements, among which must be mentioned Bagatelles for piano, Ballade for two pianos, Sonata for piano, Rondo, Three Sonatinas, two series of duets From the Banks of the Danube, Conversation at the Piano, Two-Tone Inventions, Eight Studies on the Development of Interpretive Elements and Fantasia on the waltzes of Franz Schubert: Schubertiada for piano and orchestra. Together with Mikulas Mayzes, he wrote a significant two-volume School of Piano. The first third of the century saw the emergence of a young generation of Slovak composers with a new program and new ideals and goals: to create a style of music that would be contemporary, modern, deeply realistic and Slovak. These composers were determined to put an end to provincialism and dilettantism and at long last to incorpo- SLOVAKIA 89 rate the culture of a highly talented Slovak nation into the great orchestra of European music. A Golden Age of musical composition was about to dawn throughout the world and Slovak piano creativity would play a responsible role in it. Another composer of contemporary music is Alexander Moyzes (1906). He obtained his musical training at the Prague Conservatory under the direction of such teachers as Otakar Sin and Rudolf Karel (composition), Otakar Ostrem (conducting), and B. A. Wiedermann (organ) . Moyzes is noted for his program music with its polished composition2.! technique, which combines classical and Post-Romantic principles with impulses of impressionism. In addition to his creative works, Moyzes actively promoted a new style of Slovak music by means of articles, critical essays, and reviews, in which he condemned in no uncertain terms both dilettantism and conservatism in Slovak musical life. In his capacity as music instructor he educated an entire generation of composers, who to this day occupy foremos t positions in Slovak musical circles. (Holoubek, Jurovsky, Kardos, Ocenas, Freso and several others) . Moyzes' creative works include basic instrumental and vocal genres. His principal compositions for the piano are: Sonata in E Minor (a transcription of Seven Compositions - 1942) which has been rated as one of the best Slovak piano compositions. Others are: Divertimento (1930), FoxEtude and Improptu (1935), Highwayman's Rhapsody (1957) . He also wrote Jazz Sonata (1932) for two pianos. Eugen Suchon (1908) shares with Moyzes the glory of initiating the Golden Age of Slovak musical art. He is at once its creator, its promoter, and its splendid flowering. He studied at the Academy of Music and Drama in Bratislava under the direction of Frico Kafenda and Jozef Vincourek. After graduation he continued his studies under Vitezoslav Novak at the Graduate School in Prague. Suchon's art is completely original. It matured under the impact of Slovak folk melodies combined with modern techniques. The blending of melody, harmony, rhyth::.n and form characterizes Suchoi'.t's music and gives it its national character. Omitting his earlier compositions, (1923-28), a list of his best known works includes the following: Short Suite with Passacaglia (1931), Ballade Suite (1936), which is a standard calling card among elite Slovak pianists; 90 SLOVAKIA Metamorphosis Suites (1953), which is a compendium of modern piano tunes with effective transition and harmonious techniques; Pictures from Slovakia, six series of piano compositions from 1956-1957; and a newer Rhapsodic Suite for piano and orchestra (1968). In 1969 he contributed Kaleidoscope (Evolution of Harmony) in which individual numbers are a succession of delicate musical miniatures. Jan Cikker (1911), pioneer of contemporary national opera, a celebrity known for his irrepressible vitality and vibrant energy, yet not without meditative depth, also belongs to the contemporary scene. He studied composition at the Prague Conservatory under Jaroslav Kricka, organ under B. A. Wiedermann, and conducting under Pavel Dedecek. At the Graduate School he was the student of Vitezoslav Novak and pursued conducting under Felix Weingartner. Cikker opened wide the concentrated art of folksong and dance and developed it into classical, highly spontaneous forms. He is a contemporary lyricist and dramatist. Although Cikker concentrated on operatic creations, he also wrote a considerable number of piano compositions: Sonata in E Minor (1927), while yet pursuing his studies, two compositions for piano In Solitude ( 1940), Piano Variations (1935), Lullaby (1942), Two Compositions for Youth (1948), Tatra's Brooks (three brilliant compositions for piano, 1954), and finally 15 piano water-colors, What the Children Narrated, also a Concertina for piano and orchestra. In addition there is his arrangement of Slovak Suites for orchestra and two pianos. The foremost personality in the field of Slovak music is Dezider Kardos (1914), a student of Alexander Moyzes and V. Novak, a.member of the central generation of composers (along with Ocenas, Jurovsky, Kresanek, Freso and Holoubek). Kardos concentrates his talent on the creation of monumental works, in which his technique is best applied. From among his numerous works the foremost are: Two Piano Compositions (1933), Piano Suite II (1937), Studies for Piano ( 1947), a series of piano compositions Bagatelles (1948), Cycle of 10 Piano Compositions for Youth (1956), many individual scores for children, and notably the interpretive, yet quite spontaneous three compositions To My Children (Banter, Humoresque, Toccatina). In 1969 SLOVAKIA 91 he concluded Piano Concerto with orchestra. It was his first composition of the concert type. It is not a concert work in the traditional sense of the word. The piano is combined with the orchestral rhythm, but it continues to express the individual motifs and ideas. Another member of the central generation of composers is Ladislav Holoubek (1913). He studied composition under A. Moyzes, conducting under Jozef Vincourek, piano under Ernest Krizan. After completing his studies he pursued composition under V. Novak. Holoubek's artistry is best exemplified in his operatic creations. His works for piano are: Sonata in G Major (1931), Prelude, Passacaglia and Toccata (1934) , Four Fugues , II Sonata for Piano (1947), and a cycle for young advanced pianists, Children's Games and Joys . Prominent also as a representative member of the central generation of composers is Andrej Ocenas ( 1911). He studied in Bratislava under A. Moyzes (composition), conducting under Jozef Vincourek, and advanced composition under V. Novak in Prague. His production is characterized by design of splendor and monumentality. For the piano he wrote: First Letters (I Piano Suite), Fugue for piano, II Piano Suite, a piano fantasia Sleet, a series of piano compositions, New Spring, a piano suite Youth, a piano suite, Pictures from a Fable, Ballade, Piano Concerto with orchestra, several individual compositions and Flowers of the Field for young pianists. The creations of Ocenas are characterized by original reconstruction of genuine folklore; he therefore resembles the realists, Janacek and Moussorgsky. A lyrical composer with a feeling for poetic tonal-coloring detail was simon Jurovsky (1912-1963). A student of A. Moyzes (composition), Jozef Vincourek (conducting), he later studied in Vienna under Jozef Marx. In addition to a series of major forms, he left the following piano compositions: Piano Suite, 4 compositions for children, From a Child's Paradise, a suite from ballet, Chivalrous Ballade for piano, Peace Symphony, for concert piano and string orchestra. Tibor Freso ( 1918) belongs to a generation which injected a new creative spirit into Slovak music. He studied under the Italian composer, Ildebrand -Pizetti at the Academia 92 SLOVAKIA di Santa Cecilia in Rome. For piano he wrote a Miniature Suite, which is an effective recital composition with lesser technical demands; Russian Dance for piano, a piano suite In a Child's Room for very young pianists, and a succession of shorter works. Frantisek Babusek ( 1905-1954) a prominent broadcasting conductor, studied conducting under Pavel Dedecek and composition under V. Novak, Jozef Suk, and Jaroslav Kricka in Prague. To Babusek belongs well-deserved credit for producing original compositions and organizing periodic symphonic concerts. He wrote Prelude for piano and the majestic Concerto in D Minor, which in its claims is indeed somewhat exaggerated, but is a masterly composition in which Babusek amassed a whole assemblage of modern piano techniques, many-faceted rhythms and intricacies. The leading personality of Slovak musical science is Dr. Jozef Kresanek (1913). He was educated in composition under Rudolf Karl at the Prague Conservatory and at the Graduate School of V. Novak. Along with his scholarly pursuits, which netted him a long series of learned articles, and books, he composed many songs, choruses, chamber music as well as the following works for the piano: Piano Suite in four parts, I I Piano Suite, arrangements of Slovak folksongs for young pianists, Meadow Flowers, Elegy for piano, Highwayman's Ballade and others. His Scherzo for the piano is an outstanding work. The foremost exponent of Slovak musical theory and estheticism is Dr. Otto Ferenczy ( 1921) . As a composer he advanced on the knowledge of Bart6k and Stravinsky and was able to combine their thrust with the realism of the Slovak folksong. Characteristic of Ferenczy are his expressive elegance, his brilliance and intellectual humor. His works reflect inspiration from the eastern Slovak folksong and dance, and later from more imposing concert and symphonic works. From a wealth of creative works one must list his Intermezzo for piano, and Capriccio for piano and orchestra. He wrote an innovative piece entitled Partita for concert piano and orchestra. Jan Zimmer (1926) can be characterized as a highly productive artist and one of the most distinguished figures of a youthful generation of masters. He obtained his musical training at thP. Bratislava Conservatory, studying organ SLOVAKIA 93 under Jozef Veber, piano under Frico Kafenda, and composition under Eugen Suchan. He also studied composition at the Franz Liszt Academy in Budapest, under Ferencz Farkas and is a graduate of the Salzburg Seminary in American studies (David Diamond). Zimmer himself is a piano virtuoso, appearing in concerts as the exclusive interpreter of his own compositions and constantly deals with problems involving the piano-solo and piano with orchestra. The blossoming of his style is based on the synthesis of neo-classical interpretive forms with the distinctive quality of sound. In all his works Zimmer explores new directions. Besides a lengthy list of other types of composition, he is credited also with numerous piano works as follows: Four Piano Compositions, Moods, I and II Sonatas for piano, Three Sonatas for 2 pianos, Tatry I-II (I and II suites for piano and orchestra), Three Sonatas for 2 pianos, Four Piano Concertos with orchestra, Concerto for piano without orchestra, A Piano Concerto, with solo part in the bass with orchestra, Three Preludes for piano, Rhapsody for piano and orchestra, Short Fantasia for piano and orchestra, Ten Children's Pieces, Concerto Grosso for 2 pianos, 2 string orchestras,· including percussion ·instruments. In contemporary musical life a place of distinction belongs to Rudolf Macudzinski (1907), master, pedagogue, and an outstanding Slovak piano virtuoso. A student of V. Kurz and Leos Janacek, he trained a significant number of young piano-artists. As an accomplished artist, he stands in the forefront of Slovak concert life and together with his wife Silvia Macudzinski often concertizes on two pianos, thus ably promoting this less known type of music. His talent and skill in composition takes many forms, but he excels chiefly in instrumental music. From his piano pieces we choose Two Romances, Sonatina, solo theme for piano, Meditation and Fugue for 2 pianos, Divertimento for two pianos, Bagatelles for 2 pianos, orchestral and concert arrangements, Valse-Improptu for piano and orchestra, Variazoni Olimpiche for piano and orchestra. Well known are his arrangements of folksongs for piano and his instructive and presentative works for youth, such as Study of Scales I and II, and Christmas Numbers I Can Play, and others. 94 SLOVAKIA Resembling Macudzinski in character and artistic creative thought, is the talented Slovak conductor, Dr. ~udovit Rajter (1906). He pursued his studies in Vienna under C. Kraus and A. Wunderer, as well as F. Schmidt and J. Marx. Later he continued his studies under Dohnanyi in Budapest. His creative works are not as numerous as those of Macudzinski, but artistically they are highly polished. His most important piano piece is Short Suite in the old style. Otherwise he composes for orchestra and chorus. Several composers align themselves with the tradition of artistic creativity based on the folklore of eastern Slovakia. One of these is Jozef Gresak (1907), who with his Piano Concerto introduced altogether unusual hues into piano tones and presented quite fascinating methodical problems about natural and unnatural fingerings and the central role of the thumb as the midpoint of a pianistic hand. An individual of remarkable stature in contemporary Slovak life is Julius Kowalski (1912). He studied composition and conducting at the Prague Conservatory under Rudolf Karl, Alojz Haba and Pavel Dedecek. He continued his studies at the Graduate School in Prague under Jozef Suk and Vaclav Talich, and later in Vienna under C. Kraus. His earlier compositions are influenced by the European avantgarde and Alojz Haba in his Four Pieces for piano, in Fantasia in the quarter-tone system; but his later works are influenced by the Post-Romantic tradition. As a pedagogue, he wrote much for children. His cycles From the World of Toys, five short recital pieces, are written for young pianists. The years after World War II witnessed the resurgence of a new segment of Slovak musical life, which achieved a natural fusion between folk art and the more exacting principles of classical music. Important for the development of the new genres was the appearance on the scene of artistic folk choirs, like the Slovak Artistic Collective, Lucnica, Military Artistic Choir, and others. Likewise important was the rise of opera scenarios and the use of radio, cinema, and television. With original composition all the Slovak artists participated in the development of these genres and simultaneously a young generation arose which SLOVAKIA 95 also directed its activity to this new segment of Slovak musical life. A protagonist of modern Slovak musical achievement is Tibor Andrasovan (1917). He is a higly productive and successful Slovak composer in the field of operetta, film, scenario, and folk music. His Gypsy Dance for piano and orchestra stands as a worthy sample of his rich creativity, which gained for him both popularity and widespread accolades from an admiring public. A composer with similar tastes and merit is Bartolomej Urbanec (1918 ) . He studied composition and conducting under A. Mayzes, Eugen Suchan and Kornel Schimpel, and advanced conducting under Vaclav Talich. He is one of the pioneers of creative work for artistic folk choirs, such as the Slovak Artistic Collective, Lucnica, and others. His greatest works are Concertina for piano and orchestra and Three Romantic Pieces, which often appear on concert programs. By his creative compositions Teodor Hirner (1910) identifies himself with Eastern Slovakia. He wrote numerous compositions for various audiences. The familiar ones are Capriccio for piano and archestra, and his piano cycle Imagini. By character and musical ability Julius Letnan ( 19141973) falls into this group. His Sonata for piano causes amazement especially in its lyrical middle section where the presentation is colored with truly Slovak beauty and expression. The duet Dances and Songs for piano and orchestra is also included in this Sonata. Noteworthy is his work Ten Studies, in which he solves technical piano problems in modern style. With the great increase in educational and cultural programs on the radio, and the steadily mounting demands for high artistic standards in musical broadcasts, the number of musicians who turned their talents to the broadcasting arts has likewise increased. A veteran of this broadcasting activity was the pianist Janka Matuska (1897-1959 ) . He was a versatile composer, producing many works, especially for piano. His characteristic features are humor, laughter, optimism and emotional immediacy. The characteristic and typical examples of his notable talent are such short compositions as Imp in the Chimney, Musical Clock, Gi ant, 96 S LOVAKIA Rabbi t and Hunter, Hum oresque, Minuet, Valse Mignon, variations on folksong : Old M aids, Paraphrases on Slovak Folksongs , and a piano cycle, Slovak Land. A noteworthy representative of Slovak dance music and songs is Karol Elbert (1911). He wrote 3 jazz sonatas for piano. Ondrej Francisci (1915 ) dedicates his works principally to children and young people. He wrote 10 pieces for youth. In the 1950's a group of talented composers, pupils of Mayzes and Cikker, appeared on the scene. In their case there is no concern for program music or its style. The area of their creative interests is very broad and consists, above all, in contemporary musical art; not lacking, however , are positive efforts to come to terms with the impulses of serial and electronic music. A composer who divides his creative activity between theory and composition is the musical scholar, Dr. Ladislav Burlas (1922). In his compositions he inclines toward Bartok. The area of his brief forms is represented by Chaconne and Fugue for piano. Otherwise his chief interest and activity rest with folklore theory and composition. One of the most original composers in the effort for new artistic patterns is Ilja Zeljenka (1932 ) . His piano works excel in two Suites and a Sonata. Pavol Simai (1930) evinces fresh creative orientation in regard to Slovak folk themes. First he studied under Pavol Kados in Budapest, then in Bratislava under A. Moyzes and Jan Cikker; finally he came under Paul Dessau in Berlin. His compositions excel in unconventional lyricism, steeped in sentiment, as exemplified in his piano works: Pastoral for piano, a piano suite From Slovakia and a Sonata for piano. He also wrote numerous shorter forms, such as his Fugues, Invention, Song, Scherzo, Impressions. Mention must also be made of his Sonata Fragment, the Dead, and Pen and Ink Drawings. A composer noted for his scientific work in music theory is Dr. Ivan Hrusovsky (1927). In composition he was a student of A. Moyzes. His early works are characterized by principles of the new Romanticism and Impressionism, exemplifying the influence of his teacher. He manifests his individuality in his later compositions and his dominant characteristics are his inclination toward lyricism and his SLOVAKIA 97 outstanding technique. Besides other works he wrote a Sonatina for piano, Piano Variations, Toccata for piano and a Piano Concerto with orchestra. His Sonata for piano is particularly valuable. In its three movements he incorporates all the concepts exemplifying piano techniques of the present day. Narcisa Donatova ( 1928 ) is an ambitious musician. The greater-lesser styles of vocal music are her domain, but she also writes piano pieces, such. as Suite for Youth , the suites How the Forests Reminisce, Talking Suite, the suite In n New School and others. Among her shorter works are Brioni Island, Marilyn Bridge, The Moon and the Ocean, and Red Lantern. The talented Jozef Malovec ( 1933) belongs to the youngest generation. Instrumental music is dominant in his limited production. He wrote two sonatinas for the piano. For the dissemination of cultural music to the rural areas much is being accomplished by these young musicians. One of them is Tibor Sladkovic (1928 ), known for his Ten Piano Variations. Peter Kolman ( 1937) may be classed among composers searching for fresh developmental methods. Hindemith and Schonberg exerted the greatest influence on his works. His two most serious pieces composed for piano are Three Miniatures and Three Compositions in memory of Schonberg. Dusan Martincek (1936) is a most versatile musician. He studied piano at the conservatory in Bratislava under the direction of Anna Kafenda, and composition privately under Jan Cikker and Jan Zimmer. He writes principally for piano; his models are eminent personalities in musical circles, such as A. N. Scriabin, S . V. Rachmaninoff, Bela Bartok, and D. D. Shostakovich. His works include: Rhapsody for piano and orchestra, Three Preludes , Six Etudes, Variations, Poem for piano (Sonata I), Three Preludes and Fugues , Two Dances with a Bulgarian Rhythm, D ialogues in the form of variations for piano and orchestra, T wo Romantic Preludes in memory of A. Scriabin, Concert Rhapsody Negrea, Seven Concert Etudes , containing interesting new problems in piano techniques; three waltzes, Quasi Valse, R eferences to Bagpipes, Introduction and Toccata for piano 98 SLOVAKIA and string orchestra, Three Sonatinas, five new Preludes and Fugues (1970). Ivan Parik (1936) has enjoyed close association with th~ vast panorama of European music. Originally he studied under Alexander Albrecht, composition under Andrej Ocemis, and conducting under K. Schimpel. Eventually he became a student of A. Moyzes. He is one of the most talented composers of the younger generation. In his search for contemporary and unconventional modes of expression, he attained admirable results in his works for piano: Rhapsody for piano, Night a sketch for two pianos, Suite for piano, Sketch for piano, Three Pieces for piano, Songs About Falling Leaves (4 compositions for piano) . Juraj Hatrik ( 1941) wrote Sonata in C Sharp M i nor for piano, Andante Semplice and Burlesque for piano, Toccata and Romantic Etude in F Sharp M i nor, Short Suite. For children he wrote the cycle The Last Vacation Day and for young clients a piano Concerto Facile. Miroslav Bazlik ( 1931) entered a music school upon the recommendation of Jan Cikker. His earliest productions, Sonata in B Minor for piano and bagatelles A Palette show a Post-Romantic and Impressionistic influence. In the following compositions he manifests an inclination toward neo-Classicism, as exemplified in Six Variations , Concert Etude, and Moment Musical. Marian Ivankovic (1931) has to his credit a number of works in various styles. He wrote Trifles for piano. Roman Berger, one of the youngest, wrote a Sonata for piano and a Suite (Prelude, Scherzo, Toccata). Jozef Sixta's first composition was Two Fugues . He also wrote Five Compositi ons and Fantasia for piano. To the afore-mentioned must be added Ivan Konecny, who wrote Two Bagatelles for piano, Variations , Two Fugues, and Three Compositions. Vladimir Bokes, son of the late Dr. Bokes, well-known musical author, made his debut in music composition with Partita for piano (Prelude, Aria, Capriccio). This brief survey gives some slight indication of the tireless effort and persistent struggle endured by the musically gifted Slovak nation, which ably shaped its musical culture despite turbulent times and developed it to match the music standards of greater nations.  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Slovak Piano Composition (A Brief Survey) Description An account of the resource Antonia Mazánová Slovakia, Vol. 25 (No. 48), 1975 pp. 80-98 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Mazánová, Antonia Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1975 name https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/30c56c8a95838a4763469288f1e094a8.pdf f6e50684afa4f401d71637881e954353 PDF Text Text SLOVAKIA 99 HOMELAND AND HEAVEN: Incarnation and Resurrection in the Last Poems of Milos K. Mlynarovic The published form of Zlata koruna: Rozhovor s anjelom smrti (The Golden Crown: Dialogue with the Angel of Death), the poetic last will and testament of Milos K. Mlynarovic, is a bilingual edition in which the reverend monsignor's original Slovak poems stand sideby-side with their English translation by Sister M. Martina Tybor, SS.C.M. Sister Martina's work is faithful to the expression and metrics of the Slovak but also admirably sensitive to the American English idiom and artistic in its own right for its rendering of metaphor and contemporary diction. Thus , these final poems by Monsignor Mlynarovic, with their fine tribute to native land, freedom, and, above all, the faith, are fittingly available to both the reader who can enjoy the music and language of the original Slovak and the reader who is accustomed to the modes of current American poetry. 1 am the son of a Slovak mother; I am he whom the Statue of Liberty welcomed , and thankful am I, I, a world citizen who now walks through the world with Christ J esus. (Whose Voice is This, p. 16)'' It is not simply an accident of placement that puts the brief verse, "Ci je to hlas?" ("Whose Voice is This?"), first in The Golden Crown. In joining love of homeland, love of freedom, and love of life as a "world citizen" with a deep faith in the abiding presence of the Lord Jesus and a sense ,:, All quotations of poems are from Milos K. Mlynarovic, Zlata koruna / The Golden Crown, translated by Sister M. Martina Tybor, SS.C.M. (Middletown, Pa.: J ednota Printery, 1972) . �100 SLOVAKIA of intimate fellowship with Him, the poet and priest announces in "Whose Voice is This" the religious perspective which all the poems in this volume take . As we read and reread this holy man's Dialogue with the Angel of Death, we see more and more clearly that Monsignor Mlynarovic's spirituality is deeply grounded in his faith in the Incarnation and the Resurrection. As he squarely faces his own dying and assents to the summons of the Angel of Death, Monsignor Mlynarovic grows more, rather than less, in love with the world. There is nothing of unhealthy "attachment" about this love, however. He exults in seedlings and trees, golden grain, land and sea, the sunset, moon and stars, the flames of beeswax candles, the flight of the skylark, shuttered windows , the table set for a meal, bookshelves, the ticking and cuckooing of a clock-enjoying and celebrating them for themselves, for the Creator whose artistry they proclaim, and also for the truths they have to tell. All living things and all arts and crafts are, for this poet, a sign, a reminder , that God has indeed visited His people and invested man's handiwork with holiness. Despite the fact that "derisive laughter taunts: there is no God, and if there ever was, he is dead now," despite the fact that modern man is sorely tempted to an ungodly egotism as he prides himself on his accomplishments and powers, the Angel of Death insists that man's life and work have been-and still are-sanctified: Hold fa st your faith ! The flame of truth fr eshly jets out of a living source. It pli 2s its busy tasks in labora tories, fi ssioning a nd splicing; it hull s away the secrets of being and , like sprightl y skylarks, pours out thanks for creation . Whe re there is life and growth there will be upheaval, too. Dynamos pressure th e mind of man into tomorrow where , triumphantl y, confidently, he builds a world to ward the tomorrow of tomorro ws in which he will arise resurrect ed from the dead. ("Dialogue with the Angel of Death," p. 22) How can a man who has lived to see his native countrymen oppressed and his adopted land slowly overtaken by a kind of technological paganism still retain hope in the sacredness of this life? By this one assurance alone-that �SLOVAKIA 101 in the midst of the tug-of-war between good and evil there is still One who has come, who still "invites," who will r eturn: Som eone did li ve he re. one who spoke mightily and th e \rnrd beca me the fl esh of the cosmos. Th e fi elds unfold and bl ossom . Someone has sown them and continu es to sow them fruitfully, effectively . . . And one da y there will h2 a return; a wearied wayfarer will call , exha usted beyond recognition, fa in t wit h hunger and thi rs t. cage r to know all about our h 3rvests a nd a bout ourselves. Seatin g him se lf. he will join us. drink of our water and break our fra grant bread. ('· Dialogue with the Angel of Death," p. 24) Thus, notwithstanding his own heartbreak, homesickness, and pain, Monsignor Mlynarovic finds in the approach of death an ever-increasing ability to see through the smoke-screen of present evil and sorrow to a vision of great hope. Because of his profound personal conviction that the Word-made-flesh continues to dwell among us, the dying pastor finds himself overwhelmed with a love of the earth which is derived directly from his faith in God's love for His creatures. Monsignor Mlynarovic expresses this abounding Father-fostered love in his fondness for the simplest of things: "garments of rye" and "oak-forested tracts" ("My Slovak People"), "the breath of twilight's billowing clouds" and night "as intense as the cyclamen" ("The Wayfarer"). Because he himself is so truly a man who is "salt of the earth" in the most Christ-like way, Monsignor Mlynarovic cherishes his Slovak heritage religiously. One could never accuse him of mere nationalism or of undue ethnic pride in his praise of the Slovak people who, "clutching life," are "determined not to die" ("My Slovak People," p. 62). He is not just speaking of the preservation of a culture; rather, he is revealing his belief that the life of God seems to him to be especially embodied, enfleshed, in the Slovak folk. The simplicity and purity of lived faith, the spontaneity of prayer, the acceptance of God's will in the daily circumstances of home and family, the capacity for endurance of endless trials, and the humble closeness to the earth which are all characteristic of the Slovaks seem to �102 SLOVAKIA the poet a unique and blessed expression of the impact of the Incarnation of a people. We see that in his Christian optimism the poet is far from blind to suffering. He observes that "pain saturates the ocean; agony bursts out of the hills / and all the domestic brood shields its face and flees in desperation" ("The Wayfarer," p. 28). At the same time, he believes without hesitation that "man is no slave; / even in its bleakest moments life has always been a gratuitous gift / not a mere bone grudgingly thrown you by some tyrant and left lying there" (p. 30). For this priest-poet, pain and delight are simultaneous. We can understand this seeming paradox somewhat better if we recognize that man's participation in the Incarnation, his living of the present Christlife, also means following through the Lord's passion and death. So we read in "He is Not Here" the aged monsignor appealing to Christ: - Do not unfasten, I beg! Nail back again that ugly nail in its place. A5 long as the face of humanity is befouled let this be my resting place . . . (p. 46 ) In "The Mandate" he asks the angel, "Rest the crucifix upon my breast" (p. 44), and in "The Resurrection Station" he avers, "There has always been and there will always be a cross as long as earth can hear the bell-tones of the heart" (p. 54 ). What we find, in short, is that from his utterly joyful belief in the Incarnation Monsignor Mlynarovic is prompted to bring that Good News to others; having been so moved, he commits himself to crucifixion: Tim e ticks the counsel : Give of yourself. That is the only way to assure your own increase. Help man toward the everlasting; help God; in this way only will God shine through all things. Even th ro ugh us. ("Timepieces," p. 38) Just as his love of the world is inspired by his faith in the Incarnation, Monsignor Mlynarovic's generous and complete self-surrender is motivated by his hope in the Resurrection. As a result, these deathwatch poems are never finally unhappy, though they candidly admit that the �SLOVAKIA 103 process of letting-go is far from easy. There are regrets and longings and daydreams: One final flight took him back to greet his native land once more: fr agra nce of wine and bread ; no one suffers want here. and n ot a dove, nor the cross crowning the spire, in fact, not even the dog whose baying shatters the night, nothing was alien to him here. He wished to catch again the sounding evening bell and the sir en's wail, the light of tender eyes in the cradle, the tread of tottering years-oh, so pain-filled now. And he moved along the range, gladdened by a skylark welcome and sat at the lakeside with streaming tears, weeping with the swan that pour s out a final song. ("Before Parting," p. 32 ) All these longings, lingering as they are, are overcome by the promise of the Pasch, by his conviction that dying does not really mean giving up anything. He can still regard his people, his homeland, birds, flowering plants, and all God's goods with tenderness and affection because he is certain that all are moving into a transformation and glorification: "like the Tatry, I too await resurrection" ("Upon the Bier," p. 34). He does not look forward to a disembodied otherworld but to the realization of a new earth and a new heaven. For himself, for his people, for all mankind toiling with the creatures of land, sea, and sky, he prophesies an immortality of united bodies and souls, of matter and spirit drawn together in the pattern of the Resurrection and, we might add, our Lady's Assumption. "Whoever once had the gift of life / cannot ever not live again," he declares ("He is Not Here," p. 48). Monsignor Mlynarovic turns to the image of the dove - with all its rich symbolic associations for Christians-to depict his own soul and his destiny in dying: 0 fai thful dove, now you can claim your everlasting nesting place. No storm or flood can ever touch it now. Yours is the shari ng of the seed, the partaking of the very tree of life. You shall wing yo ur flight in majesty, wheeling into the inner court of God �104 SLOVAKIA where multitudes of the r edee med who call to you gently sou nd t he dithyram b of God's creation. (" The Mandate," p. 44 ) This dying, this letting-loose of the dove, is no leavetaking, he is sure. It is, rather, a liberation from a cage and an occasion of homecoming: I lea\·e but I shall be go ne onl y fo r a time. The dove sh all return to i ts cote and I sha ll return to you wit h vehemence and ardor (fo r now a growi ng fain t ness hinders me) a nd once again I shall be one of you . I know t ha t in eternity no one clips the wings of love, so I sh all fr eely wing a re turn flight to my homeland ; I shall kiss and be kissed , I shall come again to plant boxwood hedges once more. ("I Shall Come to You," p. 50 ) A contemporary American poet, Richard Wilbur, has said that "Love calls us to the things of this world." In considering the poems of Milos Mlynarovic's Golden Crown we can see how profoundly meaningful such a statement is for the Christian. As the beloved monsignor so gracefully gives himself over to his own death, he shows that for the man of faith dying is really an intensification of life. As he prepares for a total union with God-in whose unseen company he has spent his years-the dying man comes to r ealize that he is not going away, not ending one life to begin another, but that he is being set free to experience fully-at last-the life with God that is. The Incarnation, Christ's coming, has already opened the way to communion between God and man; it is only by consenting to die and rise witµ Christ, however, that man can begin to experience the reality of this presence of himself and God to one another . For Monsignor Mlynarovic the y es to the call of Angel of Death springs him free as a high-flying dove. And this freedom , the freedom of Easter (which dawns on us gradually, not merely at the moment when we can officially be pronounced dead), draws us, he assures, to a deeper, fuller , and holier love of the dovecote . Sister M . Pamela S mi t h. SS.C.M. � SLOVAKIA 99 HOMELAND AND HEAVEN: Incarnation and Resurrection in the Last Poems of Milos K. Mlynarovic The published form of Zlata koruna: Rozhovor s anjelom smrti (The Golden Crown: Dialogue with the Angel of Death), the poetic last will and testament of Milos K. Mlynarovic, is a bilingual edition in which the reverend monsignor's original Slovak poems stand sideby-side with their English translation by Sister M. Martina Tybor, SS.C.M. Sister Martina's work is faithful to the expression and metrics of the Slovak but also admirably sensitive to the American English idiom and artistic in its own right for its rendering of metaphor and contemporary diction. Thus , these final poems by Monsignor Mlynarovic, with their fine tribute to native land, freedom, and, above all, the faith, are fittingly available to both the reader who can enjoy the music and language of the original Slovak and the reader who is accustomed to the modes of current American poetry. 1 am the son of a Slovak mother; I am he whom the Statue of Liberty welcomed , and thankful am I, I, a world citizen who now walks through the world with Christ J esus. (Whose Voice is This, p. 16)'' It is not simply an accident of placement that puts the brief verse, "Ci je to hlas?" ("Whose Voice is This?"), first in The Golden Crown. In joining love of homeland, love of freedom, and love of life as a "world citizen" with a deep faith in the abiding presence of the Lord Jesus and a sense ,:, All quotations of poems are from Milos K. Mlynarovic, Zlata koruna / The Golden Crown, translated by Sister M. Martina Tybor, SS.C.M. (Middletown, Pa.: J ednota Printery, 1972) . �100 SLOVAKIA of intimate fellowship with Him, the poet and priest announces in "Whose Voice is This" the religious perspective which all the poems in this volume take . As we read and reread this holy man's Dialogue with the Angel of Death, we see more and more clearly that Monsignor Mlynarovic's spirituality is deeply grounded in his faith in the Incarnation and the Resurrection. As he squarely faces his own dying and assents to the summons of the Angel of Death, Monsignor Mlynarovic grows more, rather than less, in love with the world. There is nothing of unhealthy "attachment" about this love, however. He exults in seedlings and trees, golden grain, land and sea, the sunset, moon and stars, the flames of beeswax candles, the flight of the skylark, shuttered windows , the table set for a meal, bookshelves, the ticking and cuckooing of a clock-enjoying and celebrating them for themselves, for the Creator whose artistry they proclaim, and also for the truths they have to tell. All living things and all arts and crafts are, for this poet, a sign, a reminder , that God has indeed visited His people and invested man's handiwork with holiness. Despite the fact that "derisive laughter taunts: there is no God, and if there ever was, he is dead now," despite the fact that modern man is sorely tempted to an ungodly egotism as he prides himself on his accomplishments and powers, the Angel of Death insists that man's life and work have been-and still are-sanctified: Hold fa st your faith ! The flame of truth fr eshly jets out of a living source. It pli 2s its busy tasks in labora tories, fi ssioning a nd splicing; it hull s away the secrets of being and , like sprightl y skylarks, pours out thanks for creation . Whe re there is life and growth there will be upheaval, too. Dynamos pressure th e mind of man into tomorrow where , triumphantl y, confidently, he builds a world to ward the tomorrow of tomorro ws in which he will arise resurrect ed from the dead. ("Dialogue with the Angel of Death," p. 22) How can a man who has lived to see his native countrymen oppressed and his adopted land slowly overtaken by a kind of technological paganism still retain hope in the sacredness of this life? By this one assurance alone-that �SLOVAKIA 101 in the midst of the tug-of-war between good and evil there is still One who has come, who still "invites," who will r eturn: Som eone did li ve he re. one who spoke mightily and th e \rnrd beca me the fl esh of the cosmos. Th e fi elds unfold and bl ossom . Someone has sown them and continu es to sow them fruitfully, effectively . . . And one da y there will h2 a return; a wearied wayfarer will call , exha usted beyond recognition, fa in t wit h hunger and thi rs t. cage r to know all about our h 3rvests a nd a bout ourselves. Seatin g him se lf. he will join us. drink of our water and break our fra grant bread. ('· Dialogue with the Angel of Death," p. 24) Thus, notwithstanding his own heartbreak, homesickness, and pain, Monsignor Mlynarovic finds in the approach of death an ever-increasing ability to see through the smoke-screen of present evil and sorrow to a vision of great hope. Because of his profound personal conviction that the Word-made-flesh continues to dwell among us, the dying pastor finds himself overwhelmed with a love of the earth which is derived directly from his faith in God's love for His creatures. Monsignor Mlynarovic expresses this abounding Father-fostered love in his fondness for the simplest of things: "garments of rye" and "oak-forested tracts" ("My Slovak People"), "the breath of twilight's billowing clouds" and night "as intense as the cyclamen" ("The Wayfarer"). Because he himself is so truly a man who is "salt of the earth" in the most Christ-like way, Monsignor Mlynarovic cherishes his Slovak heritage religiously. One could never accuse him of mere nationalism or of undue ethnic pride in his praise of the Slovak people who, "clutching life," are "determined not to die" ("My Slovak People," p. 62). He is not just speaking of the preservation of a culture; rather, he is revealing his belief that the life of God seems to him to be especially embodied, enfleshed, in the Slovak folk. The simplicity and purity of lived faith, the spontaneity of prayer, the acceptance of God's will in the daily circumstances of home and family, the capacity for endurance of endless trials, and the humble closeness to the earth which are all characteristic of the Slovaks seem to �102 SLOVAKIA the poet a unique and blessed expression of the impact of the Incarnation of a people. We see that in his Christian optimism the poet is far from blind to suffering. He observes that "pain saturates the ocean; agony bursts out of the hills / and all the domestic brood shields its face and flees in desperation" ("The Wayfarer," p. 28). At the same time, he believes without hesitation that "man is no slave; / even in its bleakest moments life has always been a gratuitous gift / not a mere bone grudgingly thrown you by some tyrant and left lying there" (p. 30). For this priest-poet, pain and delight are simultaneous. We can understand this seeming paradox somewhat better if we recognize that man's participation in the Incarnation, his living of the present Christlife, also means following through the Lord's passion and death. So we read in "He is Not Here" the aged monsignor appealing to Christ: - Do not unfasten, I beg! Nail back again that ugly nail in its place. A5 long as the face of humanity is befouled let this be my resting place . . . (p. 46 ) In "The Mandate" he asks the angel, "Rest the crucifix upon my breast" (p. 44), and in "The Resurrection Station" he avers, "There has always been and there will always be a cross as long as earth can hear the bell-tones of the heart" (p. 54 ). What we find, in short, is that from his utterly joyful belief in the Incarnation Monsignor Mlynarovic is prompted to bring that Good News to others; having been so moved, he commits himself to crucifixion: Tim e ticks the counsel : Give of yourself. That is the only way to assure your own increase. Help man toward the everlasting; help God; in this way only will God shine through all things. Even th ro ugh us. ("Timepieces," p. 38) Just as his love of the world is inspired by his faith in the Incarnation, Monsignor Mlynarovic's generous and complete self-surrender is motivated by his hope in the Resurrection. As a result, these deathwatch poems are never finally unhappy, though they candidly admit that the �SLOVAKIA 103 process of letting-go is far from easy. There are regrets and longings and daydreams: One final flight took him back to greet his native land once more: fr agra nce of wine and bread ; no one suffers want here. and n ot a dove, nor the cross crowning the spire, in fact, not even the dog whose baying shatters the night, nothing was alien to him here. He wished to catch again the sounding evening bell and the sir en's wail, the light of tender eyes in the cradle, the tread of tottering years-oh, so pain-filled now. And he moved along the range, gladdened by a skylark welcome and sat at the lakeside with streaming tears, weeping with the swan that pour s out a final song. ("Before Parting," p. 32 ) All these longings, lingering as they are, are overcome by the promise of the Pasch, by his conviction that dying does not really mean giving up anything. He can still regard his people, his homeland, birds, flowering plants, and all God's goods with tenderness and affection because he is certain that all are moving into a transformation and glorification: "like the Tatry, I too await resurrection" ("Upon the Bier," p. 34). He does not look forward to a disembodied otherworld but to the realization of a new earth and a new heaven. For himself, for his people, for all mankind toiling with the creatures of land, sea, and sky, he prophesies an immortality of united bodies and souls, of matter and spirit drawn together in the pattern of the Resurrection and, we might add, our Lady's Assumption. "Whoever once had the gift of life / cannot ever not live again," he declares ("He is Not Here," p. 48). Monsignor Mlynarovic turns to the image of the dove - with all its rich symbolic associations for Christians-to depict his own soul and his destiny in dying: 0 fai thful dove, now you can claim your everlasting nesting place. No storm or flood can ever touch it now. Yours is the shari ng of the seed, the partaking of the very tree of life. You shall wing yo ur flight in majesty, wheeling into the inner court of God �104 SLOVAKIA where multitudes of the r edee med who call to you gently sou nd t he dithyram b of God's creation. (" The Mandate," p. 44 ) This dying, this letting-loose of the dove, is no leavetaking, he is sure. It is, rather, a liberation from a cage and an occasion of homecoming: I lea\·e but I shall be go ne onl y fo r a time. The dove sh all return to i ts cote and I sha ll return to you wit h vehemence and ardor (fo r now a growi ng fain t ness hinders me) a nd once again I shall be one of you . I know t ha t in eternity no one clips the wings of love, so I sh all fr eely wing a re turn flight to my homeland ; I shall kiss and be kissed , I shall come again to plant boxwood hedges once more. ("I Shall Come to You," p. 50 ) A contemporary American poet, Richard Wilbur, has said that "Love calls us to the things of this world." In considering the poems of Milos Mlynarovic's Golden Crown we can see how profoundly meaningful such a statement is for the Christian. As the beloved monsignor so gracefully gives himself over to his own death, he shows that for the man of faith dying is really an intensification of life. As he prepares for a total union with God-in whose unseen company he has spent his years-the dying man comes to r ealize that he is not going away, not ending one life to begin another, but that he is being set free to experience fully-at last-the life with God that is. The Incarnation, Christ's coming, has already opened the way to communion between God and man; it is only by consenting to die and rise witµ Christ, however, that man can begin to experience the reality of this presence of himself and God to one another . For Monsignor Mlynarovic the y es to the call of Angel of Death springs him free as a high-flying dove. And this freedom , the freedom of Easter (which dawns on us gradually, not merely at the moment when we can officially be pronounced dead), draws us, he assures, to a deeper, fuller , and holier love of the dovecote . Sister M . Pamela S mi t h. SS.C.M. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1975, Vol. 25 Description An account of the resource Vol. 25 (No. 48), 1975. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1975 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document SLOVAKIA 99 HOMELAND AND HEAVEN: Incarnation and Resurrection in the Last Poems of Milos K. Mlynarovic The published form of Zlata koruna: Rozhovor s anjelom smrti (The Golden Crown: Dialogue with the Angel of Death), the poetic last will and testament of Milos K. Mlynarovic, is a bilingual edition in which the reverend monsignor's original Slovak poems stand sideby-side with their English translation by Sister M. Martina Tybor, SS.C.M. Sister Martina's work is faithful to the expression and metrics of the Slovak but also admirably sensitive to the American English idiom and artistic in its own right for its rendering of metaphor and contemporary diction. Thus , these final poems by Monsignor Mlynarovic, with their fine tribute to native land, freedom, and, above all, the faith, are fittingly available to both the reader who can enjoy the music and language of the original Slovak and the reader who is accustomed to the modes of current American poetry. 1 am the son of a Slovak mother; I am he whom the Statue of Liberty welcomed , and thankful am I, I, a world citizen who now walks through the world with Christ J esus. (Whose Voice is This, p. 16)'' It is not simply an accident of placement that puts the brief verse, "Ci je to hlas?" ("Whose Voice is This?"), first in The Golden Crown. In joining love of homeland, love of freedom, and love of life as a "world citizen" with a deep faith in the abiding presence of the Lord Jesus and a sense ,:, All quotations of poems are from Milos K. Mlynarovic, Zlata koruna / The Golden Crown, translated by Sister M. Martina Tybor, SS.C.M. (Middletown, Pa.: J ednota Printery, 1972) . 100 SLOVAKIA of intimate fellowship with Him, the poet and priest announces in "Whose Voice is This" the religious perspective which all the poems in this volume take . As we read and reread this holy man's Dialogue with the Angel of Death, we see more and more clearly that Monsignor Mlynarovic's spirituality is deeply grounded in his faith in the Incarnation and the Resurrection. As he squarely faces his own dying and assents to the summons of the Angel of Death, Monsignor Mlynarovic grows more, rather than less, in love with the world. There is nothing of unhealthy "attachment" about this love, however. He exults in seedlings and trees, golden grain, land and sea, the sunset, moon and stars, the flames of beeswax candles, the flight of the skylark, shuttered windows , the table set for a meal, bookshelves, the ticking and cuckooing of a clock-enjoying and celebrating them for themselves, for the Creator whose artistry they proclaim, and also for the truths they have to tell. All living things and all arts and crafts are, for this poet, a sign, a reminder , that God has indeed visited His people and invested man's handiwork with holiness. Despite the fact that "derisive laughter taunts: there is no God, and if there ever was, he is dead now," despite the fact that modern man is sorely tempted to an ungodly egotism as he prides himself on his accomplishments and powers, the Angel of Death insists that man's life and work have been-and still are-sanctified: Hold fa st your faith ! The flame of truth fr eshly jets out of a living source. It pli 2s its busy tasks in labora tories, fi ssioning a nd splicing; it hull s away the secrets of being and , like sprightl y skylarks, pours out thanks for creation . Whe re there is life and growth there will be upheaval, too. Dynamos pressure th e mind of man into tomorrow where , triumphantl y, confidently, he builds a world to ward the tomorrow of tomorro ws in which he will arise resurrect ed from the dead. ("Dialogue with the Angel of Death," p. 22) How can a man who has lived to see his native countrymen oppressed and his adopted land slowly overtaken by a kind of technological paganism still retain hope in the sacredness of this life? By this one assurance alone-that SLOVAKIA 101 in the midst of the tug-of-war between good and evil there is still One who has come, who still "invites," who will r eturn: Som eone did li ve he re. one who spoke mightily and th e \rnrd beca me the fl esh of the cosmos. Th e fi elds unfold and bl ossom . Someone has sown them and continu es to sow them fruitfully, effectively . . . And one da y there will h2 a return; a wearied wayfarer will call , exha usted beyond recognition, fa in t wit h hunger and thi rs t. cage r to know all about our h 3rvests a nd a bout ourselves. Seatin g him se lf. he will join us. drink of our water and break our fra grant bread. ('· Dialogue with the Angel of Death," p. 24) Thus, notwithstanding his own heartbreak, homesickness, and pain, Monsignor Mlynarovic finds in the approach of death an ever-increasing ability to see through the smoke-screen of present evil and sorrow to a vision of great hope. Because of his profound personal conviction that the Word-made-flesh continues to dwell among us, the dying pastor finds himself overwhelmed with a love of the earth which is derived directly from his faith in God's love for His creatures. Monsignor Mlynarovic expresses this abounding Father-fostered love in his fondness for the simplest of things: "garments of rye" and "oak-forested tracts" ("My Slovak People"), "the breath of twilight's billowing clouds" and night "as intense as the cyclamen" ("The Wayfarer"). Because he himself is so truly a man who is "salt of the earth" in the most Christ-like way, Monsignor Mlynarovic cherishes his Slovak heritage religiously. One could never accuse him of mere nationalism or of undue ethnic pride in his praise of the Slovak people who, "clutching life," are "determined not to die" ("My Slovak People," p. 62). He is not just speaking of the preservation of a culture; rather, he is revealing his belief that the life of God seems to him to be especially embodied, enfleshed, in the Slovak folk. The simplicity and purity of lived faith, the spontaneity of prayer, the acceptance of God's will in the daily circumstances of home and family, the capacity for endurance of endless trials, and the humble closeness to the earth which are all characteristic of the Slovaks seem to 102 SLOVAKIA the poet a unique and blessed expression of the impact of the Incarnation of a people. We see that in his Christian optimism the poet is far from blind to suffering. He observes that "pain saturates the ocean; agony bursts out of the hills / and all the domestic brood shields its face and flees in desperation" ("The Wayfarer," p. 28). At the same time, he believes without hesitation that "man is no slave; / even in its bleakest moments life has always been a gratuitous gift / not a mere bone grudgingly thrown you by some tyrant and left lying there" (p. 30). For this priest-poet, pain and delight are simultaneous. We can understand this seeming paradox somewhat better if we recognize that man's participation in the Incarnation, his living of the present Christlife, also means following through the Lord's passion and death. So we read in "He is Not Here" the aged monsignor appealing to Christ: - Do not unfasten, I beg! Nail back again that ugly nail in its place. A5 long as the face of humanity is befouled let this be my resting place . . . (p. 46 ) In "The Mandate" he asks the angel, "Rest the crucifix upon my breast" (p. 44), and in "The Resurrection Station" he avers, "There has always been and there will always be a cross as long as earth can hear the bell-tones of the heart" (p. 54 ). What we find, in short, is that from his utterly joyful belief in the Incarnation Monsignor Mlynarovic is prompted to bring that Good News to others; having been so moved, he commits himself to crucifixion: Tim e ticks the counsel : Give of yourself. That is the only way to assure your own increase. Help man toward the everlasting; help God; in this way only will God shine through all things. Even th ro ugh us. ("Timepieces," p. 38) Just as his love of the world is inspired by his faith in the Incarnation, Monsignor Mlynarovic's generous and complete self-surrender is motivated by his hope in the Resurrection. As a result, these deathwatch poems are never finally unhappy, though they candidly admit that the SLOVAKIA 103 process of letting-go is far from easy. There are regrets and longings and daydreams: One final flight took him back to greet his native land once more: fr agra nce of wine and bread ; no one suffers want here. and n ot a dove, nor the cross crowning the spire, in fact, not even the dog whose baying shatters the night, nothing was alien to him here. He wished to catch again the sounding evening bell and the sir en's wail, the light of tender eyes in the cradle, the tread of tottering years-oh, so pain-filled now. And he moved along the range, gladdened by a skylark welcome and sat at the lakeside with streaming tears, weeping with the swan that pour s out a final song. ("Before Parting," p. 32 ) All these longings, lingering as they are, are overcome by the promise of the Pasch, by his conviction that dying does not really mean giving up anything. He can still regard his people, his homeland, birds, flowering plants, and all God's goods with tenderness and affection because he is certain that all are moving into a transformation and glorification: "like the Tatry, I too await resurrection" ("Upon the Bier," p. 34). He does not look forward to a disembodied otherworld but to the realization of a new earth and a new heaven. For himself, for his people, for all mankind toiling with the creatures of land, sea, and sky, he prophesies an immortality of united bodies and souls, of matter and spirit drawn together in the pattern of the Resurrection and, we might add, our Lady's Assumption. "Whoever once had the gift of life / cannot ever not live again," he declares ("He is Not Here," p. 48). Monsignor Mlynarovic turns to the image of the dove - with all its rich symbolic associations for Christians-to depict his own soul and his destiny in dying: 0 fai thful dove, now you can claim your everlasting nesting place. No storm or flood can ever touch it now. Yours is the shari ng of the seed, the partaking of the very tree of life. You shall wing yo ur flight in majesty, wheeling into the inner court of God 104 SLOVAKIA where multitudes of the r edee med who call to you gently sou nd t he dithyram b of God's creation. (" The Mandate," p. 44 ) This dying, this letting-loose of the dove, is no leavetaking, he is sure. It is, rather, a liberation from a cage and an occasion of homecoming: I lea\·e but I shall be go ne onl y fo r a time. The dove sh all return to i ts cote and I sha ll return to you wit h vehemence and ardor (fo r now a growi ng fain t ness hinders me) a nd once again I shall be one of you . I know t ha t in eternity no one clips the wings of love, so I sh all fr eely wing a re turn flight to my homeland ; I shall kiss and be kissed , I shall come again to plant boxwood hedges once more. ("I Shall Come to You," p. 50 ) A contemporary American poet, Richard Wilbur, has said that "Love calls us to the things of this world." In considering the poems of Milos Mlynarovic's Golden Crown we can see how profoundly meaningful such a statement is for the Christian. As the beloved monsignor so gracefully gives himself over to his own death, he shows that for the man of faith dying is really an intensification of life. As he prepares for a total union with God-in whose unseen company he has spent his years-the dying man comes to r ealize that he is not going away, not ending one life to begin another, but that he is being set free to experience fully-at last-the life with God that is. The Incarnation, Christ's coming, has already opened the way to communion between God and man; it is only by consenting to die and rise witµ Christ, however, that man can begin to experience the reality of this presence of himself and God to one another . For Monsignor Mlynarovic the y es to the call of Angel of Death springs him free as a high-flying dove. And this freedom , the freedom of Easter (which dawns on us gradually, not merely at the moment when we can officially be pronounced dead), draws us, he assures, to a deeper, fuller , and holier love of the dovecote . Sister M . Pamela S mi t h. SS.C.M.  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Incarnation and Resurrection in the Last Poems of Miloš K. Mlynarovič Description An account of the resource Sister M. Pamela Smith, SS.C.M. Slovakia, Vol. 25 (No. 48), 1975 pp. 99-104 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Smith, Sister M. Pamela, SS.C.M. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1975 name https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/495398a0345e07ca444c3d58e165ef2f.pdf 39aabc0d058087af2fa9cc120558c3f4 PDF Text Text SLOVAKIA 105 The Slovak Dilemma Ln Austria-Hungary* Gabor V e r m e s Rutgers University, Dept. of History At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, the educated middle class Slovak in Austria-Hungary found himself enmeshed in a multiple identity crisis. He could remain a Slovak and thus limit his chance for any meaningful participation in the Hungarian Establishment; he could ally himself with the Czechs as a junior partner; he could indulge in an illusionary alliance with Russia; or he could abandon his Slovak identity and become a Magyar. This dilemma weighed most heavily upon members of the Slovak intelligentsia because their status in Hungarian society was contingent upon the choice they made. Yet, the survival of the entire Slovak nation was thought to be in question. Almost all the Slovak and pro-Slovak literati declaimed inevitable doom and prophesized the gradual extinction of the Slovaks. Robert Seton-Watson spoke of the virtual destruction of Slovak nationality, and concluded, " ... especially after the notorious Education Act of Count Albert Apponyi in 1907, the process of Magyarization was advancing by leaps and bounds, in particular along the Southern linguistic frontier ... The victim was rescued just in time." 1 The question arises then: Can an entire people vanish, in modern times, by the superimposition of powerful outside forces? Was the feeling of doom justified as far as ,:, NOTE: We are publishing this article on the recommendation of Prof. J . M. Kirschbaum, concerning an exchange of views on the Slovak question in Austria-Hungary as a precondition for preparing a better future for all nations of Central Europe. Professor Vermes' conclusions are not identical with Slovak views but he presents a serious and well documented attempt at an objective analysis from the Hungarian point of view. The editor �106 SLOVAKIA the Slovaks were concerned? The statistics are inexorable, and they do se6m to indicate a gradual erosion in the number of Slovaks still maintaining their national identity.2 The pull of Magyarization was especially strong among the Slovak educated middle class; very understandably, this caused the gravest concern to the nationalist Slovaks. The nationalist group was also greatly concerned over the large scale emigration of Slovak peasants who left the Tatra Mountains to settle in the adjoining territories which were inhabited by the Magyars or by a mixed population. The peasants also migrated to the big cities, to Budapest in particular, and a considerable number emigrated to America. Yet a revealing comparison between the number of Slovaks who could speak only their native tongue in 1900 and the same category in 1910 shows that a sizable segment remained Slovak.3 In the isolated hamlets and villages of the Tatra, the population remained Slovak, not because of any conscious or deliberate effort to assert themselves as such, but because they lived in homogeneous compact groups. Magyar power reached them only through various types of county officials, and through the school teachers, but even if the little pupil learned to mutter a few sentences in Hungarian, most likely he disposed of them at home with a natural sense of relief. The anticipated diminution of the intellectual elite, therefore, did not seem to conflict with the simultaneous preservation of a less sophisticated stratum of society much less exposed to alien influences. Thus, the usage of the term extinction becomes somewhat exaggerated and overly pessimistic. The Slovak peasantry, provided they were ignorant and indifferent to any kind of cause, including that of Slovak nationalism, could still be considered a bulwark against national self-annihilation and perhaps even as a reservoir of a future Slovak national renaissance. The reasons for the Slovak predicament are fairly well-known. 4 The two basic factors were their early loss of independence to the Hungarians in the 9th-10th centuries A.D. and their sparse expansion over their poor and mountainous terrain. Beginning in the mid-19th century, two additional components were added. One was the disadvantage resulting from the absence of an independent Czech or ~lovak state. (This was a disadvantage in comparison �SLOVAKIA 107 with the Austro-Rumanian and Austro-Serbian position, strengthened by the existence of an independent Rumania and Serbia) . The other factor in the Slovaks' plight was the clash between two adverse national egos, the Magyar and the Slovak. As long as the Monarchy lasted, Magyar nationalism gained the upper hand, not because of any inherent superior quality but as a natural consequence of a superior power, superior in the political, social, and economic sense, and even in the psychological sphere of self-assurance. Hungary had much to be proud of by the second half of the 19th century. It had grown from a backward agricultural country into a relatively advanced agricultural-industrial state. After an unsuccessful revolution in 1848-1849, astute negotiations aided by fortuitous circumstances led to equal partnership with Austria in 1867. Hungary became an integral part of a dualist system which maintained its great power status up to the very end of its existence, in spite of its inner weaknesses . In 1896, prosperity, though unevenly shared, and optimism, though not unanimous, exploded into the pageantry of the Milleneum, the one-thousandth anniversary of Hungary's existence. The country-gentry was the major conveyor of this festive spirit. In their patriotic fervor they were supported by an urban middle class, consisting partly of their own kin, partly of the remnants of the old German burgher class, and partly by a growing number of Jews . Quite often members of these two latter groups turned into more zealous Magyars than the Magyars themselves . Jeno Rakosi, of German origin, was the wellknown editor of the Budapest Hirlap; he coined the slogan of "A Great Hungary of 30 million Magyars," 5 and his Jewish journalist colleagues backed him up with unfaltering ardor. The gentry, however, though deeply entrenched in their strongholds, the administrations of state and counties, was no longer the liberal generation of 1848. As Oszkar Jaszi pointed out, this gentry, by losing its economic power, and somewhat bewildered by the complexities of a new emerging urban-commercial-industrial society, compensated for its growing insecurity with an ever strengthening assertion of national superiority .6 In order to justify this superiority and persevere in it, the gentry stubbornly �108 SLOVAKIA maintained its traditional, legal-political arguments, to the point of referring to the "Law" even when actual injustice was admitted. 7 The Fundamental Law, to which constant reference was made, was considered historical by the Magyar ruling classes, and was based on their rights by virtue of the Magyar conquest. Even such a recognized moderate as Kalman Szell (Prime Minister of Hungary, 1899-1903) asserted, "The Magyars have conquered this country for themselves and not for others. The supremacy and hegemony of the Magyars is fully justified." 8 No one would deny the exceptions to this rule. The impact of Ferenc Deak and Baron J6zsef Eotvos, the great Hungarian liberal statesmen, was still evident upon the creation of the Nationality Law of 1868, which granted extensive cultural rights to the non-Magyar nationalities, though it stopped short of acknowledging their existence as separate legal-political entities. In his exile, Lajos Kossuth changed from an intolerant chauvinist into the champion of a Danubian Federation, and he had a faithful disciple in Hungary in the person of Lajos Mocsary. In later years, preceding World War I, Ozskar Jaszi, a sociologist and politician of radical-leftist leanings, was sympathetically inclined to the course providing genuine equality between Magyars and non-Magyars. These and several other exceptions notwithstanding, most Magyars were indifferent at best, and outrightly hostile at worst, to the national aspirations, demands, and needs of their fellow non-Magyar citizens. The consequences of such attitudes were examined even by the conservative school of Hungarian historians. Count Pal Teleki recognized the impossibility of creating a unified Hungarian nation through enforced assimilation,9 and in addition he blamed the innumerable blunders of the Magyarization efforts on Magyar inconsistency and Magyar administrative inefficiency. 10 Accordin'5 to Gyula Szekfu, the process of Magyarization was detrimental because it corroded the Hungarian nation's moral fibre, yet it was not the "fearsome and bloodthirsty monster of Jaszi and Seton-Watson, but a childish construction, a plaything, and an unrealizable and overly emotional postulate, doing more harm to the Magyars, than to their nationalities." 11 Thus, behind the apparently rigid and legal pedantry �SLOVAKIA 109 of the Magyar public, it has not been hard to discover the emotional content, reflecting frustrations and childlike wishful thinking. To be sure, these elements were of considerable weight. However, at least equal stress should be laid on other factors as well, such as anxiety and fear of being encircled and outnumbered and consequently, of being eventually engulfed and annihilated. That fear and anxiety were never expressed in these pessimistic terms, but rather in their psychological reverse: The Hungarian nation would never perish, because of its power, its eagerness to grow from 10 to 30 million if possible, and because of its readiness to absorb all non-Magyars by all means available. Yet behind this fagade of self-confidence, fear and anxiety lurked, often in near paranoic dimensions. Lajos Steier, a Hungarian "expert" on the Slovaks, sounded the alarm hysterically, " ... Magyar hegemony, national unity, and our Fatherland are in mortal danger!" 12 Regardless of the validity of his anxiety, his proficiency in the affairs of Slovak-Magyar relations provided him with enough foresight to see the "danger" in a Czech-Slovak rapprochement. 13 Most Hungarians, however, were content to release their fear and anxiety in their ch~se of an all-encompassing yet amorphous scarecrow, Pan-Slavism, which was not understood properly at all, but was used as a charge both against bomb-throwing anarchists and totally harmless literati, attributing dark conspiratorial machinations to both. Hungarian gendarmes killed and wounded several Slovaks at the village of cernova, on October 27, 1907. The reason for the unrest was the punitive actions taken against cernova's Slovak nationalist priest, Father Andrej Hlinka by his Magyarone superiors in the Catholic hierarchy. The massacre was followed by stormy sessions in the Hungarian Parliament. Milan Hodza, one of the seven nationalist Slovak members, was accused of paving the way for the massacre through his agitation, and some of his Magyar colleagues called him "Assassin! ... rotten agitator!" 14 The Magyar representative from the district of cernova, bdon Beni9zky, painted a picture of Slovak agitation, a picture, which could have taken a rightful place in Dante's Inferno. He talked of the once pious Slovaks throwing rocks at every coach owned by Hungarian gentlemen, about Slovak agitators going around the villages, spreading news of �110 SLOVAKIA Hungarians taking Slovak children away during the night and taking them down to the Great Hungarian Plain in order to make good Magyars out of them; he conveyed the impression that Slovak peasants were ready to grab an axe and resort to unbridled violence. Hodza demanded proof, but none was forthcoming. The entire Hungarian Parliament sat in stunned silence, but in evident concurrence with the speaker. 15 The purpose of delving into these two factors, fear and anxiety, it not to overplay their role at the expense of the other components already mentioned, but rather, to point toward the substance of the Hungarian gentry and middle class mentality: Being alone, feeling isolated in the midst of "aliens"--Germans, Slavs, Rumanians-was a source of both real pride and real fear, but fear could never be openly confessed, specifically because of the accompanying sense of pride. This lack of balance, therefore, created an unhealthy atmosphere of irrationality and arrogance, which in turn provoked an equally irrational and arrogant response from the representatives of the nationalities; thus, gradually and tragically, all the bridges were burned. The Slovak "deviation" from Magyar patriotism perhaps hurt the Hungarians the most, because, in spite of the bitter experience of 1848, when many Slovaks sided with the Habsburgs against the Hungarians, the Slovak people were still trusted as the "simple, guileless, and pious little brother" of the "sturdy and powerful" Magyar nation. Treason might well be expected from the "fierce Rae" (Serb), or the "crafty Olah" (Rumanian), but not from a "T6t" (A condescending Magyar word for Slovak). There was no viciousness in the general Hungarian view of the Slovaks, but rather a sense of patronizing benevolence, so charmingly popularized in the novels and short stories of Kalman Mikszath. The alleged Pan-Slav agitation aroused such a great fury exactly because it seemed to disrupt the "idyllic harmony" between Magyar and Slovak which was so deeply rooted in historical tradition and friendly coexistence. There was another side to the coin of benevolent patronization, however. The "T6t" was liked perhaps, but obviously not respected as an equal of the Magyar. Count J6szef Mailath remarked in an otherwise strongly chauvinistic rebuttal to H. W. V. Temperley, the famous British �SLOVAKIA 111 historian, "We must confess that the depreciation of Slovakism, whether in lower or higher circles is 2. thing to which everybody is accustomed in Hungary. There is a saying, a Slovak is no man." 16 What was the response of young educated Slovaks to this general Magyar attitude toward them? Jozef Skultety, a well-known Slovak writer wants us to believe " . .. the Slovak remains true to himself ... he most frequently preserves his soul. He will sooner squeeze another than yield17 ••. the Slovak does not imitate." 18 The facts and figures squarely contradict Skultety: According to one estimate, shortly before World War I, the number of the educated Slovak-oriented families did not exceed five hundred in number. 19 However, should we blame the average Slovak for his eagerness to become a Magyar when all the economic and social advantages were on the Magyar side? The Magyar attitude towards the national minorities in general and towards the Slovaks in particular was racial only in a limited or qualified sense. The Magyar was considered superior and the Slovak inferior, but as soon as the Slovak decided to become a Magyar, he seemingly underwent a miraculous metamorphosis and was accepted 2.:; 2, fuE-fledged member of the Hungarian nation. In Magyar eyes, by his conversion, this neophyte Magyar manifested his maturity and wisdom and acquired all the higher qualities attributed to the Magyars. This belief served then as the foundation for pursuing Magyarization through the schools and churches. Albert Einstein could have never graduated into Nazi Germany's "Herrenvolk," but the son of a nationalist Slovak Lutheran pastor, Pavo! Hojc, could become Pal Hojtsy, a recognized historian, who published a book in 1902, under the title of Great Hungary, the Future Centuries of Hungarian History. Not every "new" Hungarian bothered to change his name even. A famous Catholic bishop Ottokar Prohaszka did not. However, it was not necessarily the sound of the name but the spirit that really counted. Bishop Prohaszka, though progressive in many respects, became one of the leading intellectual and spiritual leaders of the ultra chauvinistic counter-revolutionary movements in Hungary during the 1920's. The following excerpts is from a speech he held before a rightist audience in Budapest, "Beneath the national idea we have �112 SLOVAKIA to sense Magyar Reality, Magyar Blood, Magyar Land, and Magyar Life. But we ought not only to sense all of these -we have to live Magyar destiny." 20 Were these people happy and satisfied with their choice ? We cannot read their minds in retrospect, but there is no reason to assume that they were not. Magyar nationalistic policies could be harsh even brutal at times, but they did not demand an open or public renunciation of the old abandoned language, and an open or public pledge for the new one. Quite surely, thousands and thousands of Slovaks turned into Magyars without the flourish of trumpets and worked quietly and diligently. To call them opportunists would be to expect too much from human nature. For the average Slovak high school graduate, with an absolute proficiency in the Magyar language, the appeal of being accepted as an "adult," and also, of course, of securing positions in the church, schools, civil service, etc., was hard to resist. Perhaps some of the "super-converts" who wished to out-Magyar the most bigoted Magyars could be put out of countenance at times if they-as it always happens with this type-were keen on not only asserting the new but denying and hiding the old. Gyorgy Szmrecsanyi, a member of the Parliament, sounded quite embarrassed when after reading long quotes from Slovak newspapers he was questioned about his ethnic origin by Milan Hodza. 21 Who were the members of the minority, the nationally minded Slovaks? They too were graduates of the Magyar high schools, thus proving, at least partially, the self-defeating nature of Magyarization through education. Out of every hundred "converts" perhaps only a few became "rebels," but these latter could potentially cause a great deal of trouble-as they did in fact-to the idea and practices of a one and only Magyar National State. The commonly shared goal of the Slovak nationalists was not an independent Slovakia or Czecho-Slovakia, but broad Slovak autonomy within Hungary. Matyas Bella, one of the Slovak nationalist representatives in the Hungarian Parliament said, "Should all the national minorities be able to assert themselves within the State of Hungary, then I will welcome that State." 22 In this sense, the members of this group were the Slovak counterparts of the Czech Austro-Slavs. The �SLOVAKIA 113 dominant character of the Slovak nationalist movement in Hungary was conservative and Catholic. The main reason for this trend lay in the fact that most Slovak nationalist leaders emerged from a conservative Catholic background, the religious preference for about two-thirds of the Slovaks, and the major aim of these leaders was to win over the fundamentally conservative and religious peasant masses. Ccnservatism, therefore, functioned both as a source and a purpose. The goal of Slovak autonomy was of such paramount importance that it seemed to override all other ideological considerations, even to the point of apparent inconsistency. Milan Hodza was more than eager to strike a simultaneous alliance with all opposition groups outside the Parliament, the radicals and the socialists, and with the Heir to the Crown, Archduke Francis Ferdinand. There was also heavy E.mphasis laid on cooperation with leaders of other national minorities, especially with the Rumanians, who had more elected representatives in the Hungarian Parliament and had a longer tradition and greater experience in their "battle" against Magyar chauvinism ("The roots of the Little Entente") .23 This Magyar chauvinism was eventually countered by Slovak chauvinism, and it is quite evident that Hodza and his fellow Slovak nationalists spoke one language to their colleagues in the Hungarian Parliament, and another one to their Slovak constituents and reading public. The Parliament was filled with complaints over the "duplicity" of the Slovak nationalists, supported by direct quotes from Budapest-based Slovak newspapers. 24 To what extent was the "dilemma" solved for those who chose the Slovak road? It again could be assumed that the reward of fighting for a cause was satisfying on a personal level. However, it was a frustrating fight, not only because it did not seem to bring substantial results, but also because it was beset by a lack of broad support and by a sense of inner insecurity. One had to prove himself a Slovak in his own right, and this task was most difficult in the midst of an environment, where almost every particle of the atmosphere was saturated with condescension for the "Tot" and suspicion of the Slovak. In this antagonistic atmosphere. emotional attachment �114 SLOVAKIA to all brother Slavs and to "Mother Russia" in particular was an aid to some who declined to succumb to Magyar pressure. The roots of this romantic sentiment reach back to the early-middle 19th century, to Jan Kollar and to :Cudovit sttlr. With the passing of romanticism, cultural Slavophilism turned into political Pan-Slavism, which was frequently a barely concealed instrument of Russian foreign policy. Russia's attention, however, was focused on the Balkans. Thus, Slovak-Russian relations suffered more because of the Russians' lack of interest, rather than from the handicap of geographical barriers. A voice of near fatalistic resignation was struck by the leader of the russophi!e Martin group, Svetozar Hurban-Vajansky in a letter to a Russian friend, " ... ir there is no chance for the Slovaks to live under Russian hegemony, then it would be better for them to vanish altogether." 25 In the eyes of the Martin group, Tsarist Russia could do no wrong. Yet, although most educated Slovaks, with the exception of the Magyarones, shared a vague sense of brotherhood with all other Slavs, active russophilism encountered several stumbling blocks. The oppressive character of the Tsarist regime alienated the Slovak liberals and democrats, while the orthodox zeal of Tsarist officialdom estranged the Slovak Catholic conservatives. Both camps were infuriated by Russia's anti-Polish policy. The liberals and democrats were incensed because the rights of a fellow Slav nation were being violated; the Catholics resented the anti-Catholic policy of the Tsarist government. Consequently, the number of russophiles was limited and their emotional, neo-romantic movement reached an impasse by the early 20th century. There was another alternative left for the young educated Slovak: to turn to the Czechs. Liberals and democrats among the Slovak intelligentsia, clustering around the founders of the journal Hlas, Vavro srobar and Pavol Blaho, were inclined to do so. Yet, the "czechophile" group among the Slovak intellectuals was also relatively small26 and without considerable influence, " ... the main reason why we were so powerless and submissive was that during those long decades we did not look to Czech culture and the idea of Czechoslovak unity as in 1848." 27 - these were the bitter words of Ivan Markovic, a Slovak politician, and �SLOVAKIA 115 a member of several Czecho-Slovak cabinets after 1918. I have used this quote for a very important reason: My contention is that though the logic of the quote is entirely correct, it could and should be used in a reverse sense as well. Certainly, the Slovaks could have learned a great deal of self-assurance and a sense of strength from the Czechs, but one reason why the Slovaks were so reluctant to do so was precisely because of their relative weakness and backwardness. The Slovaks were caught in a vicious circle. A "pilgrimage" to Prague was a sensible thing to do; there was so much to learn there. Such a journey, however, concurred with an open admission of inferiority; one often had to swallow one's pride, and the Czechs did not make this cooperation easy. They too had developed a patronizing attitude towards the Slovaks, the implication of which was mere complex than was the case between Magyar and Slo-• vak. A Slovak, by his own will, could become a full-fledged member of a ruling nation, the Magyars, and an "adult" in lVIagyar society. A Slovak in Prague would most likely remain a Slovak who was not expected to abandon his people but was asked to affiliate. On paper, this latter proposition appears to be_much more humane and democratic. Yet, if an alliance is not maintained as between equals, then being relegated to a subordinate position is worse than not being included in one at all. Perhaps the young educated Slovaks had a foreboding of this predicament, and most of them chose the "easy way" to Budapest, even if that resulted in Pal dropping Pavel and Janos shedding Jan. Had there then ever been any hope for the Slovak intelligentsia in Austria-Hungary? Could they in any way have guided the destiny of Slovakia before 1918? Was there any realistic solution to their dilemma? For some of them yes, but at a price. One group of realists joined the Magyars, at the price of assimilation. Another group of realists associated itself with the Czechs, at the price of a new though more subtle form of subordination. For the russophiles, entrapped by their phantasies, the solution was more a matter of heart than of mind. The ones remaining on the "Slovak path" were thrown back to their own resources, intense in their enthusiasm and faith but incapable of overcoming the heavy odds against them. Therefore, the Slovaks in �116 SLOVAKIA Austria-Hungary had no chance whatever to ignore or cast aside the available options in favor of a universal Slovak solution. Their dilemma weighed on them as their historical heritage, present predicament, and a portent of difficult times to come. FOOTNOTES 1) R. W. Seton-Watson, Slovakia Then and Now (London, 1931), pp. 2526. 2) Jan Sveton, Die Slowaken in Ungarn (Bratislava, 1943). Steph en Janak, "The Land Question in Slovakia," The Slavonic Review, VIII (1930). 3) Ar.nuaire Statistique Hongrois, Budapest, L'Office Central De Statistique Du Royaume de Hongrie, 1915. 4) Robert Kann, The Multinational Empire (New York, 1969), I, 271. 5) Oszkar Jaszi, The Dissolution of the Habsburg Monarchy (Chicago, 1931), p. 323. 6) Ibid. , p. 319. 7 ) In this regard , the views of Count J6zsef Mailath, a Magyar artistocrat, were characteristic of the general Hungarian public opinion. M, ilath contended that ,e ven if the changes of forced Magyarization were true, they would really l:le invalid, since the Law acknowledged only one Hungarian national state, and not the existence of Slovak, Rumanian, Serbian, and Ruthenian nations within the borders of Hungary. Joseph Graf Mailath, Hungarica Res (Berlin, 1908), p. 22. 8) Quoted by Jaszi, op. cit., p. 321. 9) Paul Teleki, Count, The Evolution of Hungary and its Place in History (New York, 1923), pp. 155-156. 10) Ibid., p. 161 and p. 173. 11) Guyla Szekfti, Harom Nemzedek (The Three Generations), (Budapest, 1920), p. 261. 12) Lajos Steier, A T6t Ker-des (The Slovak Problem) (Lipt6szentmikl6s, 1912), I, 1. 13) Ibid., p. 160. 14) Orszaggyules-Nyomtatvanyai-Kepviselohaz-Napl6 (The Stenographic Proceedings of the Hungarian Parliament) XIII, 102. October 30, 1907. 15) Ibid., pp. 111-112. 16) " Racial Strife in Hungary" - a Reply to H. W. V. Temperley by Count Joseph Mailath. The Westminster Review, CLXX (1908), 30. 17 ) Joseph Skultety, Sketches from Slovak History (Middletown, 1930), p. 160. 18) Ibid. , p . 193. 19) Th. J. G. Locher, Die Nationale Differenzierung und Integrierung der Slowaken und Tschechen in Ihren Geschichtlichen Verlauf bis 1848 (Haarlem, 1931), p. 197. �SLOVAKIA 117 20 ) Ottokar Prohaszka , A Nacionalizmusr6l (About Nationalism) (Budapest, 1925), p. 61. 21) Orszaggyiiles-Nyomtatvanyai-Kepvise l5h6.z-Napl6, VII, 424, February 18, 1907. 22) Ibid., I, 284. July 7, 1906. 23) Milan Hodza, Federation in Central Europe (New York, 1942), p. 40. 24 ) One example: Speech by Gyorgy Szmrecsanyi. Orszaggyules-Nyomtatvanyai-Kepvisel5h6.z-Napl6, VII, 411-417. February 16, 1907. 25 ) Vladislav Stastny, ed., Slovanstvi v narodnim zivote techu a Slovaku (Praha , 1968), p. 328. 26 ) Ludwig vo n Gogolak, Beitriige zur Geschichte des slowakischen Volkes (Mtinchen, 1963 ), p. 98. 27 ) Seton-Watson, op. cit., p. 93. * * * Centennial of Slovak Health Spas in the Tatra Mountains Rev. Andrew V. Pier, O.S.B. This year (1975) marks the 100th anniversary of public establishment of the now famous health centers in two High Tatra regions, namely, Novy Smokovec and strbske Pleso, and at Lucivna, located at the northern end of the Low Tatra mountains in Slovakia. At Novy Smokovec located at the foot of the forested slope leading upward to the Slavkovsky peak was the first Slovak health resort set aside for tuberculosis patients a hundred years ago. The low humidity, year-round sunshine and intense ultra-violet radiation, crisp atmosphere at the high altitude of some 8,000 feet, low atmospheric pressure .. . these health factors lend themselves to a natural center for the relief and cure of not only pulmonary ailments and chronic respiratory troubles, but contribute greatly to the cure of diseases of the thyroid gland and various neuroses. For the healthy Novy Smokovec is a natural winter sports' resort and a tourist attraction the rest of the year. Accommodations are modest but adequate. � SLOVAKIA 105 The Slovak Dilemma Ln Austria-Hungary* Gabor V e r m e s Rutgers University, Dept. of History At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, the educated middle class Slovak in Austria-Hungary found himself enmeshed in a multiple identity crisis. He could remain a Slovak and thus limit his chance for any meaningful participation in the Hungarian Establishment; he could ally himself with the Czechs as a junior partner; he could indulge in an illusionary alliance with Russia; or he could abandon his Slovak identity and become a Magyar. This dilemma weighed most heavily upon members of the Slovak intelligentsia because their status in Hungarian society was contingent upon the choice they made. Yet, the survival of the entire Slovak nation was thought to be in question. Almost all the Slovak and pro-Slovak literati declaimed inevitable doom and prophesized the gradual extinction of the Slovaks. Robert Seton-Watson spoke of the virtual destruction of Slovak nationality, and concluded, " ... especially after the notorious Education Act of Count Albert Apponyi in 1907, the process of Magyarization was advancing by leaps and bounds, in particular along the Southern linguistic frontier ... The victim was rescued just in time." 1 The question arises then: Can an entire people vanish, in modern times, by the superimposition of powerful outside forces? Was the feeling of doom justified as far as ,:, NOTE: We are publishing this article on the recommendation of Prof. J . M. Kirschbaum, concerning an exchange of views on the Slovak question in Austria-Hungary as a precondition for preparing a better future for all nations of Central Europe. Professor Vermes' conclusions are not identical with Slovak views but he presents a serious and well documented attempt at an objective analysis from the Hungarian point of view. The editor �106 SLOVAKIA the Slovaks were concerned? The statistics are inexorable, and they do se6m to indicate a gradual erosion in the number of Slovaks still maintaining their national identity.2 The pull of Magyarization was especially strong among the Slovak educated middle class; very understandably, this caused the gravest concern to the nationalist Slovaks. The nationalist group was also greatly concerned over the large scale emigration of Slovak peasants who left the Tatra Mountains to settle in the adjoining territories which were inhabited by the Magyars or by a mixed population. The peasants also migrated to the big cities, to Budapest in particular, and a considerable number emigrated to America. Yet a revealing comparison between the number of Slovaks who could speak only their native tongue in 1900 and the same category in 1910 shows that a sizable segment remained Slovak.3 In the isolated hamlets and villages of the Tatra, the population remained Slovak, not because of any conscious or deliberate effort to assert themselves as such, but because they lived in homogeneous compact groups. Magyar power reached them only through various types of county officials, and through the school teachers, but even if the little pupil learned to mutter a few sentences in Hungarian, most likely he disposed of them at home with a natural sense of relief. The anticipated diminution of the intellectual elite, therefore, did not seem to conflict with the simultaneous preservation of a less sophisticated stratum of society much less exposed to alien influences. Thus, the usage of the term extinction becomes somewhat exaggerated and overly pessimistic. The Slovak peasantry, provided they were ignorant and indifferent to any kind of cause, including that of Slovak nationalism, could still be considered a bulwark against national self-annihilation and perhaps even as a reservoir of a future Slovak national renaissance. The reasons for the Slovak predicament are fairly well-known. 4 The two basic factors were their early loss of independence to the Hungarians in the 9th-10th centuries A.D. and their sparse expansion over their poor and mountainous terrain. Beginning in the mid-19th century, two additional components were added. One was the disadvantage resulting from the absence of an independent Czech or ~lovak state. (This was a disadvantage in comparison �SLOVAKIA 107 with the Austro-Rumanian and Austro-Serbian position, strengthened by the existence of an independent Rumania and Serbia) . The other factor in the Slovaks' plight was the clash between two adverse national egos, the Magyar and the Slovak. As long as the Monarchy lasted, Magyar nationalism gained the upper hand, not because of any inherent superior quality but as a natural consequence of a superior power, superior in the political, social, and economic sense, and even in the psychological sphere of self-assurance. Hungary had much to be proud of by the second half of the 19th century. It had grown from a backward agricultural country into a relatively advanced agricultural-industrial state. After an unsuccessful revolution in 1848-1849, astute negotiations aided by fortuitous circumstances led to equal partnership with Austria in 1867. Hungary became an integral part of a dualist system which maintained its great power status up to the very end of its existence, in spite of its inner weaknesses . In 1896, prosperity, though unevenly shared, and optimism, though not unanimous, exploded into the pageantry of the Milleneum, the one-thousandth anniversary of Hungary's existence. The country-gentry was the major conveyor of this festive spirit. In their patriotic fervor they were supported by an urban middle class, consisting partly of their own kin, partly of the remnants of the old German burgher class, and partly by a growing number of Jews . Quite often members of these two latter groups turned into more zealous Magyars than the Magyars themselves . Jeno Rakosi, of German origin, was the wellknown editor of the Budapest Hirlap; he coined the slogan of "A Great Hungary of 30 million Magyars," 5 and his Jewish journalist colleagues backed him up with unfaltering ardor. The gentry, however, though deeply entrenched in their strongholds, the administrations of state and counties, was no longer the liberal generation of 1848. As Oszkar Jaszi pointed out, this gentry, by losing its economic power, and somewhat bewildered by the complexities of a new emerging urban-commercial-industrial society, compensated for its growing insecurity with an ever strengthening assertion of national superiority .6 In order to justify this superiority and persevere in it, the gentry stubbornly �108 SLOVAKIA maintained its traditional, legal-political arguments, to the point of referring to the "Law" even when actual injustice was admitted. 7 The Fundamental Law, to which constant reference was made, was considered historical by the Magyar ruling classes, and was based on their rights by virtue of the Magyar conquest. Even such a recognized moderate as Kalman Szell (Prime Minister of Hungary, 1899-1903) asserted, "The Magyars have conquered this country for themselves and not for others. The supremacy and hegemony of the Magyars is fully justified." 8 No one would deny the exceptions to this rule. The impact of Ferenc Deak and Baron J6zsef Eotvos, the great Hungarian liberal statesmen, was still evident upon the creation of the Nationality Law of 1868, which granted extensive cultural rights to the non-Magyar nationalities, though it stopped short of acknowledging their existence as separate legal-political entities. In his exile, Lajos Kossuth changed from an intolerant chauvinist into the champion of a Danubian Federation, and he had a faithful disciple in Hungary in the person of Lajos Mocsary. In later years, preceding World War I, Ozskar Jaszi, a sociologist and politician of radical-leftist leanings, was sympathetically inclined to the course providing genuine equality between Magyars and non-Magyars. These and several other exceptions notwithstanding, most Magyars were indifferent at best, and outrightly hostile at worst, to the national aspirations, demands, and needs of their fellow non-Magyar citizens. The consequences of such attitudes were examined even by the conservative school of Hungarian historians. Count Pal Teleki recognized the impossibility of creating a unified Hungarian nation through enforced assimilation,9 and in addition he blamed the innumerable blunders of the Magyarization efforts on Magyar inconsistency and Magyar administrative inefficiency. 10 Accordin'5 to Gyula Szekfu, the process of Magyarization was detrimental because it corroded the Hungarian nation's moral fibre, yet it was not the "fearsome and bloodthirsty monster of Jaszi and Seton-Watson, but a childish construction, a plaything, and an unrealizable and overly emotional postulate, doing more harm to the Magyars, than to their nationalities." 11 Thus, behind the apparently rigid and legal pedantry �SLOVAKIA 109 of the Magyar public, it has not been hard to discover the emotional content, reflecting frustrations and childlike wishful thinking. To be sure, these elements were of considerable weight. However, at least equal stress should be laid on other factors as well, such as anxiety and fear of being encircled and outnumbered and consequently, of being eventually engulfed and annihilated. That fear and anxiety were never expressed in these pessimistic terms, but rather in their psychological reverse: The Hungarian nation would never perish, because of its power, its eagerness to grow from 10 to 30 million if possible, and because of its readiness to absorb all non-Magyars by all means available. Yet behind this fagade of self-confidence, fear and anxiety lurked, often in near paranoic dimensions. Lajos Steier, a Hungarian "expert" on the Slovaks, sounded the alarm hysterically, " ... Magyar hegemony, national unity, and our Fatherland are in mortal danger!" 12 Regardless of the validity of his anxiety, his proficiency in the affairs of Slovak-Magyar relations provided him with enough foresight to see the "danger" in a Czech-Slovak rapprochement. 13 Most Hungarians, however, were content to release their fear and anxiety in their ch~se of an all-encompassing yet amorphous scarecrow, Pan-Slavism, which was not understood properly at all, but was used as a charge both against bomb-throwing anarchists and totally harmless literati, attributing dark conspiratorial machinations to both. Hungarian gendarmes killed and wounded several Slovaks at the village of cernova, on October 27, 1907. The reason for the unrest was the punitive actions taken against cernova's Slovak nationalist priest, Father Andrej Hlinka by his Magyarone superiors in the Catholic hierarchy. The massacre was followed by stormy sessions in the Hungarian Parliament. Milan Hodza, one of the seven nationalist Slovak members, was accused of paving the way for the massacre through his agitation, and some of his Magyar colleagues called him "Assassin! ... rotten agitator!" 14 The Magyar representative from the district of cernova, bdon Beni9zky, painted a picture of Slovak agitation, a picture, which could have taken a rightful place in Dante's Inferno. He talked of the once pious Slovaks throwing rocks at every coach owned by Hungarian gentlemen, about Slovak agitators going around the villages, spreading news of �110 SLOVAKIA Hungarians taking Slovak children away during the night and taking them down to the Great Hungarian Plain in order to make good Magyars out of them; he conveyed the impression that Slovak peasants were ready to grab an axe and resort to unbridled violence. Hodza demanded proof, but none was forthcoming. The entire Hungarian Parliament sat in stunned silence, but in evident concurrence with the speaker. 15 The purpose of delving into these two factors, fear and anxiety, it not to overplay their role at the expense of the other components already mentioned, but rather, to point toward the substance of the Hungarian gentry and middle class mentality: Being alone, feeling isolated in the midst of "aliens"--Germans, Slavs, Rumanians-was a source of both real pride and real fear, but fear could never be openly confessed, specifically because of the accompanying sense of pride. This lack of balance, therefore, created an unhealthy atmosphere of irrationality and arrogance, which in turn provoked an equally irrational and arrogant response from the representatives of the nationalities; thus, gradually and tragically, all the bridges were burned. The Slovak "deviation" from Magyar patriotism perhaps hurt the Hungarians the most, because, in spite of the bitter experience of 1848, when many Slovaks sided with the Habsburgs against the Hungarians, the Slovak people were still trusted as the "simple, guileless, and pious little brother" of the "sturdy and powerful" Magyar nation. Treason might well be expected from the "fierce Rae" (Serb), or the "crafty Olah" (Rumanian), but not from a "T6t" (A condescending Magyar word for Slovak). There was no viciousness in the general Hungarian view of the Slovaks, but rather a sense of patronizing benevolence, so charmingly popularized in the novels and short stories of Kalman Mikszath. The alleged Pan-Slav agitation aroused such a great fury exactly because it seemed to disrupt the "idyllic harmony" between Magyar and Slovak which was so deeply rooted in historical tradition and friendly coexistence. There was another side to the coin of benevolent patronization, however. The "T6t" was liked perhaps, but obviously not respected as an equal of the Magyar. Count J6szef Mailath remarked in an otherwise strongly chauvinistic rebuttal to H. W. V. Temperley, the famous British �SLOVAKIA 111 historian, "We must confess that the depreciation of Slovakism, whether in lower or higher circles is 2. thing to which everybody is accustomed in Hungary. There is a saying, a Slovak is no man." 16 What was the response of young educated Slovaks to this general Magyar attitude toward them? Jozef Skultety, a well-known Slovak writer wants us to believe " . .. the Slovak remains true to himself ... he most frequently preserves his soul. He will sooner squeeze another than yield17 ••. the Slovak does not imitate." 18 The facts and figures squarely contradict Skultety: According to one estimate, shortly before World War I, the number of the educated Slovak-oriented families did not exceed five hundred in number. 19 However, should we blame the average Slovak for his eagerness to become a Magyar when all the economic and social advantages were on the Magyar side? The Magyar attitude towards the national minorities in general and towards the Slovaks in particular was racial only in a limited or qualified sense. The Magyar was considered superior and the Slovak inferior, but as soon as the Slovak decided to become a Magyar, he seemingly underwent a miraculous metamorphosis and was accepted 2.:; 2, fuE-fledged member of the Hungarian nation. In Magyar eyes, by his conversion, this neophyte Magyar manifested his maturity and wisdom and acquired all the higher qualities attributed to the Magyars. This belief served then as the foundation for pursuing Magyarization through the schools and churches. Albert Einstein could have never graduated into Nazi Germany's "Herrenvolk," but the son of a nationalist Slovak Lutheran pastor, Pavo! Hojc, could become Pal Hojtsy, a recognized historian, who published a book in 1902, under the title of Great Hungary, the Future Centuries of Hungarian History. Not every "new" Hungarian bothered to change his name even. A famous Catholic bishop Ottokar Prohaszka did not. However, it was not necessarily the sound of the name but the spirit that really counted. Bishop Prohaszka, though progressive in many respects, became one of the leading intellectual and spiritual leaders of the ultra chauvinistic counter-revolutionary movements in Hungary during the 1920's. The following excerpts is from a speech he held before a rightist audience in Budapest, "Beneath the national idea we have �112 SLOVAKIA to sense Magyar Reality, Magyar Blood, Magyar Land, and Magyar Life. But we ought not only to sense all of these -we have to live Magyar destiny." 20 Were these people happy and satisfied with their choice ? We cannot read their minds in retrospect, but there is no reason to assume that they were not. Magyar nationalistic policies could be harsh even brutal at times, but they did not demand an open or public renunciation of the old abandoned language, and an open or public pledge for the new one. Quite surely, thousands and thousands of Slovaks turned into Magyars without the flourish of trumpets and worked quietly and diligently. To call them opportunists would be to expect too much from human nature. For the average Slovak high school graduate, with an absolute proficiency in the Magyar language, the appeal of being accepted as an "adult," and also, of course, of securing positions in the church, schools, civil service, etc., was hard to resist. Perhaps some of the "super-converts" who wished to out-Magyar the most bigoted Magyars could be put out of countenance at times if they-as it always happens with this type-were keen on not only asserting the new but denying and hiding the old. Gyorgy Szmrecsanyi, a member of the Parliament, sounded quite embarrassed when after reading long quotes from Slovak newspapers he was questioned about his ethnic origin by Milan Hodza. 21 Who were the members of the minority, the nationally minded Slovaks? They too were graduates of the Magyar high schools, thus proving, at least partially, the self-defeating nature of Magyarization through education. Out of every hundred "converts" perhaps only a few became "rebels," but these latter could potentially cause a great deal of trouble-as they did in fact-to the idea and practices of a one and only Magyar National State. The commonly shared goal of the Slovak nationalists was not an independent Slovakia or Czecho-Slovakia, but broad Slovak autonomy within Hungary. Matyas Bella, one of the Slovak nationalist representatives in the Hungarian Parliament said, "Should all the national minorities be able to assert themselves within the State of Hungary, then I will welcome that State." 22 In this sense, the members of this group were the Slovak counterparts of the Czech Austro-Slavs. The �SLOVAKIA 113 dominant character of the Slovak nationalist movement in Hungary was conservative and Catholic. The main reason for this trend lay in the fact that most Slovak nationalist leaders emerged from a conservative Catholic background, the religious preference for about two-thirds of the Slovaks, and the major aim of these leaders was to win over the fundamentally conservative and religious peasant masses. Ccnservatism, therefore, functioned both as a source and a purpose. The goal of Slovak autonomy was of such paramount importance that it seemed to override all other ideological considerations, even to the point of apparent inconsistency. Milan Hodza was more than eager to strike a simultaneous alliance with all opposition groups outside the Parliament, the radicals and the socialists, and with the Heir to the Crown, Archduke Francis Ferdinand. There was also heavy E.mphasis laid on cooperation with leaders of other national minorities, especially with the Rumanians, who had more elected representatives in the Hungarian Parliament and had a longer tradition and greater experience in their "battle" against Magyar chauvinism ("The roots of the Little Entente") .23 This Magyar chauvinism was eventually countered by Slovak chauvinism, and it is quite evident that Hodza and his fellow Slovak nationalists spoke one language to their colleagues in the Hungarian Parliament, and another one to their Slovak constituents and reading public. The Parliament was filled with complaints over the "duplicity" of the Slovak nationalists, supported by direct quotes from Budapest-based Slovak newspapers. 24 To what extent was the "dilemma" solved for those who chose the Slovak road? It again could be assumed that the reward of fighting for a cause was satisfying on a personal level. However, it was a frustrating fight, not only because it did not seem to bring substantial results, but also because it was beset by a lack of broad support and by a sense of inner insecurity. One had to prove himself a Slovak in his own right, and this task was most difficult in the midst of an environment, where almost every particle of the atmosphere was saturated with condescension for the "Tot" and suspicion of the Slovak. In this antagonistic atmosphere. emotional attachment �114 SLOVAKIA to all brother Slavs and to "Mother Russia" in particular was an aid to some who declined to succumb to Magyar pressure. The roots of this romantic sentiment reach back to the early-middle 19th century, to Jan Kollar and to :Cudovit sttlr. With the passing of romanticism, cultural Slavophilism turned into political Pan-Slavism, which was frequently a barely concealed instrument of Russian foreign policy. Russia's attention, however, was focused on the Balkans. Thus, Slovak-Russian relations suffered more because of the Russians' lack of interest, rather than from the handicap of geographical barriers. A voice of near fatalistic resignation was struck by the leader of the russophi!e Martin group, Svetozar Hurban-Vajansky in a letter to a Russian friend, " ... ir there is no chance for the Slovaks to live under Russian hegemony, then it would be better for them to vanish altogether." 25 In the eyes of the Martin group, Tsarist Russia could do no wrong. Yet, although most educated Slovaks, with the exception of the Magyarones, shared a vague sense of brotherhood with all other Slavs, active russophilism encountered several stumbling blocks. The oppressive character of the Tsarist regime alienated the Slovak liberals and democrats, while the orthodox zeal of Tsarist officialdom estranged the Slovak Catholic conservatives. Both camps were infuriated by Russia's anti-Polish policy. The liberals and democrats were incensed because the rights of a fellow Slav nation were being violated; the Catholics resented the anti-Catholic policy of the Tsarist government. Consequently, the number of russophiles was limited and their emotional, neo-romantic movement reached an impasse by the early 20th century. There was another alternative left for the young educated Slovak: to turn to the Czechs. Liberals and democrats among the Slovak intelligentsia, clustering around the founders of the journal Hlas, Vavro srobar and Pavol Blaho, were inclined to do so. Yet, the "czechophile" group among the Slovak intellectuals was also relatively small26 and without considerable influence, " ... the main reason why we were so powerless and submissive was that during those long decades we did not look to Czech culture and the idea of Czechoslovak unity as in 1848." 27 - these were the bitter words of Ivan Markovic, a Slovak politician, and �SLOVAKIA 115 a member of several Czecho-Slovak cabinets after 1918. I have used this quote for a very important reason: My contention is that though the logic of the quote is entirely correct, it could and should be used in a reverse sense as well. Certainly, the Slovaks could have learned a great deal of self-assurance and a sense of strength from the Czechs, but one reason why the Slovaks were so reluctant to do so was precisely because of their relative weakness and backwardness. The Slovaks were caught in a vicious circle. A "pilgrimage" to Prague was a sensible thing to do; there was so much to learn there. Such a journey, however, concurred with an open admission of inferiority; one often had to swallow one's pride, and the Czechs did not make this cooperation easy. They too had developed a patronizing attitude towards the Slovaks, the implication of which was mere complex than was the case between Magyar and Slo-• vak. A Slovak, by his own will, could become a full-fledged member of a ruling nation, the Magyars, and an "adult" in lVIagyar society. A Slovak in Prague would most likely remain a Slovak who was not expected to abandon his people but was asked to affiliate. On paper, this latter proposition appears to be_much more humane and democratic. Yet, if an alliance is not maintained as between equals, then being relegated to a subordinate position is worse than not being included in one at all. Perhaps the young educated Slovaks had a foreboding of this predicament, and most of them chose the "easy way" to Budapest, even if that resulted in Pal dropping Pavel and Janos shedding Jan. Had there then ever been any hope for the Slovak intelligentsia in Austria-Hungary? Could they in any way have guided the destiny of Slovakia before 1918? Was there any realistic solution to their dilemma? For some of them yes, but at a price. One group of realists joined the Magyars, at the price of assimilation. Another group of realists associated itself with the Czechs, at the price of a new though more subtle form of subordination. For the russophiles, entrapped by their phantasies, the solution was more a matter of heart than of mind. The ones remaining on the "Slovak path" were thrown back to their own resources, intense in their enthusiasm and faith but incapable of overcoming the heavy odds against them. Therefore, the Slovaks in �116 SLOVAKIA Austria-Hungary had no chance whatever to ignore or cast aside the available options in favor of a universal Slovak solution. Their dilemma weighed on them as their historical heritage, present predicament, and a portent of difficult times to come. FOOTNOTES 1) R. W. Seton-Watson, Slovakia Then and Now (London, 1931), pp. 2526. 2) Jan Sveton, Die Slowaken in Ungarn (Bratislava, 1943). Steph en Janak, "The Land Question in Slovakia," The Slavonic Review, VIII (1930). 3) Ar.nuaire Statistique Hongrois, Budapest, L'Office Central De Statistique Du Royaume de Hongrie, 1915. 4) Robert Kann, The Multinational Empire (New York, 1969), I, 271. 5) Oszkar Jaszi, The Dissolution of the Habsburg Monarchy (Chicago, 1931), p. 323. 6) Ibid. , p. 319. 7 ) In this regard , the views of Count J6zsef Mailath, a Magyar artistocrat, were characteristic of the general Hungarian public opinion. M, ilath contended that ,e ven if the changes of forced Magyarization were true, they would really l:le invalid, since the Law acknowledged only one Hungarian national state, and not the existence of Slovak, Rumanian, Serbian, and Ruthenian nations within the borders of Hungary. Joseph Graf Mailath, Hungarica Res (Berlin, 1908), p. 22. 8) Quoted by Jaszi, op. cit., p. 321. 9) Paul Teleki, Count, The Evolution of Hungary and its Place in History (New York, 1923), pp. 155-156. 10) Ibid., p. 161 and p. 173. 11) Guyla Szekfti, Harom Nemzedek (The Three Generations), (Budapest, 1920), p. 261. 12) Lajos Steier, A T6t Ker-des (The Slovak Problem) (Lipt6szentmikl6s, 1912), I, 1. 13) Ibid., p. 160. 14) Orszaggyules-Nyomtatvanyai-Kepviselohaz-Napl6 (The Stenographic Proceedings of the Hungarian Parliament) XIII, 102. October 30, 1907. 15) Ibid., pp. 111-112. 16) " Racial Strife in Hungary" - a Reply to H. W. V. Temperley by Count Joseph Mailath. The Westminster Review, CLXX (1908), 30. 17 ) Joseph Skultety, Sketches from Slovak History (Middletown, 1930), p. 160. 18) Ibid. , p . 193. 19) Th. J. G. Locher, Die Nationale Differenzierung und Integrierung der Slowaken und Tschechen in Ihren Geschichtlichen Verlauf bis 1848 (Haarlem, 1931), p. 197. �SLOVAKIA 117 20 ) Ottokar Prohaszka , A Nacionalizmusr6l (About Nationalism) (Budapest, 1925), p. 61. 21) Orszaggyiiles-Nyomtatvanyai-Kepvise l5h6.z-Napl6, VII, 424, February 18, 1907. 22) Ibid., I, 284. July 7, 1906. 23) Milan Hodza, Federation in Central Europe (New York, 1942), p. 40. 24 ) One example: Speech by Gyorgy Szmrecsanyi. Orszaggyules-Nyomtatvanyai-Kepvisel5h6.z-Napl6, VII, 411-417. February 16, 1907. 25 ) Vladislav Stastny, ed., Slovanstvi v narodnim zivote techu a Slovaku (Praha , 1968), p. 328. 26 ) Ludwig vo n Gogolak, Beitriige zur Geschichte des slowakischen Volkes (Mtinchen, 1963 ), p. 98. 27 ) Seton-Watson, op. cit., p. 93. * * * Centennial of Slovak Health Spas in the Tatra Mountains Rev. Andrew V. Pier, O.S.B. This year (1975) marks the 100th anniversary of public establishment of the now famous health centers in two High Tatra regions, namely, Novy Smokovec and strbske Pleso, and at Lucivna, located at the northern end of the Low Tatra mountains in Slovakia. At Novy Smokovec located at the foot of the forested slope leading upward to the Slavkovsky peak was the first Slovak health resort set aside for tuberculosis patients a hundred years ago. The low humidity, year-round sunshine and intense ultra-violet radiation, crisp atmosphere at the high altitude of some 8,000 feet, low atmospheric pressure .. . these health factors lend themselves to a natural center for the relief and cure of not only pulmonary ailments and chronic respiratory troubles, but contribute greatly to the cure of diseases of the thyroid gland and various neuroses. For the healthy Novy Smokovec is a natural winter sports' resort and a tourist attraction the rest of the year. Accommodations are modest but adequate. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1975, Vol. 25 Description An account of the resource Vol. 25 (No. 48), 1975. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1975 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document SLOVAKIA 105 The Slovak Dilemma Ln Austria-Hungary* Gabor V e r m e s Rutgers University, Dept. of History At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, the educated middle class Slovak in Austria-Hungary found himself enmeshed in a multiple identity crisis. He could remain a Slovak and thus limit his chance for any meaningful participation in the Hungarian Establishment; he could ally himself with the Czechs as a junior partner; he could indulge in an illusionary alliance with Russia; or he could abandon his Slovak identity and become a Magyar. This dilemma weighed most heavily upon members of the Slovak intelligentsia because their status in Hungarian society was contingent upon the choice they made. Yet, the survival of the entire Slovak nation was thought to be in question. Almost all the Slovak and pro-Slovak literati declaimed inevitable doom and prophesized the gradual extinction of the Slovaks. Robert Seton-Watson spoke of the virtual destruction of Slovak nationality, and concluded, " ... especially after the notorious Education Act of Count Albert Apponyi in 1907, the process of Magyarization was advancing by leaps and bounds, in particular along the Southern linguistic frontier ... The victim was rescued just in time." 1 The question arises then: Can an entire people vanish, in modern times, by the superimposition of powerful outside forces? Was the feeling of doom justified as far as ,:, NOTE: We are publishing this article on the recommendation of Prof. J . M. Kirschbaum, concerning an exchange of views on the Slovak question in Austria-Hungary as a precondition for preparing a better future for all nations of Central Europe. Professor Vermes' conclusions are not identical with Slovak views but he presents a serious and well documented attempt at an objective analysis from the Hungarian point of view. The editor 106 SLOVAKIA the Slovaks were concerned? The statistics are inexorable, and they do se6m to indicate a gradual erosion in the number of Slovaks still maintaining their national identity.2 The pull of Magyarization was especially strong among the Slovak educated middle class; very understandably, this caused the gravest concern to the nationalist Slovaks. The nationalist group was also greatly concerned over the large scale emigration of Slovak peasants who left the Tatra Mountains to settle in the adjoining territories which were inhabited by the Magyars or by a mixed population. The peasants also migrated to the big cities, to Budapest in particular, and a considerable number emigrated to America. Yet a revealing comparison between the number of Slovaks who could speak only their native tongue in 1900 and the same category in 1910 shows that a sizable segment remained Slovak.3 In the isolated hamlets and villages of the Tatra, the population remained Slovak, not because of any conscious or deliberate effort to assert themselves as such, but because they lived in homogeneous compact groups. Magyar power reached them only through various types of county officials, and through the school teachers, but even if the little pupil learned to mutter a few sentences in Hungarian, most likely he disposed of them at home with a natural sense of relief. The anticipated diminution of the intellectual elite, therefore, did not seem to conflict with the simultaneous preservation of a less sophisticated stratum of society much less exposed to alien influences. Thus, the usage of the term extinction becomes somewhat exaggerated and overly pessimistic. The Slovak peasantry, provided they were ignorant and indifferent to any kind of cause, including that of Slovak nationalism, could still be considered a bulwark against national self-annihilation and perhaps even as a reservoir of a future Slovak national renaissance. The reasons for the Slovak predicament are fairly well-known. 4 The two basic factors were their early loss of independence to the Hungarians in the 9th-10th centuries A.D. and their sparse expansion over their poor and mountainous terrain. Beginning in the mid-19th century, two additional components were added. One was the disadvantage resulting from the absence of an independent Czech or ~lovak state. (This was a disadvantage in comparison SLOVAKIA 107 with the Austro-Rumanian and Austro-Serbian position, strengthened by the existence of an independent Rumania and Serbia) . The other factor in the Slovaks' plight was the clash between two adverse national egos, the Magyar and the Slovak. As long as the Monarchy lasted, Magyar nationalism gained the upper hand, not because of any inherent superior quality but as a natural consequence of a superior power, superior in the political, social, and economic sense, and even in the psychological sphere of self-assurance. Hungary had much to be proud of by the second half of the 19th century. It had grown from a backward agricultural country into a relatively advanced agricultural-industrial state. After an unsuccessful revolution in 1848-1849, astute negotiations aided by fortuitous circumstances led to equal partnership with Austria in 1867. Hungary became an integral part of a dualist system which maintained its great power status up to the very end of its existence, in spite of its inner weaknesses . In 1896, prosperity, though unevenly shared, and optimism, though not unanimous, exploded into the pageantry of the Milleneum, the one-thousandth anniversary of Hungary's existence. The country-gentry was the major conveyor of this festive spirit. In their patriotic fervor they were supported by an urban middle class, consisting partly of their own kin, partly of the remnants of the old German burgher class, and partly by a growing number of Jews . Quite often members of these two latter groups turned into more zealous Magyars than the Magyars themselves . Jeno Rakosi, of German origin, was the wellknown editor of the Budapest Hirlap; he coined the slogan of "A Great Hungary of 30 million Magyars," 5 and his Jewish journalist colleagues backed him up with unfaltering ardor. The gentry, however, though deeply entrenched in their strongholds, the administrations of state and counties, was no longer the liberal generation of 1848. As Oszkar Jaszi pointed out, this gentry, by losing its economic power, and somewhat bewildered by the complexities of a new emerging urban-commercial-industrial society, compensated for its growing insecurity with an ever strengthening assertion of national superiority .6 In order to justify this superiority and persevere in it, the gentry stubbornly 108 SLOVAKIA maintained its traditional, legal-political arguments, to the point of referring to the "Law" even when actual injustice was admitted. 7 The Fundamental Law, to which constant reference was made, was considered historical by the Magyar ruling classes, and was based on their rights by virtue of the Magyar conquest. Even such a recognized moderate as Kalman Szell (Prime Minister of Hungary, 1899-1903) asserted, "The Magyars have conquered this country for themselves and not for others. The supremacy and hegemony of the Magyars is fully justified." 8 No one would deny the exceptions to this rule. The impact of Ferenc Deak and Baron J6zsef Eotvos, the great Hungarian liberal statesmen, was still evident upon the creation of the Nationality Law of 1868, which granted extensive cultural rights to the non-Magyar nationalities, though it stopped short of acknowledging their existence as separate legal-political entities. In his exile, Lajos Kossuth changed from an intolerant chauvinist into the champion of a Danubian Federation, and he had a faithful disciple in Hungary in the person of Lajos Mocsary. In later years, preceding World War I, Ozskar Jaszi, a sociologist and politician of radical-leftist leanings, was sympathetically inclined to the course providing genuine equality between Magyars and non-Magyars. These and several other exceptions notwithstanding, most Magyars were indifferent at best, and outrightly hostile at worst, to the national aspirations, demands, and needs of their fellow non-Magyar citizens. The consequences of such attitudes were examined even by the conservative school of Hungarian historians. Count Pal Teleki recognized the impossibility of creating a unified Hungarian nation through enforced assimilation,9 and in addition he blamed the innumerable blunders of the Magyarization efforts on Magyar inconsistency and Magyar administrative inefficiency. 10 Accordin'5 to Gyula Szekfu, the process of Magyarization was detrimental because it corroded the Hungarian nation's moral fibre, yet it was not the "fearsome and bloodthirsty monster of Jaszi and Seton-Watson, but a childish construction, a plaything, and an unrealizable and overly emotional postulate, doing more harm to the Magyars, than to their nationalities." 11 Thus, behind the apparently rigid and legal pedantry SLOVAKIA 109 of the Magyar public, it has not been hard to discover the emotional content, reflecting frustrations and childlike wishful thinking. To be sure, these elements were of considerable weight. However, at least equal stress should be laid on other factors as well, such as anxiety and fear of being encircled and outnumbered and consequently, of being eventually engulfed and annihilated. That fear and anxiety were never expressed in these pessimistic terms, but rather in their psychological reverse: The Hungarian nation would never perish, because of its power, its eagerness to grow from 10 to 30 million if possible, and because of its readiness to absorb all non-Magyars by all means available. Yet behind this fagade of self-confidence, fear and anxiety lurked, often in near paranoic dimensions. Lajos Steier, a Hungarian "expert" on the Slovaks, sounded the alarm hysterically, " ... Magyar hegemony, national unity, and our Fatherland are in mortal danger!" 12 Regardless of the validity of his anxiety, his proficiency in the affairs of Slovak-Magyar relations provided him with enough foresight to see the "danger" in a Czech-Slovak rapprochement. 13 Most Hungarians, however, were content to release their fear and anxiety in their ch~se of an all-encompassing yet amorphous scarecrow, Pan-Slavism, which was not understood properly at all, but was used as a charge both against bomb-throwing anarchists and totally harmless literati, attributing dark conspiratorial machinations to both. Hungarian gendarmes killed and wounded several Slovaks at the village of cernova, on October 27, 1907. The reason for the unrest was the punitive actions taken against cernova's Slovak nationalist priest, Father Andrej Hlinka by his Magyarone superiors in the Catholic hierarchy. The massacre was followed by stormy sessions in the Hungarian Parliament. Milan Hodza, one of the seven nationalist Slovak members, was accused of paving the way for the massacre through his agitation, and some of his Magyar colleagues called him "Assassin! ... rotten agitator!" 14 The Magyar representative from the district of cernova, bdon Beni9zky, painted a picture of Slovak agitation, a picture, which could have taken a rightful place in Dante's Inferno. He talked of the once pious Slovaks throwing rocks at every coach owned by Hungarian gentlemen, about Slovak agitators going around the villages, spreading news of 110 SLOVAKIA Hungarians taking Slovak children away during the night and taking them down to the Great Hungarian Plain in order to make good Magyars out of them; he conveyed the impression that Slovak peasants were ready to grab an axe and resort to unbridled violence. Hodza demanded proof, but none was forthcoming. The entire Hungarian Parliament sat in stunned silence, but in evident concurrence with the speaker. 15 The purpose of delving into these two factors, fear and anxiety, it not to overplay their role at the expense of the other components already mentioned, but rather, to point toward the substance of the Hungarian gentry and middle class mentality: Being alone, feeling isolated in the midst of "aliens"--Germans, Slavs, Rumanians-was a source of both real pride and real fear, but fear could never be openly confessed, specifically because of the accompanying sense of pride. This lack of balance, therefore, created an unhealthy atmosphere of irrationality and arrogance, which in turn provoked an equally irrational and arrogant response from the representatives of the nationalities; thus, gradually and tragically, all the bridges were burned. The Slovak "deviation" from Magyar patriotism perhaps hurt the Hungarians the most, because, in spite of the bitter experience of 1848, when many Slovaks sided with the Habsburgs against the Hungarians, the Slovak people were still trusted as the "simple, guileless, and pious little brother" of the "sturdy and powerful" Magyar nation. Treason might well be expected from the "fierce Rae" (Serb), or the "crafty Olah" (Rumanian), but not from a "T6t" (A condescending Magyar word for Slovak). There was no viciousness in the general Hungarian view of the Slovaks, but rather a sense of patronizing benevolence, so charmingly popularized in the novels and short stories of Kalman Mikszath. The alleged Pan-Slav agitation aroused such a great fury exactly because it seemed to disrupt the "idyllic harmony" between Magyar and Slovak which was so deeply rooted in historical tradition and friendly coexistence. There was another side to the coin of benevolent patronization, however. The "T6t" was liked perhaps, but obviously not respected as an equal of the Magyar. Count J6szef Mailath remarked in an otherwise strongly chauvinistic rebuttal to H. W. V. Temperley, the famous British SLOVAKIA 111 historian, "We must confess that the depreciation of Slovakism, whether in lower or higher circles is 2. thing to which everybody is accustomed in Hungary. There is a saying, a Slovak is no man." 16 What was the response of young educated Slovaks to this general Magyar attitude toward them? Jozef Skultety, a well-known Slovak writer wants us to believe " . .. the Slovak remains true to himself ... he most frequently preserves his soul. He will sooner squeeze another than yield17 ••. the Slovak does not imitate." 18 The facts and figures squarely contradict Skultety: According to one estimate, shortly before World War I, the number of the educated Slovak-oriented families did not exceed five hundred in number. 19 However, should we blame the average Slovak for his eagerness to become a Magyar when all the economic and social advantages were on the Magyar side? The Magyar attitude towards the national minorities in general and towards the Slovaks in particular was racial only in a limited or qualified sense. The Magyar was considered superior and the Slovak inferior, but as soon as the Slovak decided to become a Magyar, he seemingly underwent a miraculous metamorphosis and was accepted 2.:; 2, fuE-fledged member of the Hungarian nation. In Magyar eyes, by his conversion, this neophyte Magyar manifested his maturity and wisdom and acquired all the higher qualities attributed to the Magyars. This belief served then as the foundation for pursuing Magyarization through the schools and churches. Albert Einstein could have never graduated into Nazi Germany's "Herrenvolk," but the son of a nationalist Slovak Lutheran pastor, Pavo! Hojc, could become Pal Hojtsy, a recognized historian, who published a book in 1902, under the title of Great Hungary, the Future Centuries of Hungarian History. Not every "new" Hungarian bothered to change his name even. A famous Catholic bishop Ottokar Prohaszka did not. However, it was not necessarily the sound of the name but the spirit that really counted. Bishop Prohaszka, though progressive in many respects, became one of the leading intellectual and spiritual leaders of the ultra chauvinistic counter-revolutionary movements in Hungary during the 1920's. The following excerpts is from a speech he held before a rightist audience in Budapest, "Beneath the national idea we have 112 SLOVAKIA to sense Magyar Reality, Magyar Blood, Magyar Land, and Magyar Life. But we ought not only to sense all of these -we have to live Magyar destiny." 20 Were these people happy and satisfied with their choice ? We cannot read their minds in retrospect, but there is no reason to assume that they were not. Magyar nationalistic policies could be harsh even brutal at times, but they did not demand an open or public renunciation of the old abandoned language, and an open or public pledge for the new one. Quite surely, thousands and thousands of Slovaks turned into Magyars without the flourish of trumpets and worked quietly and diligently. To call them opportunists would be to expect too much from human nature. For the average Slovak high school graduate, with an absolute proficiency in the Magyar language, the appeal of being accepted as an "adult," and also, of course, of securing positions in the church, schools, civil service, etc., was hard to resist. Perhaps some of the "super-converts" who wished to out-Magyar the most bigoted Magyars could be put out of countenance at times if they-as it always happens with this type-were keen on not only asserting the new but denying and hiding the old. Gyorgy Szmrecsanyi, a member of the Parliament, sounded quite embarrassed when after reading long quotes from Slovak newspapers he was questioned about his ethnic origin by Milan Hodza. 21 Who were the members of the minority, the nationally minded Slovaks? They too were graduates of the Magyar high schools, thus proving, at least partially, the self-defeating nature of Magyarization through education. Out of every hundred "converts" perhaps only a few became "rebels," but these latter could potentially cause a great deal of trouble-as they did in fact-to the idea and practices of a one and only Magyar National State. The commonly shared goal of the Slovak nationalists was not an independent Slovakia or Czecho-Slovakia, but broad Slovak autonomy within Hungary. Matyas Bella, one of the Slovak nationalist representatives in the Hungarian Parliament said, "Should all the national minorities be able to assert themselves within the State of Hungary, then I will welcome that State." 22 In this sense, the members of this group were the Slovak counterparts of the Czech Austro-Slavs. The SLOVAKIA 113 dominant character of the Slovak nationalist movement in Hungary was conservative and Catholic. The main reason for this trend lay in the fact that most Slovak nationalist leaders emerged from a conservative Catholic background, the religious preference for about two-thirds of the Slovaks, and the major aim of these leaders was to win over the fundamentally conservative and religious peasant masses. Ccnservatism, therefore, functioned both as a source and a purpose. The goal of Slovak autonomy was of such paramount importance that it seemed to override all other ideological considerations, even to the point of apparent inconsistency. Milan Hodza was more than eager to strike a simultaneous alliance with all opposition groups outside the Parliament, the radicals and the socialists, and with the Heir to the Crown, Archduke Francis Ferdinand. There was also heavy E.mphasis laid on cooperation with leaders of other national minorities, especially with the Rumanians, who had more elected representatives in the Hungarian Parliament and had a longer tradition and greater experience in their "battle" against Magyar chauvinism ("The roots of the Little Entente") .23 This Magyar chauvinism was eventually countered by Slovak chauvinism, and it is quite evident that Hodza and his fellow Slovak nationalists spoke one language to their colleagues in the Hungarian Parliament, and another one to their Slovak constituents and reading public. The Parliament was filled with complaints over the "duplicity" of the Slovak nationalists, supported by direct quotes from Budapest-based Slovak newspapers. 24 To what extent was the "dilemma" solved for those who chose the Slovak road? It again could be assumed that the reward of fighting for a cause was satisfying on a personal level. However, it was a frustrating fight, not only because it did not seem to bring substantial results, but also because it was beset by a lack of broad support and by a sense of inner insecurity. One had to prove himself a Slovak in his own right, and this task was most difficult in the midst of an environment, where almost every particle of the atmosphere was saturated with condescension for the "Tot" and suspicion of the Slovak. In this antagonistic atmosphere. emotional attachment 114 SLOVAKIA to all brother Slavs and to "Mother Russia" in particular was an aid to some who declined to succumb to Magyar pressure. The roots of this romantic sentiment reach back to the early-middle 19th century, to Jan Kollar and to :Cudovit sttlr. With the passing of romanticism, cultural Slavophilism turned into political Pan-Slavism, which was frequently a barely concealed instrument of Russian foreign policy. Russia's attention, however, was focused on the Balkans. Thus, Slovak-Russian relations suffered more because of the Russians' lack of interest, rather than from the handicap of geographical barriers. A voice of near fatalistic resignation was struck by the leader of the russophi!e Martin group, Svetozar Hurban-Vajansky in a letter to a Russian friend, " ... ir there is no chance for the Slovaks to live under Russian hegemony, then it would be better for them to vanish altogether." 25 In the eyes of the Martin group, Tsarist Russia could do no wrong. Yet, although most educated Slovaks, with the exception of the Magyarones, shared a vague sense of brotherhood with all other Slavs, active russophilism encountered several stumbling blocks. The oppressive character of the Tsarist regime alienated the Slovak liberals and democrats, while the orthodox zeal of Tsarist officialdom estranged the Slovak Catholic conservatives. Both camps were infuriated by Russia's anti-Polish policy. The liberals and democrats were incensed because the rights of a fellow Slav nation were being violated; the Catholics resented the anti-Catholic policy of the Tsarist government. Consequently, the number of russophiles was limited and their emotional, neo-romantic movement reached an impasse by the early 20th century. There was another alternative left for the young educated Slovak: to turn to the Czechs. Liberals and democrats among the Slovak intelligentsia, clustering around the founders of the journal Hlas, Vavro srobar and Pavol Blaho, were inclined to do so. Yet, the "czechophile" group among the Slovak intellectuals was also relatively small26 and without considerable influence, " ... the main reason why we were so powerless and submissive was that during those long decades we did not look to Czech culture and the idea of Czechoslovak unity as in 1848." 27 - these were the bitter words of Ivan Markovic, a Slovak politician, and SLOVAKIA 115 a member of several Czecho-Slovak cabinets after 1918. I have used this quote for a very important reason: My contention is that though the logic of the quote is entirely correct, it could and should be used in a reverse sense as well. Certainly, the Slovaks could have learned a great deal of self-assurance and a sense of strength from the Czechs, but one reason why the Slovaks were so reluctant to do so was precisely because of their relative weakness and backwardness. The Slovaks were caught in a vicious circle. A "pilgrimage" to Prague was a sensible thing to do; there was so much to learn there. Such a journey, however, concurred with an open admission of inferiority; one often had to swallow one's pride, and the Czechs did not make this cooperation easy. They too had developed a patronizing attitude towards the Slovaks, the implication of which was mere complex than was the case between Magyar and Slo-• vak. A Slovak, by his own will, could become a full-fledged member of a ruling nation, the Magyars, and an "adult" in lVIagyar society. A Slovak in Prague would most likely remain a Slovak who was not expected to abandon his people but was asked to affiliate. On paper, this latter proposition appears to be_much more humane and democratic. Yet, if an alliance is not maintained as between equals, then being relegated to a subordinate position is worse than not being included in one at all. Perhaps the young educated Slovaks had a foreboding of this predicament, and most of them chose the "easy way" to Budapest, even if that resulted in Pal dropping Pavel and Janos shedding Jan. Had there then ever been any hope for the Slovak intelligentsia in Austria-Hungary? Could they in any way have guided the destiny of Slovakia before 1918? Was there any realistic solution to their dilemma? For some of them yes, but at a price. One group of realists joined the Magyars, at the price of assimilation. Another group of realists associated itself with the Czechs, at the price of a new though more subtle form of subordination. For the russophiles, entrapped by their phantasies, the solution was more a matter of heart than of mind. The ones remaining on the "Slovak path" were thrown back to their own resources, intense in their enthusiasm and faith but incapable of overcoming the heavy odds against them. Therefore, the Slovaks in 116 SLOVAKIA Austria-Hungary had no chance whatever to ignore or cast aside the available options in favor of a universal Slovak solution. Their dilemma weighed on them as their historical heritage, present predicament, and a portent of difficult times to come. FOOTNOTES 1) R. W. Seton-Watson, Slovakia Then and Now (London, 1931), pp. 2526. 2) Jan Sveton, Die Slowaken in Ungarn (Bratislava, 1943). Steph en Janak, "The Land Question in Slovakia," The Slavonic Review, VIII (1930). 3) Ar.nuaire Statistique Hongrois, Budapest, L'Office Central De Statistique Du Royaume de Hongrie, 1915. 4) Robert Kann, The Multinational Empire (New York, 1969), I, 271. 5) Oszkar Jaszi, The Dissolution of the Habsburg Monarchy (Chicago, 1931), p. 323. 6) Ibid. , p. 319. 7 ) In this regard , the views of Count J6zsef Mailath, a Magyar artistocrat, were characteristic of the general Hungarian public opinion. M, ilath contended that ,e ven if the changes of forced Magyarization were true, they would really l:le invalid, since the Law acknowledged only one Hungarian national state, and not the existence of Slovak, Rumanian, Serbian, and Ruthenian nations within the borders of Hungary. Joseph Graf Mailath, Hungarica Res (Berlin, 1908), p. 22. 8) Quoted by Jaszi, op. cit., p. 321. 9) Paul Teleki, Count, The Evolution of Hungary and its Place in History (New York, 1923), pp. 155-156. 10) Ibid., p. 161 and p. 173. 11) Guyla Szekfti, Harom Nemzedek (The Three Generations), (Budapest, 1920), p. 261. 12) Lajos Steier, A T6t Ker-des (The Slovak Problem) (Lipt6szentmikl6s, 1912), I, 1. 13) Ibid., p. 160. 14) Orszaggyules-Nyomtatvanyai-Kepviselohaz-Napl6 (The Stenographic Proceedings of the Hungarian Parliament) XIII, 102. October 30, 1907. 15) Ibid., pp. 111-112. 16) " Racial Strife in Hungary" - a Reply to H. W. V. Temperley by Count Joseph Mailath. The Westminster Review, CLXX (1908), 30. 17 ) Joseph Skultety, Sketches from Slovak History (Middletown, 1930), p. 160. 18) Ibid. , p . 193. 19) Th. J. G. Locher, Die Nationale Differenzierung und Integrierung der Slowaken und Tschechen in Ihren Geschichtlichen Verlauf bis 1848 (Haarlem, 1931), p. 197. SLOVAKIA 117 20 ) Ottokar Prohaszka , A Nacionalizmusr6l (About Nationalism) (Budapest, 1925), p. 61. 21) Orszaggyiiles-Nyomtatvanyai-Kepvise l5h6.z-Napl6, VII, 424, February 18, 1907. 22) Ibid., I, 284. July 7, 1906. 23) Milan Hodza, Federation in Central Europe (New York, 1942), p. 40. 24 ) One example: Speech by Gyorgy Szmrecsanyi. Orszaggyules-Nyomtatvanyai-Kepvisel5h6.z-Napl6, VII, 411-417. February 16, 1907. 25 ) Vladislav Stastny, ed., Slovanstvi v narodnim zivote techu a Slovaku (Praha , 1968), p. 328. 26 ) Ludwig vo n Gogolak, Beitriige zur Geschichte des slowakischen Volkes (Mtinchen, 1963 ), p. 98. 27 ) Seton-Watson, op. cit., p. 93. * * * Centennial of Slovak Health Spas in the Tatra Mountains Rev. Andrew V. Pier, O.S.B. This year (1975) marks the 100th anniversary of public establishment of the now famous health centers in two High Tatra regions, namely, Novy Smokovec and strbske Pleso, and at Lucivna, located at the northern end of the Low Tatra mountains in Slovakia. At Novy Smokovec located at the foot of the forested slope leading upward to the Slavkovsky peak was the first Slovak health resort set aside for tuberculosis patients a hundred years ago. The low humidity, year-round sunshine and intense ultra-violet radiation, crisp atmosphere at the high altitude of some 8,000 feet, low atmospheric pressure .. . these health factors lend themselves to a natural center for the relief and cure of not only pulmonary ailments and chronic respiratory troubles, but contribute greatly to the cure of diseases of the thyroid gland and various neuroses. For the healthy Novy Smokovec is a natural winter sports' resort and a tourist attraction the rest of the year. Accommodations are modest but adequate.  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Slovak Dilemma in Austria-Hungary Description An account of the resource Gabor Vermes Slovakia, Vol. 25 (No. 48), 1975 pp. 105-117 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Vermes, Gábor Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1975 LCNAF https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/ccbaf6e105a1562a3a2ca084f3216c4a.pdf ba4b071bf816f2d575bf1ec730393488 PDF Text Text SLOVAKIA 117 20 ) Ottokar Prohaszka , A Nacionalizmusr6l (About Nationalism) (Budapest, 1925), p. 61. 21) Orszaggyiiles-Nyomtatvanyai-Kepvise l5h6.z-Napl6, VII, 424, February 18, 1907. 22) Ibid., I, 284. July 7, 1906. 23) Milan Hodza, Federation in Central Europe (New York, 1942), p. 40. 24 ) One example: Speech by Gyorgy Szmrecsanyi. Orszaggyules-Nyomtatvanyai-Kepvisel5h6.z-Napl6, VII, 411-417. February 16, 1907. 25 ) Vladislav Stastny, ed., Slovanstvi v narodnim zivote techu a Slovaku (Praha , 1968), p. 328. 26 ) Ludwig vo n Gogolak, Beitriige zur Geschichte des slowakischen Volkes (Mtinchen, 1963 ), p. 98. 27 ) Seton-Watson, op. cit., p. 93. * * * Centennial of Slovak Health Spas in the Tatra Mountains Rev. Andrew V. Pier, O.S.B. This year (1975) marks the 100th anniversary of public establishment of the now famous health centers in two High Tatra regions, namely, Novy Smokovec and strbske Pleso, and at Lucivna, located at the northern end of the Low Tatra mountains in Slovakia. At Novy Smokovec located at the foot of the forested slope leading upward to the Slavkovsky peak was the first Slovak health resort set aside for tuberculosis patients a hundred years ago. The low humidity, year-round sunshine and intense ultra-violet radiation, crisp atmosphere at the high altitude of some 8,000 feet, low atmospheric pressure .. . these health factors lend themselves to a natural center for the relief and cure of not only pulmonary ailments and chronic respiratory troubles, but contribute greatly to the cure of diseases of the thyroid gland and various neuroses. For the healthy Novy Smokovec is a natural winter sports' resort and a tourist attraction the rest of the year. Accommodations are modest but adequate. �118 SLOVAKIA Converted from a hunting-lodge the strbske Pleso lake region soon become a popular summer resort and a winter attraction for ski enthusiasts soon after its opening to the public before the end of the 19th century. But it, too, has reserved certain arE:laS to treat patients suffering from asthma, bronchitis and allergies afflicting the lungs. The Institute of Asthmatology there has done wonders in relieving and curing asthma sufferers. Several years ago the strbske Pleso Tatra mountain resort became known throughout the world when the world ski championships were held there. Visitors from all parts of the world had words of praise not only for the natural beauty of the location but also for the hospitality of the Slovak people. The Hviezdoslav, Krivan and other hotels offer modern accommodations to thousands of guests who come to strbske Pleso annually for their health or for recreation summer or winter. Lucivna is exclusively a health resort at the foot of the Tatras. It is located in a magic woodland region in the northern foothills of the Low Tatra mountain range. Most of the patients are children suffering from respiratory diseases although after World War I and II Lucivna served for a time to cure veterans suffering from diseases of the lungs. While we are on the subject of health, perhaps it is well to note here that in other parts of Slovakia: Piest'any, Trencianske Teplice, Presov, Sliac and a dozen others as well, the natural thermal springs are the source of mineral waters that help to relieve and cure thousands of patients suffering from rheumatism, heart trouble, nervous disorders, high blood pressure and various other internal ailments. A closing remark is a personal observation. No wonder that not one but several neighbors of the lands inhabited by the Slovaks since the 5th or 6th century have longingly gazed with covetous eyes at the country which is so richly endowed by the Creator. At the moment a new pair of eyes, those of a most powerful neighbor at the east end of Slovakia, is fastened acquisitively on the Presov-Poprad area. It is our hope and prayer that the Slovaks will be able to turn this menacing gaze upward for conquest in space instead of foreign conquest at their expense. � SLOVAKIA 117 20 ) Ottokar Prohaszka , A Nacionalizmusr6l (About Nationalism) (Budapest, 1925), p. 61. 21) Orszaggyiiles-Nyomtatvanyai-Kepvise l5h6.z-Napl6, VII, 424, February 18, 1907. 22) Ibid., I, 284. July 7, 1906. 23) Milan Hodza, Federation in Central Europe (New York, 1942), p. 40. 24 ) One example: Speech by Gyorgy Szmrecsanyi. Orszaggyules-Nyomtatvanyai-Kepvisel5h6.z-Napl6, VII, 411-417. February 16, 1907. 25 ) Vladislav Stastny, ed., Slovanstvi v narodnim zivote techu a Slovaku (Praha , 1968), p. 328. 26 ) Ludwig vo n Gogolak, Beitriige zur Geschichte des slowakischen Volkes (Mtinchen, 1963 ), p. 98. 27 ) Seton-Watson, op. cit., p. 93. * * * Centennial of Slovak Health Spas in the Tatra Mountains Rev. Andrew V. Pier, O.S.B. This year (1975) marks the 100th anniversary of public establishment of the now famous health centers in two High Tatra regions, namely, Novy Smokovec and strbske Pleso, and at Lucivna, located at the northern end of the Low Tatra mountains in Slovakia. At Novy Smokovec located at the foot of the forested slope leading upward to the Slavkovsky peak was the first Slovak health resort set aside for tuberculosis patients a hundred years ago. The low humidity, year-round sunshine and intense ultra-violet radiation, crisp atmosphere at the high altitude of some 8,000 feet, low atmospheric pressure .. . these health factors lend themselves to a natural center for the relief and cure of not only pulmonary ailments and chronic respiratory troubles, but contribute greatly to the cure of diseases of the thyroid gland and various neuroses. For the healthy Novy Smokovec is a natural winter sports' resort and a tourist attraction the rest of the year. Accommodations are modest but adequate. �118 SLOVAKIA Converted from a hunting-lodge the strbske Pleso lake region soon become a popular summer resort and a winter attraction for ski enthusiasts soon after its opening to the public before the end of the 19th century. But it, too, has reserved certain arE:laS to treat patients suffering from asthma, bronchitis and allergies afflicting the lungs. The Institute of Asthmatology there has done wonders in relieving and curing asthma sufferers. Several years ago the strbske Pleso Tatra mountain resort became known throughout the world when the world ski championships were held there. Visitors from all parts of the world had words of praise not only for the natural beauty of the location but also for the hospitality of the Slovak people. The Hviezdoslav, Krivan and other hotels offer modern accommodations to thousands of guests who come to strbske Pleso annually for their health or for recreation summer or winter. Lucivna is exclusively a health resort at the foot of the Tatras. It is located in a magic woodland region in the northern foothills of the Low Tatra mountain range. Most of the patients are children suffering from respiratory diseases although after World War I and II Lucivna served for a time to cure veterans suffering from diseases of the lungs. While we are on the subject of health, perhaps it is well to note here that in other parts of Slovakia: Piest'any, Trencianske Teplice, Presov, Sliac and a dozen others as well, the natural thermal springs are the source of mineral waters that help to relieve and cure thousands of patients suffering from rheumatism, heart trouble, nervous disorders, high blood pressure and various other internal ailments. A closing remark is a personal observation. No wonder that not one but several neighbors of the lands inhabited by the Slovaks since the 5th or 6th century have longingly gazed with covetous eyes at the country which is so richly endowed by the Creator. At the moment a new pair of eyes, those of a most powerful neighbor at the east end of Slovakia, is fastened acquisitively on the Presov-Poprad area. It is our hope and prayer that the Slovaks will be able to turn this menacing gaze upward for conquest in space instead of foreign conquest at their expense. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1975, Vol. 25 Description An account of the resource Vol. 25 (No. 48), 1975. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1975 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document SLOVAKIA 117 20 ) Ottokar Prohaszka , A Nacionalizmusr6l (About Nationalism) (Budapest, 1925), p. 61. 21) Orszaggyiiles-Nyomtatvanyai-Kepvise l5h6.z-Napl6, VII, 424, February 18, 1907. 22) Ibid., I, 284. July 7, 1906. 23) Milan Hodza, Federation in Central Europe (New York, 1942), p. 40. 24 ) One example: Speech by Gyorgy Szmrecsanyi. Orszaggyules-Nyomtatvanyai-Kepvisel5h6.z-Napl6, VII, 411-417. February 16, 1907. 25 ) Vladislav Stastny, ed., Slovanstvi v narodnim zivote techu a Slovaku (Praha , 1968), p. 328. 26 ) Ludwig vo n Gogolak, Beitriige zur Geschichte des slowakischen Volkes (Mtinchen, 1963 ), p. 98. 27 ) Seton-Watson, op. cit., p. 93. * * * Centennial of Slovak Health Spas in the Tatra Mountains Rev. Andrew V. Pier, O.S.B. This year (1975) marks the 100th anniversary of public establishment of the now famous health centers in two High Tatra regions, namely, Novy Smokovec and strbske Pleso, and at Lucivna, located at the northern end of the Low Tatra mountains in Slovakia. At Novy Smokovec located at the foot of the forested slope leading upward to the Slavkovsky peak was the first Slovak health resort set aside for tuberculosis patients a hundred years ago. The low humidity, year-round sunshine and intense ultra-violet radiation, crisp atmosphere at the high altitude of some 8,000 feet, low atmospheric pressure .. . these health factors lend themselves to a natural center for the relief and cure of not only pulmonary ailments and chronic respiratory troubles, but contribute greatly to the cure of diseases of the thyroid gland and various neuroses. For the healthy Novy Smokovec is a natural winter sports' resort and a tourist attraction the rest of the year. Accommodations are modest but adequate. 118 SLOVAKIA Converted from a hunting-lodge the strbske Pleso lake region soon become a popular summer resort and a winter attraction for ski enthusiasts soon after its opening to the public before the end of the 19th century. But it, too, has reserved certain arE:laS to treat patients suffering from asthma, bronchitis and allergies afflicting the lungs. The Institute of Asthmatology there has done wonders in relieving and curing asthma sufferers. Several years ago the strbske Pleso Tatra mountain resort became known throughout the world when the world ski championships were held there. Visitors from all parts of the world had words of praise not only for the natural beauty of the location but also for the hospitality of the Slovak people. The Hviezdoslav, Krivan and other hotels offer modern accommodations to thousands of guests who come to strbske Pleso annually for their health or for recreation summer or winter. Lucivna is exclusively a health resort at the foot of the Tatras. It is located in a magic woodland region in the northern foothills of the Low Tatra mountain range. Most of the patients are children suffering from respiratory diseases although after World War I and II Lucivna served for a time to cure veterans suffering from diseases of the lungs. While we are on the subject of health, perhaps it is well to note here that in other parts of Slovakia: Piest'any, Trencianske Teplice, Presov, Sliac and a dozen others as well, the natural thermal springs are the source of mineral waters that help to relieve and cure thousands of patients suffering from rheumatism, heart trouble, nervous disorders, high blood pressure and various other internal ailments. A closing remark is a personal observation. No wonder that not one but several neighbors of the lands inhabited by the Slovaks since the 5th or 6th century have longingly gazed with covetous eyes at the country which is so richly endowed by the Creator. At the moment a new pair of eyes, those of a most powerful neighbor at the east end of Slovakia, is fastened acquisitively on the Presov-Poprad area. It is our hope and prayer that the Slovaks will be able to turn this menacing gaze upward for conquest in space instead of foreign conquest at their expense.  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Centennial of Slovak Health Spas in the Tatra Mountains Description An account of the resource Rev. Andrew V. Pier, O.S.B. Slovakia, Vol. 25 (No. 48), 1975 pp. 117-118 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Pier, Andrew W., 1910-2003 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1975 name https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/09c9d654233e39f519dd3bbdc7173e42.pdf 62e8dff8a0a672f40d5e9cf7d5896631 PDF Text Text SLOVAKIA 119 Slovak Contributions to the American Cultural Mosaic By D aniel F . T a n z o n e FAIRFIELD UNIVERSITY GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION In recent years there has been a new awareness of the many and varied cultures which have gone to make the American cultural milieu a multi-faceted mosaic resplendent with the many faces of America. In past years the melting pot philosophy has given way to the philosophy of a pluralistic society within the concept of an American culture. Too often in the past generations only AngloAmerican traditions have prevailed and have almost totally dominated the American educational experience. The dominance of Anglo-American ethnocentrism has shaped the entire history of this country. The question I would ask as an American of Italian and Slovak ancestry is whether a total concentration on the upper-class culture based in the northeastern section of the nation is a sufficient intellectual guide to actual American life, or to the character of the other cultures on this planet? The phrase "common culture" has in recent years been used with more glibness than hard reflection. A culture is not put on like a suit of clothes. One can mimic a culture, absorb it, however, the culture does not flow out of one's own tutored instincts and aspirations, it is not yet one's own and does not yet exhaust one's own intelligence, perception or dreams. Thus for the non-Wasps-the WhiteAnglo-Saxon-Protestants, the millions of immigrants and their descendants-a majority of th_is nation have not been a part of the mainstream culture which springs from the heart. There seem to be three main locations of culture in America today. The actual ways of life of ordinary people, in their div,erse, loose and permeable communities are one location. The humanities are, in this sense, not primarily �120 SLOVAKIA what is written down in books, or celebrated in works of arts, but what is lived. Those relatively few artists, scholars and critical persons in whom a genuinely high culture is alive are a second location. The swarming army of professionals, highly educated but not necessarily in tune with the high traditions of the past, are a third location. Among these new professionals are many who call themselves humanists. Each of these groups is to be taken seriously. Each enhances our own individual identity as an American cogniscant of American culture. Victims of oppression have always looked upon migration to a land with a promise of freedom and equal opportunity as their mecca. In the late years of the last century in order to be free of social injustice, economic serfdom, or the threat of national liquidation, the oppressed peoples of the Austro-Hung arian monarchy looked toward the United States as a haven. Between 1879 and 1891 some 80,000 Slovaks emigrated from the counties of Abauj, Spis, Zemplin, saris, Gerner, and Liptov and settled in America. By 1900 Slovakia, the ancient home of the Slovaks in Hungary, lost about 308,000 of its people to America. From 1910 to the beginning of World War I 34,000 Slovaks made America their home. In a word from about 1879 until 1918 Slovakia lost more than 550,000 people to America. However, it must be remembered that many Slovaks were classed as Magyars or Austrians since few Americans knew of the existence of the Slovak, a western Slav who closely resembled the Pole or Czech, also western Slavs but who possessed affinities with the eastern Slavs-the Russians and Ukrainians. Thus the total number of Slovaks who entered America was probably close to 750,000. Have these many thousands of ordinary people, one of the locations of culture as I see it, contributed anything substantial to the culture of America? True, the vast majority of these immigrants, who left their ancestral home and all its romantic traditions, for a strange new life in the stone and asphalt deserts of industrial and mining America, were simple individuals not a part of an elite group of immigrants. 1 As with all cultures, each develops endlessly complex individuals each with a world of its own both as individuals and as cultures. The Slovak contribution to American culture of the twentieth century has yet to be experienced �SLOVAKIA 121 by mainstream America for the Slovaks like other ethnics are today the White Negro-the decisively ethnic non-WASP whose cultural traditions and emotional feelings are the antithesis of WASP decorum and self-control.2 The Slovaks, like other ethnics, have remained in tightlyknit cultural and fraternal associations in the United States and unfortunately little if any of their contributions have received national acclaim. However, Slovak music, art and literature have been an enriching experience for hundreds of thousands of descendants of the pioneer generations who today are part of the American cultural mainstream. Music, for example has played a major role in the life of any immigrant group, especially an oppressed group as the Slovaks were. The deepest feelings and the keenest appreciation of beauty on the part of the Slovaks are expressed in their songs. Singing is an everyday necessity for the hard working Slovak. Slovak folk songs which were an outgrowth of sacred music, have followed the general clevelopment of Western European music adopting the harmonic and rhythmic patterns of the West but in an altogether unconventional manner which maintained the peculiarities of the Slovak folk style. These Slovak folk songs have been preserved and perpetuated down through the generations here in America by the various Slovak American institutions and religious communities. These organizations and institutions have preserved these folk songs in their original Slovak and have on numerous occasions published translations of these folk songs. Most Slovak folk songs are written in a minor key and possess a fire and zest common to the Slav musical experience. In 1950 the Rev. John J. Lach published the Treasury of Slovak Folk Songs, a collection of over one hundred Slovak folk songs translated into English with appropriate music. This was the first collection of Slovak folk songs which had been translated into English for the enjoyment of non-Slovak speaking Americans. True it was intended for those of Slovak ancestry whose lack uf knowledge of their ancestral tong-..ie hampered their total appreciation of the various Slovak folk songs which they had been exposed to since their childhood. More importantly this collection was aimed at the American musical public for �122 SLOVAKIA it would acquaint the music lover with the flavor and resonance of Slovak folk tunes. In the mid 1950's the Congregation of the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius of Danville, Pa., a Slovak-American teaching community dedicated to the enrichment and cultivation of Slovak culture and art among their students began to develop translations of popular children's songs native to Slovakia. This community, which taught in 13 American dioceses, saw the need of translating and in some cases transposing, existing Slovak folk pieces to suit the needs of their eight thousand students who were of Slovak ancestry in the various elementary and secondary schools entrusted to their care. 3 Another important contribution which the Slovaks have made to American culture has been in the area of Slovak Church music. The Slovaks who are a very religious people, about 85 % are staunch Roman and Byzantine Catholics with the remaining members of the Lutheran and Calvinist persuasions, brought with them a wealth of ecclesiastical music. Slovak church music reflected the injustice and vexation which were the lot of the Slovak at home under the Austro-Hungarian control. For centuries this music was forbidden even in Slovak Church worship in Slovakia because the insidious pressure to Magyarize all non-Magyar elements within Hungary even permeated religious circles. The philosophy of Magyarization led all non-Magyar elements to accept Magyar language, customs and culture as theirs in order to exist. Anyone not complying was banished from any position of authority in government.4 Thus this latent emasculation of Slovak national pride even within the realm of church worship brought forth a treasury of Slovak church music filled with all the sentiments of a subjugated people. Even after their emigration the Slovak wished to always recall his bitter struggle and servitude in the homeland. Slovak churches, both Catholic and Protestant, sprang up both before and after the turn of the twentieth century. These 500 churches became the centers of the rich Slovak church music which were denied in the homeland of Slovakia.5 Early attempts at translating these works into English began in the 1930's by Professor Eugene Suchon, an American of Slovak ancestry. The two works which were �SLOVAKIA 123 included in the 1934 edition of the St. Gregory's Hymnal were the lenten hymn "Oh Come and Mourn with Me Awhile" and a "Tantum Ergo" listed merely as an adaptation of a Slovak hymn. 6 Among the most beautiful Slovak church pieces are the Christmas songs known as koledy. These songs are filled with an intimacy and childlike innocence and the listener finds himself clothed with a sublime delight while listening. The melancholy bursts into the fiery robust melodic-like quality in these beautiful musical works. Many of these have their origins in the early and late Middle-Ages. In 1965 the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius offered the American public a collection of Slovak Christmas songs entitled Bethlehem Carols which was a translation of over fifty Slovak carols. In 1966 this community under the direction of Sister M. James Tomko, SS.C.M. prepared a collection of a variety of translated Church pieces. Again the influence of Slovak folk life was evident and the influence of Eastern Church psalm tones blended to create some of the most beautiful songs of worship. Now the American Church public would adapt Slovak melodies to enrich their storehouse of appropriate church music. In 1964 the Rev. Florian J. Gall, director of ecclesiastical music for the Diocese of Trenton, composed a four-part mass entitled "A People's Hymn-Tune Mass" which was based on a Slovak "Adoro Te" melody. This mass was published by the Gregorian Institute of America. Another mass was published by Sister M. Paschal Valent, SS.C.M. entitled "A Mass in Honor of SS. Cyril and Methodius" based on Slovak church pieces. The World Library of Sacred Music in 1960 published a collection of twenty Slovak Christmas carols for three equal voices and for a four voice arrangement by Joseph f>uris, organist of the Benedictine Abbey Church of St. Benedict in Cleveland.7 Among the Lutheran congregations the Rev. John Zornan published the translations of Slovak church songs in 1963. Dr. John Zornan has translated many popular Slovak folk tunes and is published by the National Slovak Society of Pittsburgh, Pa. A form of Slovak musical expression finds itself present in the Polka which has become almost at home in American as in Slav countries. The Polka which is generally associated �124 SLOVAKIA with the Poles actually has its origin in Bohemia among the Czechs. The rhythmic quality of the Polka is found in many Slovak folk tunes especially from the high Tatra regions and Eastern Slovakia. An experimental Mass written with distinctly Slovak Polka melodies was compos~d by the Rev. Alexander:Blasko of Mineral Ridge, Ohio and was presented to an overflow crowd at St. Matthias Slovak Roman Catholic Church in Youngstown, Ohio on April 21, 1974. Entitled "A Mass for Christian Joy" the Mass was approved by the Bishop of Youngstown and its presentation has been repeated in several Slovak parishes in the Youngstown area. Here again a distinctly Slovak musical experience has found its way into American musical experience.8 Thus Slovak music, whether it be of folk origin or church oriented possesses a distinct character of its own which has been handed down to the generations of Americans of Slovak origin. The importance of music in Slovak life was always eminent, since the Slovaks expressed their innermost feelings and emotions from cradle to grave in songs: their joys and sorrows, griefs and needs, the close affinity to nature, the eternal conflict of the elemental powers of good and evil, their loves and hates and their aspirations and shortcomings. Contributions made by the Slovaks in the area of art are numerous but unfortunately because of provincial philosophies have been absent from academic circles in the United States. However my initial premise is that culture and in this case art may be found in the actual ways of life of ordinary people. One need only look in the attics of Slovak-Americans and find works of art abounding. Very popular among the Slovaks was the tradition of embroidery. Slovak folk costumes were a work of art which at times took entire lifetimes to complete and perfect. Both male and female costumes represented the individual village of origin in order that at a gathering of Slovaks one's particular village could at once be identified. Intricate geometrical and floral patterns, each with a particular significance, told a history of a particular village or mountain area. Richness of detail characterizes these works of art and rates them as distinct examples of Slovak folk art. These patterns have been handed down generation to generation and remain �SLOVAKIA 125 with countless thousands of American families of Slovak ancestry. These patterns have had a certain resurgence in many styles found popular among youth groups and have come to be known as "peasant look" in many American cities. Another area of folk art are the coloring of Easter eggs known as Pisanky or literally written designs. Although this custom is a Slav custom in general various Slav peoples have distinctive characteristics. Floral design patterns are distinctive of Polish Easter eggs. A distinctive characteristic of Slovak designs are simple angular designs using the symbols of the triangle, representing the Trinity; the circle, representing the immortality promised through Christ's resurrection; the various woven trims, representing the richness of life and the use of various colors, particularly red, symbolizing life, yellow, representing the brightness of the heavenly kingdom. These eggs are taken along with other appropriately prepared foods-lamb, a mixture of beets and horseradish, ham, butter, salt, wine, the Easter bread, the Paska and the cheese, are taken to the church on Holy Saturday to be blessed by the priest in order that on Easter Sunday morning the faithful may partake of the symbolic foods of resurrection avoided during the traditional fast of years past. This custom continues to flourish in hundreds of Slovak churches throughout America today. Among the more than three hundred Slovak Catholic and some two hundred Slovak Protestant churches many exemplify typical Slovak churches in architecture and interior design. Each has a distinctive Slovak folk characteristic either in its choice of symbolic designs and trims or in its choice of appointments and vestments each with intricate embroidery-like quality. Most noteworthy among American Slovak artisans is Dr. Joseph Cincik of Cleveland, Ohio who has designed numerous Slovak churches in the United States. His elongated figures with a blend of nortic and byzantine influence blend to form a distinctive Slovak art form. His most noteworthy achievement has been the Church of St. Benedict in Cleveland and the Church of SS. Cyril and Methodius in Lakewood, Ohio. The cathedral-like structure of the Lakewood, Ohio church has been transformed into a cavern-like structure ablaze with images and �126 SLOVAKIA scenes of religious life in Slovakia and the United States.9 Another gem of Slovak-American art and architecture is the motherhouse and chapel of the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius in Danville, Pa. The magnificent stained glass windows depict the history of the Slovak immigrant in America with scenes of his labors in the mines and mills of this country. The windows depict the history and development of this community as well as that of the religious and cultural leaders among the early Slovak immigrants. Several Slovak cultural centers in the United States offer the American public the opportunity to observe the jewels of Slovak folk art, painting, music and history. The Jankola Library located at the motherhouse of the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius contains a large collection of Slovak folk art, painting, embroidery, crystal, and a vast collection of works on Slovak subjects. The center is named after the Rev. Matthew Jankola, founder of the congregation in 1909 and the founder of SS. Cyril and Methodius Church in Bridgeport, Conn. where copies of original paintings from the Basilica of St. Clement in Rome depicting the life and work of the Slovak apostles adorn the interior. This, as many other Slovak churches, depicts typical Slovak village life in Slovakia in its various paintings and appointments. Another center of Slovak culture is the Jednota Museum located at the Jednota Estates in Middletown, Pa. Dedicated in 1972 the museum is operated by the First Catholic Slovak Union of the United States and Canada, a fraternal and cultural society with a national membership of over 100,000. Within the walls of the museum are numerous collections of Slovak folk art, tapestries, native costumes, memorabilia of Slovak fraternal societies, and a vast collection of Slovak works in the area of the humanities. 10 Several other centers exist in Cleveland, Ohio, Youngstown, Ohio, at the campus of Wayne State University in Michigan and other centers are planned in Pittsburgh and Yonkers, N. Y. to be found under the ethnic-centers' bill introduced by Senator Richard Schweiker, Republican of ~nnsylvania. 11 The variety of cultural worlds in the United States is a powerful, subterranean influence in our national cultural life. It remains subterranean because it is often repressed, as though it were something dirty, disfunctional, and �SLOVAKIA 127 doomed to disappear. In its place, a "national" ideology has been created. True Black and Hispanic cultural achievements have been given prominence but true reality must represent the many and varied components which have gone to form the mosaic of American culture. It is with this thought in mind that I challenge the America that I know and love to discover the possibilities and the limits inherent in being what I am and openly display what heretofore my ancestors had disguised in silence. There is a new creativity and a new release, there is liberation and there is hope. America is becoming America. FOOTNOTES 1) Gilbert L. Oddo, Slovakia and Its People, (New York, 1960), p. 330. 2) Michael ovak, The Rise of the Unmeltable Ethnics, (New York, 1971 ), p. 145. 3) Mother M. Emerentia Petrasek, SS.C.M., The Congregation of the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius, Told, in Five Decades, (Danville, Pennsylvania, 1959) , p. 110. 4) Oddo, p. 356. 5) Peter P. Yurchak, The Slovaks, (New York, 1947), p. 180. 6) Joseph Pauco, Slovakia 1959, (Middletown, Pennsylvania, 1959), p. 68. 7) Michael Lacko, S.J., SLovak Studies VII, (Rome, 1967), p. 197. 8) John C. Sciranka, Katolicky Sokol, "Polka Mass in Youngstown, Ohio," (Passaic, N. J.), April 24, 1974, p . 15. 9) Philip A. Hrobak, Slovak Catholic Parishes and Institutions in the United States and Canada, (Middletown, Pennsylvania, 1955) , p. 35. 10) Joseph C. Krajsa, "Jednota Museum Dedicated," Furdek 1973, (Middletown, Pennsylvania, 1973), p . 56. 11 ) Joseph Pauco, Slovakia 1973, (Middletown, Pennsylvania, 1973), p. 165. BIBLIOGRAPHY Hrobak, Philip A., Slovak Catholic Parishes and Institutions in the United States and Canada, Middletown, Pa., 1955. Krajsa , Joseph C., "Jednota Museum Dedicated," Furdek 1973, Middletown, Pa., 1973. Lacko, Michael S. J. , "Bibliographica," Slovak Studies VII, Rome, 1970. Novak, Michael, The Rise of the Umneltable Ethnics, New York, 1971. Pauco, Joseph, "Eleven Hundred Years of Prayerful Song. A Survey of Slovak Church Music," Middletown, Pa., 1959. Slovakia 1973, Middletown, Pa., 1973 Pctrasek, Mother M. Emerentia, SS.C.M., Brief History of the Congregation of Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius, Danville, Pa., 1959. Sciranka, John C., "Polka Mass in Youngstown, Ohio," Katolicky Sokol, Passaic, . J ., April 24, 1974. Yurchak, Peter P., The Slovaks, New York, 1947. � SLOVAKIA 119 Slovak Contributions to the American Cultural Mosaic By D aniel F . T a n z o n e FAIRFIELD UNIVERSITY GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION In recent years there has been a new awareness of the many and varied cultures which have gone to make the American cultural milieu a multi-faceted mosaic resplendent with the many faces of America. In past years the melting pot philosophy has given way to the philosophy of a pluralistic society within the concept of an American culture. Too often in the past generations only AngloAmerican traditions have prevailed and have almost totally dominated the American educational experience. The dominance of Anglo-American ethnocentrism has shaped the entire history of this country. The question I would ask as an American of Italian and Slovak ancestry is whether a total concentration on the upper-class culture based in the northeastern section of the nation is a sufficient intellectual guide to actual American life, or to the character of the other cultures on this planet? The phrase "common culture" has in recent years been used with more glibness than hard reflection. A culture is not put on like a suit of clothes. One can mimic a culture, absorb it, however, the culture does not flow out of one's own tutored instincts and aspirations, it is not yet one's own and does not yet exhaust one's own intelligence, perception or dreams. Thus for the non-Wasps-the WhiteAnglo-Saxon-Protestants, the millions of immigrants and their descendants-a majority of th_is nation have not been a part of the mainstream culture which springs from the heart. There seem to be three main locations of culture in America today. The actual ways of life of ordinary people, in their div,erse, loose and permeable communities are one location. The humanities are, in this sense, not primarily �120 SLOVAKIA what is written down in books, or celebrated in works of arts, but what is lived. Those relatively few artists, scholars and critical persons in whom a genuinely high culture is alive are a second location. The swarming army of professionals, highly educated but not necessarily in tune with the high traditions of the past, are a third location. Among these new professionals are many who call themselves humanists. Each of these groups is to be taken seriously. Each enhances our own individual identity as an American cogniscant of American culture. Victims of oppression have always looked upon migration to a land with a promise of freedom and equal opportunity as their mecca. In the late years of the last century in order to be free of social injustice, economic serfdom, or the threat of national liquidation, the oppressed peoples of the Austro-Hung arian monarchy looked toward the United States as a haven. Between 1879 and 1891 some 80,000 Slovaks emigrated from the counties of Abauj, Spis, Zemplin, saris, Gerner, and Liptov and settled in America. By 1900 Slovakia, the ancient home of the Slovaks in Hungary, lost about 308,000 of its people to America. From 1910 to the beginning of World War I 34,000 Slovaks made America their home. In a word from about 1879 until 1918 Slovakia lost more than 550,000 people to America. However, it must be remembered that many Slovaks were classed as Magyars or Austrians since few Americans knew of the existence of the Slovak, a western Slav who closely resembled the Pole or Czech, also western Slavs but who possessed affinities with the eastern Slavs-the Russians and Ukrainians. Thus the total number of Slovaks who entered America was probably close to 750,000. Have these many thousands of ordinary people, one of the locations of culture as I see it, contributed anything substantial to the culture of America? True, the vast majority of these immigrants, who left their ancestral home and all its romantic traditions, for a strange new life in the stone and asphalt deserts of industrial and mining America, were simple individuals not a part of an elite group of immigrants. 1 As with all cultures, each develops endlessly complex individuals each with a world of its own both as individuals and as cultures. The Slovak contribution to American culture of the twentieth century has yet to be experienced �SLOVAKIA 121 by mainstream America for the Slovaks like other ethnics are today the White Negro-the decisively ethnic non-WASP whose cultural traditions and emotional feelings are the antithesis of WASP decorum and self-control.2 The Slovaks, like other ethnics, have remained in tightlyknit cultural and fraternal associations in the United States and unfortunately little if any of their contributions have received national acclaim. However, Slovak music, art and literature have been an enriching experience for hundreds of thousands of descendants of the pioneer generations who today are part of the American cultural mainstream. Music, for example has played a major role in the life of any immigrant group, especially an oppressed group as the Slovaks were. The deepest feelings and the keenest appreciation of beauty on the part of the Slovaks are expressed in their songs. Singing is an everyday necessity for the hard working Slovak. Slovak folk songs which were an outgrowth of sacred music, have followed the general clevelopment of Western European music adopting the harmonic and rhythmic patterns of the West but in an altogether unconventional manner which maintained the peculiarities of the Slovak folk style. These Slovak folk songs have been preserved and perpetuated down through the generations here in America by the various Slovak American institutions and religious communities. These organizations and institutions have preserved these folk songs in their original Slovak and have on numerous occasions published translations of these folk songs. Most Slovak folk songs are written in a minor key and possess a fire and zest common to the Slav musical experience. In 1950 the Rev. John J. Lach published the Treasury of Slovak Folk Songs, a collection of over one hundred Slovak folk songs translated into English with appropriate music. This was the first collection of Slovak folk songs which had been translated into English for the enjoyment of non-Slovak speaking Americans. True it was intended for those of Slovak ancestry whose lack uf knowledge of their ancestral tong-..ie hampered their total appreciation of the various Slovak folk songs which they had been exposed to since their childhood. More importantly this collection was aimed at the American musical public for �122 SLOVAKIA it would acquaint the music lover with the flavor and resonance of Slovak folk tunes. In the mid 1950's the Congregation of the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius of Danville, Pa., a Slovak-American teaching community dedicated to the enrichment and cultivation of Slovak culture and art among their students began to develop translations of popular children's songs native to Slovakia. This community, which taught in 13 American dioceses, saw the need of translating and in some cases transposing, existing Slovak folk pieces to suit the needs of their eight thousand students who were of Slovak ancestry in the various elementary and secondary schools entrusted to their care. 3 Another important contribution which the Slovaks have made to American culture has been in the area of Slovak Church music. The Slovaks who are a very religious people, about 85 % are staunch Roman and Byzantine Catholics with the remaining members of the Lutheran and Calvinist persuasions, brought with them a wealth of ecclesiastical music. Slovak church music reflected the injustice and vexation which were the lot of the Slovak at home under the Austro-Hungarian control. For centuries this music was forbidden even in Slovak Church worship in Slovakia because the insidious pressure to Magyarize all non-Magyar elements within Hungary even permeated religious circles. The philosophy of Magyarization led all non-Magyar elements to accept Magyar language, customs and culture as theirs in order to exist. Anyone not complying was banished from any position of authority in government.4 Thus this latent emasculation of Slovak national pride even within the realm of church worship brought forth a treasury of Slovak church music filled with all the sentiments of a subjugated people. Even after their emigration the Slovak wished to always recall his bitter struggle and servitude in the homeland. Slovak churches, both Catholic and Protestant, sprang up both before and after the turn of the twentieth century. These 500 churches became the centers of the rich Slovak church music which were denied in the homeland of Slovakia.5 Early attempts at translating these works into English began in the 1930's by Professor Eugene Suchon, an American of Slovak ancestry. The two works which were �SLOVAKIA 123 included in the 1934 edition of the St. Gregory's Hymnal were the lenten hymn "Oh Come and Mourn with Me Awhile" and a "Tantum Ergo" listed merely as an adaptation of a Slovak hymn. 6 Among the most beautiful Slovak church pieces are the Christmas songs known as koledy. These songs are filled with an intimacy and childlike innocence and the listener finds himself clothed with a sublime delight while listening. The melancholy bursts into the fiery robust melodic-like quality in these beautiful musical works. Many of these have their origins in the early and late Middle-Ages. In 1965 the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius offered the American public a collection of Slovak Christmas songs entitled Bethlehem Carols which was a translation of over fifty Slovak carols. In 1966 this community under the direction of Sister M. James Tomko, SS.C.M. prepared a collection of a variety of translated Church pieces. Again the influence of Slovak folk life was evident and the influence of Eastern Church psalm tones blended to create some of the most beautiful songs of worship. Now the American Church public would adapt Slovak melodies to enrich their storehouse of appropriate church music. In 1964 the Rev. Florian J. Gall, director of ecclesiastical music for the Diocese of Trenton, composed a four-part mass entitled "A People's Hymn-Tune Mass" which was based on a Slovak "Adoro Te" melody. This mass was published by the Gregorian Institute of America. Another mass was published by Sister M. Paschal Valent, SS.C.M. entitled "A Mass in Honor of SS. Cyril and Methodius" based on Slovak church pieces. The World Library of Sacred Music in 1960 published a collection of twenty Slovak Christmas carols for three equal voices and for a four voice arrangement by Joseph f>uris, organist of the Benedictine Abbey Church of St. Benedict in Cleveland.7 Among the Lutheran congregations the Rev. John Zornan published the translations of Slovak church songs in 1963. Dr. John Zornan has translated many popular Slovak folk tunes and is published by the National Slovak Society of Pittsburgh, Pa. A form of Slovak musical expression finds itself present in the Polka which has become almost at home in American as in Slav countries. The Polka which is generally associated �124 SLOVAKIA with the Poles actually has its origin in Bohemia among the Czechs. The rhythmic quality of the Polka is found in many Slovak folk tunes especially from the high Tatra regions and Eastern Slovakia. An experimental Mass written with distinctly Slovak Polka melodies was compos~d by the Rev. Alexander:Blasko of Mineral Ridge, Ohio and was presented to an overflow crowd at St. Matthias Slovak Roman Catholic Church in Youngstown, Ohio on April 21, 1974. Entitled "A Mass for Christian Joy" the Mass was approved by the Bishop of Youngstown and its presentation has been repeated in several Slovak parishes in the Youngstown area. Here again a distinctly Slovak musical experience has found its way into American musical experience.8 Thus Slovak music, whether it be of folk origin or church oriented possesses a distinct character of its own which has been handed down to the generations of Americans of Slovak origin. The importance of music in Slovak life was always eminent, since the Slovaks expressed their innermost feelings and emotions from cradle to grave in songs: their joys and sorrows, griefs and needs, the close affinity to nature, the eternal conflict of the elemental powers of good and evil, their loves and hates and their aspirations and shortcomings. Contributions made by the Slovaks in the area of art are numerous but unfortunately because of provincial philosophies have been absent from academic circles in the United States. However my initial premise is that culture and in this case art may be found in the actual ways of life of ordinary people. One need only look in the attics of Slovak-Americans and find works of art abounding. Very popular among the Slovaks was the tradition of embroidery. Slovak folk costumes were a work of art which at times took entire lifetimes to complete and perfect. Both male and female costumes represented the individual village of origin in order that at a gathering of Slovaks one's particular village could at once be identified. Intricate geometrical and floral patterns, each with a particular significance, told a history of a particular village or mountain area. Richness of detail characterizes these works of art and rates them as distinct examples of Slovak folk art. These patterns have been handed down generation to generation and remain �SLOVAKIA 125 with countless thousands of American families of Slovak ancestry. These patterns have had a certain resurgence in many styles found popular among youth groups and have come to be known as "peasant look" in many American cities. Another area of folk art are the coloring of Easter eggs known as Pisanky or literally written designs. Although this custom is a Slav custom in general various Slav peoples have distinctive characteristics. Floral design patterns are distinctive of Polish Easter eggs. A distinctive characteristic of Slovak designs are simple angular designs using the symbols of the triangle, representing the Trinity; the circle, representing the immortality promised through Christ's resurrection; the various woven trims, representing the richness of life and the use of various colors, particularly red, symbolizing life, yellow, representing the brightness of the heavenly kingdom. These eggs are taken along with other appropriately prepared foods-lamb, a mixture of beets and horseradish, ham, butter, salt, wine, the Easter bread, the Paska and the cheese, are taken to the church on Holy Saturday to be blessed by the priest in order that on Easter Sunday morning the faithful may partake of the symbolic foods of resurrection avoided during the traditional fast of years past. This custom continues to flourish in hundreds of Slovak churches throughout America today. Among the more than three hundred Slovak Catholic and some two hundred Slovak Protestant churches many exemplify typical Slovak churches in architecture and interior design. Each has a distinctive Slovak folk characteristic either in its choice of symbolic designs and trims or in its choice of appointments and vestments each with intricate embroidery-like quality. Most noteworthy among American Slovak artisans is Dr. Joseph Cincik of Cleveland, Ohio who has designed numerous Slovak churches in the United States. His elongated figures with a blend of nortic and byzantine influence blend to form a distinctive Slovak art form. His most noteworthy achievement has been the Church of St. Benedict in Cleveland and the Church of SS. Cyril and Methodius in Lakewood, Ohio. The cathedral-like structure of the Lakewood, Ohio church has been transformed into a cavern-like structure ablaze with images and �126 SLOVAKIA scenes of religious life in Slovakia and the United States.9 Another gem of Slovak-American art and architecture is the motherhouse and chapel of the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius in Danville, Pa. The magnificent stained glass windows depict the history of the Slovak immigrant in America with scenes of his labors in the mines and mills of this country. The windows depict the history and development of this community as well as that of the religious and cultural leaders among the early Slovak immigrants. Several Slovak cultural centers in the United States offer the American public the opportunity to observe the jewels of Slovak folk art, painting, music and history. The Jankola Library located at the motherhouse of the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius contains a large collection of Slovak folk art, painting, embroidery, crystal, and a vast collection of works on Slovak subjects. The center is named after the Rev. Matthew Jankola, founder of the congregation in 1909 and the founder of SS. Cyril and Methodius Church in Bridgeport, Conn. where copies of original paintings from the Basilica of St. Clement in Rome depicting the life and work of the Slovak apostles adorn the interior. This, as many other Slovak churches, depicts typical Slovak village life in Slovakia in its various paintings and appointments. Another center of Slovak culture is the Jednota Museum located at the Jednota Estates in Middletown, Pa. Dedicated in 1972 the museum is operated by the First Catholic Slovak Union of the United States and Canada, a fraternal and cultural society with a national membership of over 100,000. Within the walls of the museum are numerous collections of Slovak folk art, tapestries, native costumes, memorabilia of Slovak fraternal societies, and a vast collection of Slovak works in the area of the humanities. 10 Several other centers exist in Cleveland, Ohio, Youngstown, Ohio, at the campus of Wayne State University in Michigan and other centers are planned in Pittsburgh and Yonkers, N. Y. to be found under the ethnic-centers' bill introduced by Senator Richard Schweiker, Republican of ~nnsylvania. 11 The variety of cultural worlds in the United States is a powerful, subterranean influence in our national cultural life. It remains subterranean because it is often repressed, as though it were something dirty, disfunctional, and �SLOVAKIA 127 doomed to disappear. In its place, a "national" ideology has been created. True Black and Hispanic cultural achievements have been given prominence but true reality must represent the many and varied components which have gone to form the mosaic of American culture. It is with this thought in mind that I challenge the America that I know and love to discover the possibilities and the limits inherent in being what I am and openly display what heretofore my ancestors had disguised in silence. There is a new creativity and a new release, there is liberation and there is hope. America is becoming America. FOOTNOTES 1) Gilbert L. Oddo, Slovakia and Its People, (New York, 1960), p. 330. 2) Michael ovak, The Rise of the Unmeltable Ethnics, (New York, 1971 ), p. 145. 3) Mother M. Emerentia Petrasek, SS.C.M., The Congregation of the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius, Told, in Five Decades, (Danville, Pennsylvania, 1959) , p. 110. 4) Oddo, p. 356. 5) Peter P. Yurchak, The Slovaks, (New York, 1947), p. 180. 6) Joseph Pauco, Slovakia 1959, (Middletown, Pennsylvania, 1959), p. 68. 7) Michael Lacko, S.J., SLovak Studies VII, (Rome, 1967), p. 197. 8) John C. Sciranka, Katolicky Sokol, "Polka Mass in Youngstown, Ohio," (Passaic, N. J.), April 24, 1974, p . 15. 9) Philip A. Hrobak, Slovak Catholic Parishes and Institutions in the United States and Canada, (Middletown, Pennsylvania, 1955) , p. 35. 10) Joseph C. Krajsa, "Jednota Museum Dedicated," Furdek 1973, (Middletown, Pennsylvania, 1973), p . 56. 11 ) Joseph Pauco, Slovakia 1973, (Middletown, Pennsylvania, 1973), p. 165. BIBLIOGRAPHY Hrobak, Philip A., Slovak Catholic Parishes and Institutions in the United States and Canada, Middletown, Pa., 1955. Krajsa , Joseph C., "Jednota Museum Dedicated," Furdek 1973, Middletown, Pa., 1973. Lacko, Michael S. J. , "Bibliographica," Slovak Studies VII, Rome, 1970. Novak, Michael, The Rise of the Umneltable Ethnics, New York, 1971. Pauco, Joseph, "Eleven Hundred Years of Prayerful Song. A Survey of Slovak Church Music," Middletown, Pa., 1959. Slovakia 1973, Middletown, Pa., 1973 Pctrasek, Mother M. Emerentia, SS.C.M., Brief History of the Congregation of Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius, Danville, Pa., 1959. Sciranka, John C., "Polka Mass in Youngstown, Ohio," Katolicky Sokol, Passaic, . J ., April 24, 1974. Yurchak, Peter P., The Slovaks, New York, 1947. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1975, Vol. 25 Description An account of the resource Vol. 25 (No. 48), 1975. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1975 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document SLOVAKIA 119 Slovak Contributions to the American Cultural Mosaic By D aniel F . T a n z o n e FAIRFIELD UNIVERSITY GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION In recent years there has been a new awareness of the many and varied cultures which have gone to make the American cultural milieu a multi-faceted mosaic resplendent with the many faces of America. In past years the melting pot philosophy has given way to the philosophy of a pluralistic society within the concept of an American culture. Too often in the past generations only AngloAmerican traditions have prevailed and have almost totally dominated the American educational experience. The dominance of Anglo-American ethnocentrism has shaped the entire history of this country. The question I would ask as an American of Italian and Slovak ancestry is whether a total concentration on the upper-class culture based in the northeastern section of the nation is a sufficient intellectual guide to actual American life, or to the character of the other cultures on this planet? The phrase "common culture" has in recent years been used with more glibness than hard reflection. A culture is not put on like a suit of clothes. One can mimic a culture, absorb it, however, the culture does not flow out of one's own tutored instincts and aspirations, it is not yet one's own and does not yet exhaust one's own intelligence, perception or dreams. Thus for the non-Wasps-the WhiteAnglo-Saxon-Protestants, the millions of immigrants and their descendants-a majority of th_is nation have not been a part of the mainstream culture which springs from the heart. There seem to be three main locations of culture in America today. The actual ways of life of ordinary people, in their div,erse, loose and permeable communities are one location. The humanities are, in this sense, not primarily 120 SLOVAKIA what is written down in books, or celebrated in works of arts, but what is lived. Those relatively few artists, scholars and critical persons in whom a genuinely high culture is alive are a second location. The swarming army of professionals, highly educated but not necessarily in tune with the high traditions of the past, are a third location. Among these new professionals are many who call themselves humanists. Each of these groups is to be taken seriously. Each enhances our own individual identity as an American cogniscant of American culture. Victims of oppression have always looked upon migration to a land with a promise of freedom and equal opportunity as their mecca. In the late years of the last century in order to be free of social injustice, economic serfdom, or the threat of national liquidation, the oppressed peoples of the Austro-Hung arian monarchy looked toward the United States as a haven. Between 1879 and 1891 some 80,000 Slovaks emigrated from the counties of Abauj, Spis, Zemplin, saris, Gerner, and Liptov and settled in America. By 1900 Slovakia, the ancient home of the Slovaks in Hungary, lost about 308,000 of its people to America. From 1910 to the beginning of World War I 34,000 Slovaks made America their home. In a word from about 1879 until 1918 Slovakia lost more than 550,000 people to America. However, it must be remembered that many Slovaks were classed as Magyars or Austrians since few Americans knew of the existence of the Slovak, a western Slav who closely resembled the Pole or Czech, also western Slavs but who possessed affinities with the eastern Slavs-the Russians and Ukrainians. Thus the total number of Slovaks who entered America was probably close to 750,000. Have these many thousands of ordinary people, one of the locations of culture as I see it, contributed anything substantial to the culture of America? True, the vast majority of these immigrants, who left their ancestral home and all its romantic traditions, for a strange new life in the stone and asphalt deserts of industrial and mining America, were simple individuals not a part of an elite group of immigrants. 1 As with all cultures, each develops endlessly complex individuals each with a world of its own both as individuals and as cultures. The Slovak contribution to American culture of the twentieth century has yet to be experienced SLOVAKIA 121 by mainstream America for the Slovaks like other ethnics are today the White Negro-the decisively ethnic non-WASP whose cultural traditions and emotional feelings are the antithesis of WASP decorum and self-control.2 The Slovaks, like other ethnics, have remained in tightlyknit cultural and fraternal associations in the United States and unfortunately little if any of their contributions have received national acclaim. However, Slovak music, art and literature have been an enriching experience for hundreds of thousands of descendants of the pioneer generations who today are part of the American cultural mainstream. Music, for example has played a major role in the life of any immigrant group, especially an oppressed group as the Slovaks were. The deepest feelings and the keenest appreciation of beauty on the part of the Slovaks are expressed in their songs. Singing is an everyday necessity for the hard working Slovak. Slovak folk songs which were an outgrowth of sacred music, have followed the general clevelopment of Western European music adopting the harmonic and rhythmic patterns of the West but in an altogether unconventional manner which maintained the peculiarities of the Slovak folk style. These Slovak folk songs have been preserved and perpetuated down through the generations here in America by the various Slovak American institutions and religious communities. These organizations and institutions have preserved these folk songs in their original Slovak and have on numerous occasions published translations of these folk songs. Most Slovak folk songs are written in a minor key and possess a fire and zest common to the Slav musical experience. In 1950 the Rev. John J. Lach published the Treasury of Slovak Folk Songs, a collection of over one hundred Slovak folk songs translated into English with appropriate music. This was the first collection of Slovak folk songs which had been translated into English for the enjoyment of non-Slovak speaking Americans. True it was intended for those of Slovak ancestry whose lack uf knowledge of their ancestral tong-..ie hampered their total appreciation of the various Slovak folk songs which they had been exposed to since their childhood. More importantly this collection was aimed at the American musical public for 122 SLOVAKIA it would acquaint the music lover with the flavor and resonance of Slovak folk tunes. In the mid 1950's the Congregation of the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius of Danville, Pa., a Slovak-American teaching community dedicated to the enrichment and cultivation of Slovak culture and art among their students began to develop translations of popular children's songs native to Slovakia. This community, which taught in 13 American dioceses, saw the need of translating and in some cases transposing, existing Slovak folk pieces to suit the needs of their eight thousand students who were of Slovak ancestry in the various elementary and secondary schools entrusted to their care. 3 Another important contribution which the Slovaks have made to American culture has been in the area of Slovak Church music. The Slovaks who are a very religious people, about 85 % are staunch Roman and Byzantine Catholics with the remaining members of the Lutheran and Calvinist persuasions, brought with them a wealth of ecclesiastical music. Slovak church music reflected the injustice and vexation which were the lot of the Slovak at home under the Austro-Hungarian control. For centuries this music was forbidden even in Slovak Church worship in Slovakia because the insidious pressure to Magyarize all non-Magyar elements within Hungary even permeated religious circles. The philosophy of Magyarization led all non-Magyar elements to accept Magyar language, customs and culture as theirs in order to exist. Anyone not complying was banished from any position of authority in government.4 Thus this latent emasculation of Slovak national pride even within the realm of church worship brought forth a treasury of Slovak church music filled with all the sentiments of a subjugated people. Even after their emigration the Slovak wished to always recall his bitter struggle and servitude in the homeland. Slovak churches, both Catholic and Protestant, sprang up both before and after the turn of the twentieth century. These 500 churches became the centers of the rich Slovak church music which were denied in the homeland of Slovakia.5 Early attempts at translating these works into English began in the 1930's by Professor Eugene Suchon, an American of Slovak ancestry. The two works which were SLOVAKIA 123 included in the 1934 edition of the St. Gregory's Hymnal were the lenten hymn "Oh Come and Mourn with Me Awhile" and a "Tantum Ergo" listed merely as an adaptation of a Slovak hymn. 6 Among the most beautiful Slovak church pieces are the Christmas songs known as koledy. These songs are filled with an intimacy and childlike innocence and the listener finds himself clothed with a sublime delight while listening. The melancholy bursts into the fiery robust melodic-like quality in these beautiful musical works. Many of these have their origins in the early and late Middle-Ages. In 1965 the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius offered the American public a collection of Slovak Christmas songs entitled Bethlehem Carols which was a translation of over fifty Slovak carols. In 1966 this community under the direction of Sister M. James Tomko, SS.C.M. prepared a collection of a variety of translated Church pieces. Again the influence of Slovak folk life was evident and the influence of Eastern Church psalm tones blended to create some of the most beautiful songs of worship. Now the American Church public would adapt Slovak melodies to enrich their storehouse of appropriate church music. In 1964 the Rev. Florian J. Gall, director of ecclesiastical music for the Diocese of Trenton, composed a four-part mass entitled "A People's Hymn-Tune Mass" which was based on a Slovak "Adoro Te" melody. This mass was published by the Gregorian Institute of America. Another mass was published by Sister M. Paschal Valent, SS.C.M. entitled "A Mass in Honor of SS. Cyril and Methodius" based on Slovak church pieces. The World Library of Sacred Music in 1960 published a collection of twenty Slovak Christmas carols for three equal voices and for a four voice arrangement by Joseph f>uris, organist of the Benedictine Abbey Church of St. Benedict in Cleveland.7 Among the Lutheran congregations the Rev. John Zornan published the translations of Slovak church songs in 1963. Dr. John Zornan has translated many popular Slovak folk tunes and is published by the National Slovak Society of Pittsburgh, Pa. A form of Slovak musical expression finds itself present in the Polka which has become almost at home in American as in Slav countries. The Polka which is generally associated 124 SLOVAKIA with the Poles actually has its origin in Bohemia among the Czechs. The rhythmic quality of the Polka is found in many Slovak folk tunes especially from the high Tatra regions and Eastern Slovakia. An experimental Mass written with distinctly Slovak Polka melodies was compos~d by the Rev. Alexander:Blasko of Mineral Ridge, Ohio and was presented to an overflow crowd at St. Matthias Slovak Roman Catholic Church in Youngstown, Ohio on April 21, 1974. Entitled "A Mass for Christian Joy" the Mass was approved by the Bishop of Youngstown and its presentation has been repeated in several Slovak parishes in the Youngstown area. Here again a distinctly Slovak musical experience has found its way into American musical experience.8 Thus Slovak music, whether it be of folk origin or church oriented possesses a distinct character of its own which has been handed down to the generations of Americans of Slovak origin. The importance of music in Slovak life was always eminent, since the Slovaks expressed their innermost feelings and emotions from cradle to grave in songs: their joys and sorrows, griefs and needs, the close affinity to nature, the eternal conflict of the elemental powers of good and evil, their loves and hates and their aspirations and shortcomings. Contributions made by the Slovaks in the area of art are numerous but unfortunately because of provincial philosophies have been absent from academic circles in the United States. However my initial premise is that culture and in this case art may be found in the actual ways of life of ordinary people. One need only look in the attics of Slovak-Americans and find works of art abounding. Very popular among the Slovaks was the tradition of embroidery. Slovak folk costumes were a work of art which at times took entire lifetimes to complete and perfect. Both male and female costumes represented the individual village of origin in order that at a gathering of Slovaks one's particular village could at once be identified. Intricate geometrical and floral patterns, each with a particular significance, told a history of a particular village or mountain area. Richness of detail characterizes these works of art and rates them as distinct examples of Slovak folk art. These patterns have been handed down generation to generation and remain SLOVAKIA 125 with countless thousands of American families of Slovak ancestry. These patterns have had a certain resurgence in many styles found popular among youth groups and have come to be known as "peasant look" in many American cities. Another area of folk art are the coloring of Easter eggs known as Pisanky or literally written designs. Although this custom is a Slav custom in general various Slav peoples have distinctive characteristics. Floral design patterns are distinctive of Polish Easter eggs. A distinctive characteristic of Slovak designs are simple angular designs using the symbols of the triangle, representing the Trinity; the circle, representing the immortality promised through Christ's resurrection; the various woven trims, representing the richness of life and the use of various colors, particularly red, symbolizing life, yellow, representing the brightness of the heavenly kingdom. These eggs are taken along with other appropriately prepared foods-lamb, a mixture of beets and horseradish, ham, butter, salt, wine, the Easter bread, the Paska and the cheese, are taken to the church on Holy Saturday to be blessed by the priest in order that on Easter Sunday morning the faithful may partake of the symbolic foods of resurrection avoided during the traditional fast of years past. This custom continues to flourish in hundreds of Slovak churches throughout America today. Among the more than three hundred Slovak Catholic and some two hundred Slovak Protestant churches many exemplify typical Slovak churches in architecture and interior design. Each has a distinctive Slovak folk characteristic either in its choice of symbolic designs and trims or in its choice of appointments and vestments each with intricate embroidery-like quality. Most noteworthy among American Slovak artisans is Dr. Joseph Cincik of Cleveland, Ohio who has designed numerous Slovak churches in the United States. His elongated figures with a blend of nortic and byzantine influence blend to form a distinctive Slovak art form. His most noteworthy achievement has been the Church of St. Benedict in Cleveland and the Church of SS. Cyril and Methodius in Lakewood, Ohio. The cathedral-like structure of the Lakewood, Ohio church has been transformed into a cavern-like structure ablaze with images and 126 SLOVAKIA scenes of religious life in Slovakia and the United States.9 Another gem of Slovak-American art and architecture is the motherhouse and chapel of the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius in Danville, Pa. The magnificent stained glass windows depict the history of the Slovak immigrant in America with scenes of his labors in the mines and mills of this country. The windows depict the history and development of this community as well as that of the religious and cultural leaders among the early Slovak immigrants. Several Slovak cultural centers in the United States offer the American public the opportunity to observe the jewels of Slovak folk art, painting, music and history. The Jankola Library located at the motherhouse of the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius contains a large collection of Slovak folk art, painting, embroidery, crystal, and a vast collection of works on Slovak subjects. The center is named after the Rev. Matthew Jankola, founder of the congregation in 1909 and the founder of SS. Cyril and Methodius Church in Bridgeport, Conn. where copies of original paintings from the Basilica of St. Clement in Rome depicting the life and work of the Slovak apostles adorn the interior. This, as many other Slovak churches, depicts typical Slovak village life in Slovakia in its various paintings and appointments. Another center of Slovak culture is the Jednota Museum located at the Jednota Estates in Middletown, Pa. Dedicated in 1972 the museum is operated by the First Catholic Slovak Union of the United States and Canada, a fraternal and cultural society with a national membership of over 100,000. Within the walls of the museum are numerous collections of Slovak folk art, tapestries, native costumes, memorabilia of Slovak fraternal societies, and a vast collection of Slovak works in the area of the humanities. 10 Several other centers exist in Cleveland, Ohio, Youngstown, Ohio, at the campus of Wayne State University in Michigan and other centers are planned in Pittsburgh and Yonkers, N. Y. to be found under the ethnic-centers' bill introduced by Senator Richard Schweiker, Republican of ~nnsylvania. 11 The variety of cultural worlds in the United States is a powerful, subterranean influence in our national cultural life. It remains subterranean because it is often repressed, as though it were something dirty, disfunctional, and SLOVAKIA 127 doomed to disappear. In its place, a "national" ideology has been created. True Black and Hispanic cultural achievements have been given prominence but true reality must represent the many and varied components which have gone to form the mosaic of American culture. It is with this thought in mind that I challenge the America that I know and love to discover the possibilities and the limits inherent in being what I am and openly display what heretofore my ancestors had disguised in silence. There is a new creativity and a new release, there is liberation and there is hope. America is becoming America. FOOTNOTES 1) Gilbert L. Oddo, Slovakia and Its People, (New York, 1960), p. 330. 2) Michael ovak, The Rise of the Unmeltable Ethnics, (New York, 1971 ), p. 145. 3) Mother M. Emerentia Petrasek, SS.C.M., The Congregation of the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius, Told, in Five Decades, (Danville, Pennsylvania, 1959) , p. 110. 4) Oddo, p. 356. 5) Peter P. Yurchak, The Slovaks, (New York, 1947), p. 180. 6) Joseph Pauco, Slovakia 1959, (Middletown, Pennsylvania, 1959), p. 68. 7) Michael Lacko, S.J., SLovak Studies VII, (Rome, 1967), p. 197. 8) John C. Sciranka, Katolicky Sokol, "Polka Mass in Youngstown, Ohio," (Passaic, N. J.), April 24, 1974, p . 15. 9) Philip A. Hrobak, Slovak Catholic Parishes and Institutions in the United States and Canada, (Middletown, Pennsylvania, 1955) , p. 35. 10) Joseph C. Krajsa, "Jednota Museum Dedicated," Furdek 1973, (Middletown, Pennsylvania, 1973), p . 56. 11 ) Joseph Pauco, Slovakia 1973, (Middletown, Pennsylvania, 1973), p. 165. BIBLIOGRAPHY Hrobak, Philip A., Slovak Catholic Parishes and Institutions in the United States and Canada, Middletown, Pa., 1955. Krajsa , Joseph C., "Jednota Museum Dedicated," Furdek 1973, Middletown, Pa., 1973. Lacko, Michael S. J. , "Bibliographica," Slovak Studies VII, Rome, 1970. Novak, Michael, The Rise of the Umneltable Ethnics, New York, 1971. Pauco, Joseph, "Eleven Hundred Years of Prayerful Song. A Survey of Slovak Church Music," Middletown, Pa., 1959. Slovakia 1973, Middletown, Pa., 1973 Pctrasek, Mother M. Emerentia, SS.C.M., Brief History of the Congregation of Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius, Danville, Pa., 1959. Sciranka, John C., "Polka Mass in Youngstown, Ohio," Katolicky Sokol, Passaic, . J ., April 24, 1974. Yurchak, Peter P., The Slovaks, New York, 1947.  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Slovak Contributions to the American Cultural Mosaic Description An account of the resource Daniel F. Tanzone Slovakia, Vol. 25 (No. 48), 1975 pp. 119-127 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Tanzone, Daniel F. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1975 name https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/a2d0affb0ebd5229faa0a0d6d9d871b7.pdf 9276dee27cc18c831a7a3d861fa2233c PDF Text Text 128 SLOVAKIA St. Cyril Ln Love A boy in a well-to-do bedroom, wound in rich blankets, tufted wool, his head resting on the hand-stitched cover of a feather pillow, bunched his legs to his chest and hugged himself tight as a spring, a boy with the mind of a man and the soul of a saint asleep in a curlicue like a baby in a cradle, not long since his mother's milk, her large, soft hands and wrap-around arms, her lullaby voice tucking him in. The one woman he dreamed, Sophia, the only woman he ever wanted to pursue, had features he couldn't quite make outa Roman profile, it seemed, the blank eyes of a Greek statue, but no distinct size or shape of nose and mouth, no color of iris or curve of the eyebrows, no crow's feet or squint lines, no identifying freckles or mole on her neck. She was like a lady one catches sight of in a marketplace and is struck by something in the walk, something about the fall of the hair over her shoulders, something, something that makes one think she is someone he knew a long time ago, met among guest at a banquet strolled with on a Sunday afternoon, talked with outside the ruins of a temple, or fell in love with in his sleep. Something about her stride, something about the lilt of her hair, sends him chasing after her, careening into the crowd, halting as if at a roadblock, then snaking through and breaking into a half-jog �SLOVAKIA 129 past men leading donkeys loaded with baskets, women balancing jugs on their heads, soldiers, girls haggling at fruit and vegetable stalls, pickpockets, children tussling and dodging the one who is "it" in a game of tag or crouching to shoot pebbles into circles drawn in the dirt, toddlers. And in the hurly-burly and haste he never catches up. The seven-year-old Constantine awoke, locked himself in his room in Thessalonica, read and searched, searched and read ( . . . the soul of man, the mind of God . . . ) , sought the image of the lady, a rumor of her whereabouts. The seven-year-old Constantine peered out his window, picked up his quill, dipped it in the inkhorn, made notes on a parchment scroll till he was sixteen and best friends with a genius and holy man as he went off to the imperial school to study grammar, rhetor-ic, logic, music, poetry, astronomy, arithmetic, geometry, theology and Scripture texts . Luke, the Blessed ( ... poring over Homer, Helen Virgin ... ). Arm-in-arm with Gregory Nazianzen, he pursued the icon lady, the come-alive statue in gold ornaments and jewels into the shadows of Hagia Sophia, the cathedral, where the bell struck in the dome, and he was twenty-two. There was no one he would marry, no godchild of a chancellor, not even with a hefty dowry and promise of a post at the emperor's court; for, dropping into the bulging mother of a church one day for his accustomed visit, �130 SLOVAKIA he had stood transfixed before the gilded altar and mosaics recognizing, as if for the first time, Mary the mother, speechless, following her son through the jostling mob, along the cobblestones, Veronica, aghast, wiping His blood and sweat, then left with the imprint on her veil of His smeared face and soggy, matted hair, the women of the city cuddling their babies and sobbing, suddenly hushed by Him-gratefulall these women in Jerusalem loving Him, hoping, believing far beyond death. Constantine saw the visage of Sophiathe look of the women, Veronica, Mary, knowing the skull and crossbones, a rolled-back stoneSophia, Christ, in one wordless gaze. So for years it was Maria Sophia and Mother Church as the philosopher fled from library to monastery then back to the public, a cleric in the chair of philosophy, the disputant with Arabs and iconoclasts, then off to hermitage again, until, at someone's beck and call, he left the monastery of St. Basil to join Methodius his brother on a mission to the Khazars. He converted hundreds of barbarians, freed Greek patriots, the booty of the Khan, journeyed through Fulla and choppe~ down a sacred oak engrafted with branches of a cherry tree, traveled on to the Crimea, dug up an anchor and the bones of Pope Clement on an island just off the quarries and salt mines of Cherson, and returned to Byzantium. But there was still something, something . . . This woman, Sophia, who was always before him, this woman whose eyes were Mary's and Veronica's, whose smile was a calmed-down mother's on the way of the cross, �SLOVAKIA 131 whose whole bearing breathed Scripture and liturgy, this mystical body, still somehow eluded him. She was always just ahead of him in the caravan, just beyond his grasp. So often they were almost neck-and-neck, and then she would vanishSophia, the spirit of a woman from another time, Sophia, an angel, a puff of smoke, a whiff of incense, a cloud wafting off ... Something about Sophia, like a word, a sacrament, was not quite flesh and blood, not quite concrete. Sophia, the one woman he dreamed, drew him to heaven but hid herself in the dust of horses' hooves. Then a missive to Emperor Michael from Rastislav, prince of the rivers Morava and Vah, called Methodius and Constantine to an alphabet, gospels, liturgical books, and an apostolate to the Slovaks. For Constantine, Sophia was becoming more and more the gypsythe whim and will-o'-the-wisp of God. The Tatry mountains, linden trees, fields of poppies Young girls striking their foreheads to the gods, bearing wreaths of flowers and dancing at the altars of Lada, tossing handfuls of flour into roadside bushes and shrubbery for Meluzina, for Lada, goddess of beauty, for Meluzina, goddess of the wind ... Peasant mothers pulling their children away from the doorways to hide their faces in the lacework of their aprons and the gathers of their skirts against the lightning and storm, muttering charms against the thundergod Perun, mumbling pleas to Morena and zivena, death and life, those goddesses, wanton as a scattering of pebbles underfoot, whimsical as autumn leaves skittering across the fields ... �132 SLOVAKIA These women with cocks and hearts, apples, tulips, and slit leeks embroidered on their bodices and sleeves, these women in lace caps and bonnets, these flush-faced girls who stole behind haystacks and their white-washed cottages to sing, these flush-faced girls, love-longing, who wove ribbons through their caps and danced, these girls and women, earthy pagans, stopped and listened. The men set aside their plows and haymows, laid down their hatchets and tools, and, God knows why, heard Constantine, mulled it all over as if weighing a bargain with a trader or considering the terms of a truce with an old foe, and turned to ask to be baptized. And suddenly, like lightning cracking through a gray dead tree, it struck him: there she was standing, fullface, bright-eyed and smiling, in front of a peasant's hut. This phantom, this gypsy, this poppy, Sophia . . . an old Slovak grandmother in a black kerchief, her face weatherbeaten with laughter and weeping. It was as simple as that, mused ConstantineSophia, wisdom, was, had always been, a folkwoman humming and listening to the wind. (A grandmother who was a mother rocking by a fireside, embroidering, tatting, telling stories, a mother who was an apple-cheeked girl, fancy in flowers, ribbons and fine stitchery, giggling, hiding-and-seeking, sighing, lovelorn, an apple-cheeked girl who was a child dressed in hemp underwear, a wooly halenka, a linen blouse and pinafore, a child squatting on the ground playing with dolls made of dried-out cornhusks, a child who was a helpless infant, naked, nursed, and lulled to sleep . . . ) Constantine had followed Sophia and found her, �SLOVAKIA 133 a toothless big-hearted grandmother, a sage old matriarch who taught her men to work, play, sing, survive catastrophe, to listen, learn, and lie down to dream. Sophia, Christ, among the Slovaks . . . Wisdom was the fondness with which he welled up, the awe and tenderness with which he poured water over the peasant's brow, whispered the words of baptism like sweet nothings and like a magic spell, and traced with his thumb a cross. This plain, unstudied wisdoma grandmother gumming dark bread, cabbage, cheese This lovethe sun, the wind, the land, the children, flesh and blood This carnival of joy .. . And Constantine was ready to go back to Rome, weakened, ill, to take to a monastery, change his name to Cyril, and retreat into a rough-hewn cell, to doze off under thin covers on a hard cot and pass away in a curlicue like a baby in a cradle, the unwinding of a clock, the bursting of a chick from an eggshell. Sister M. Pamela Smith, SS.C.M. Note: For many of the details of biography and the descriptions of costume, topography, and heritage, this poem is indebted to the following sources: Agnes Bocan, "An Introduction to Slovak Costume," Slovakia, 22 (1972), pp. 153-157. Stephen J. Palickar, Slovakian Culture in the Light of History, (Cambridge, Mass.: Hampshire Press, 1954). Sister M. Martina Tybor, SS.C.M., Sts. Cyril and Methodius: The Glory of the Slavs, (Milwaukee: Catholic Life Publications, Bruce Press, 1963). � 128 SLOVAKIA St. Cyril Ln Love A boy in a well-to-do bedroom, wound in rich blankets, tufted wool, his head resting on the hand-stitched cover of a feather pillow, bunched his legs to his chest and hugged himself tight as a spring, a boy with the mind of a man and the soul of a saint asleep in a curlicue like a baby in a cradle, not long since his mother's milk, her large, soft hands and wrap-around arms, her lullaby voice tucking him in. The one woman he dreamed, Sophia, the only woman he ever wanted to pursue, had features he couldn't quite make outa Roman profile, it seemed, the blank eyes of a Greek statue, but no distinct size or shape of nose and mouth, no color of iris or curve of the eyebrows, no crow's feet or squint lines, no identifying freckles or mole on her neck. She was like a lady one catches sight of in a marketplace and is struck by something in the walk, something about the fall of the hair over her shoulders, something, something that makes one think she is someone he knew a long time ago, met among guest at a banquet strolled with on a Sunday afternoon, talked with outside the ruins of a temple, or fell in love with in his sleep. Something about her stride, something about the lilt of her hair, sends him chasing after her, careening into the crowd, halting as if at a roadblock, then snaking through and breaking into a half-jog �SLOVAKIA 129 past men leading donkeys loaded with baskets, women balancing jugs on their heads, soldiers, girls haggling at fruit and vegetable stalls, pickpockets, children tussling and dodging the one who is "it" in a game of tag or crouching to shoot pebbles into circles drawn in the dirt, toddlers. And in the hurly-burly and haste he never catches up. The seven-year-old Constantine awoke, locked himself in his room in Thessalonica, read and searched, searched and read ( . . . the soul of man, the mind of God . . . ) , sought the image of the lady, a rumor of her whereabouts. The seven-year-old Constantine peered out his window, picked up his quill, dipped it in the inkhorn, made notes on a parchment scroll till he was sixteen and best friends with a genius and holy man as he went off to the imperial school to study grammar, rhetor-ic, logic, music, poetry, astronomy, arithmetic, geometry, theology and Scripture texts . Luke, the Blessed ( ... poring over Homer, Helen Virgin ... ). Arm-in-arm with Gregory Nazianzen, he pursued the icon lady, the come-alive statue in gold ornaments and jewels into the shadows of Hagia Sophia, the cathedral, where the bell struck in the dome, and he was twenty-two. There was no one he would marry, no godchild of a chancellor, not even with a hefty dowry and promise of a post at the emperor's court; for, dropping into the bulging mother of a church one day for his accustomed visit, �130 SLOVAKIA he had stood transfixed before the gilded altar and mosaics recognizing, as if for the first time, Mary the mother, speechless, following her son through the jostling mob, along the cobblestones, Veronica, aghast, wiping His blood and sweat, then left with the imprint on her veil of His smeared face and soggy, matted hair, the women of the city cuddling their babies and sobbing, suddenly hushed by Him-gratefulall these women in Jerusalem loving Him, hoping, believing far beyond death. Constantine saw the visage of Sophiathe look of the women, Veronica, Mary, knowing the skull and crossbones, a rolled-back stoneSophia, Christ, in one wordless gaze. So for years it was Maria Sophia and Mother Church as the philosopher fled from library to monastery then back to the public, a cleric in the chair of philosophy, the disputant with Arabs and iconoclasts, then off to hermitage again, until, at someone's beck and call, he left the monastery of St. Basil to join Methodius his brother on a mission to the Khazars. He converted hundreds of barbarians, freed Greek patriots, the booty of the Khan, journeyed through Fulla and choppe~ down a sacred oak engrafted with branches of a cherry tree, traveled on to the Crimea, dug up an anchor and the bones of Pope Clement on an island just off the quarries and salt mines of Cherson, and returned to Byzantium. But there was still something, something . . . This woman, Sophia, who was always before him, this woman whose eyes were Mary's and Veronica's, whose smile was a calmed-down mother's on the way of the cross, �SLOVAKIA 131 whose whole bearing breathed Scripture and liturgy, this mystical body, still somehow eluded him. She was always just ahead of him in the caravan, just beyond his grasp. So often they were almost neck-and-neck, and then she would vanishSophia, the spirit of a woman from another time, Sophia, an angel, a puff of smoke, a whiff of incense, a cloud wafting off ... Something about Sophia, like a word, a sacrament, was not quite flesh and blood, not quite concrete. Sophia, the one woman he dreamed, drew him to heaven but hid herself in the dust of horses' hooves. Then a missive to Emperor Michael from Rastislav, prince of the rivers Morava and Vah, called Methodius and Constantine to an alphabet, gospels, liturgical books, and an apostolate to the Slovaks. For Constantine, Sophia was becoming more and more the gypsythe whim and will-o'-the-wisp of God. The Tatry mountains, linden trees, fields of poppies Young girls striking their foreheads to the gods, bearing wreaths of flowers and dancing at the altars of Lada, tossing handfuls of flour into roadside bushes and shrubbery for Meluzina, for Lada, goddess of beauty, for Meluzina, goddess of the wind ... Peasant mothers pulling their children away from the doorways to hide their faces in the lacework of their aprons and the gathers of their skirts against the lightning and storm, muttering charms against the thundergod Perun, mumbling pleas to Morena and zivena, death and life, those goddesses, wanton as a scattering of pebbles underfoot, whimsical as autumn leaves skittering across the fields ... �132 SLOVAKIA These women with cocks and hearts, apples, tulips, and slit leeks embroidered on their bodices and sleeves, these women in lace caps and bonnets, these flush-faced girls who stole behind haystacks and their white-washed cottages to sing, these flush-faced girls, love-longing, who wove ribbons through their caps and danced, these girls and women, earthy pagans, stopped and listened. The men set aside their plows and haymows, laid down their hatchets and tools, and, God knows why, heard Constantine, mulled it all over as if weighing a bargain with a trader or considering the terms of a truce with an old foe, and turned to ask to be baptized. And suddenly, like lightning cracking through a gray dead tree, it struck him: there she was standing, fullface, bright-eyed and smiling, in front of a peasant's hut. This phantom, this gypsy, this poppy, Sophia . . . an old Slovak grandmother in a black kerchief, her face weatherbeaten with laughter and weeping. It was as simple as that, mused ConstantineSophia, wisdom, was, had always been, a folkwoman humming and listening to the wind. (A grandmother who was a mother rocking by a fireside, embroidering, tatting, telling stories, a mother who was an apple-cheeked girl, fancy in flowers, ribbons and fine stitchery, giggling, hiding-and-seeking, sighing, lovelorn, an apple-cheeked girl who was a child dressed in hemp underwear, a wooly halenka, a linen blouse and pinafore, a child squatting on the ground playing with dolls made of dried-out cornhusks, a child who was a helpless infant, naked, nursed, and lulled to sleep . . . ) Constantine had followed Sophia and found her, �SLOVAKIA 133 a toothless big-hearted grandmother, a sage old matriarch who taught her men to work, play, sing, survive catastrophe, to listen, learn, and lie down to dream. Sophia, Christ, among the Slovaks . . . Wisdom was the fondness with which he welled up, the awe and tenderness with which he poured water over the peasant's brow, whispered the words of baptism like sweet nothings and like a magic spell, and traced with his thumb a cross. This plain, unstudied wisdoma grandmother gumming dark bread, cabbage, cheese This lovethe sun, the wind, the land, the children, flesh and blood This carnival of joy .. . And Constantine was ready to go back to Rome, weakened, ill, to take to a monastery, change his name to Cyril, and retreat into a rough-hewn cell, to doze off under thin covers on a hard cot and pass away in a curlicue like a baby in a cradle, the unwinding of a clock, the bursting of a chick from an eggshell. Sister M. Pamela Smith, SS.C.M. Note: For many of the details of biography and the descriptions of costume, topography, and heritage, this poem is indebted to the following sources: Agnes Bocan, "An Introduction to Slovak Costume," Slovakia, 22 (1972), pp. 153-157. Stephen J. Palickar, Slovakian Culture in the Light of History, (Cambridge, Mass.: Hampshire Press, 1954). Sister M. Martina Tybor, SS.C.M., Sts. Cyril and Methodius: The Glory of the Slavs, (Milwaukee: Catholic Life Publications, Bruce Press, 1963). � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1975, Vol. 25 Description An account of the resource Vol. 25 (No. 48), 1975. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1975 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document 128 SLOVAKIA St. Cyril Ln Love A boy in a well-to-do bedroom, wound in rich blankets, tufted wool, his head resting on the hand-stitched cover of a feather pillow, bunched his legs to his chest and hugged himself tight as a spring, a boy with the mind of a man and the soul of a saint asleep in a curlicue like a baby in a cradle, not long since his mother's milk, her large, soft hands and wrap-around arms, her lullaby voice tucking him in. The one woman he dreamed, Sophia, the only woman he ever wanted to pursue, had features he couldn't quite make outa Roman profile, it seemed, the blank eyes of a Greek statue, but no distinct size or shape of nose and mouth, no color of iris or curve of the eyebrows, no crow's feet or squint lines, no identifying freckles or mole on her neck. She was like a lady one catches sight of in a marketplace and is struck by something in the walk, something about the fall of the hair over her shoulders, something, something that makes one think she is someone he knew a long time ago, met among guest at a banquet strolled with on a Sunday afternoon, talked with outside the ruins of a temple, or fell in love with in his sleep. Something about her stride, something about the lilt of her hair, sends him chasing after her, careening into the crowd, halting as if at a roadblock, then snaking through and breaking into a half-jog SLOVAKIA 129 past men leading donkeys loaded with baskets, women balancing jugs on their heads, soldiers, girls haggling at fruit and vegetable stalls, pickpockets, children tussling and dodging the one who is "it" in a game of tag or crouching to shoot pebbles into circles drawn in the dirt, toddlers. And in the hurly-burly and haste he never catches up. The seven-year-old Constantine awoke, locked himself in his room in Thessalonica, read and searched, searched and read ( . . . the soul of man, the mind of God . . . ) , sought the image of the lady, a rumor of her whereabouts. The seven-year-old Constantine peered out his window, picked up his quill, dipped it in the inkhorn, made notes on a parchment scroll till he was sixteen and best friends with a genius and holy man as he went off to the imperial school to study grammar, rhetor-ic, logic, music, poetry, astronomy, arithmetic, geometry, theology and Scripture texts . Luke, the Blessed ( ... poring over Homer, Helen Virgin ... ). Arm-in-arm with Gregory Nazianzen, he pursued the icon lady, the come-alive statue in gold ornaments and jewels into the shadows of Hagia Sophia, the cathedral, where the bell struck in the dome, and he was twenty-two. There was no one he would marry, no godchild of a chancellor, not even with a hefty dowry and promise of a post at the emperor's court; for, dropping into the bulging mother of a church one day for his accustomed visit, 130 SLOVAKIA he had stood transfixed before the gilded altar and mosaics recognizing, as if for the first time, Mary the mother, speechless, following her son through the jostling mob, along the cobblestones, Veronica, aghast, wiping His blood and sweat, then left with the imprint on her veil of His smeared face and soggy, matted hair, the women of the city cuddling their babies and sobbing, suddenly hushed by Him-gratefulall these women in Jerusalem loving Him, hoping, believing far beyond death. Constantine saw the visage of Sophiathe look of the women, Veronica, Mary, knowing the skull and crossbones, a rolled-back stoneSophia, Christ, in one wordless gaze. So for years it was Maria Sophia and Mother Church as the philosopher fled from library to monastery then back to the public, a cleric in the chair of philosophy, the disputant with Arabs and iconoclasts, then off to hermitage again, until, at someone's beck and call, he left the monastery of St. Basil to join Methodius his brother on a mission to the Khazars. He converted hundreds of barbarians, freed Greek patriots, the booty of the Khan, journeyed through Fulla and choppe~ down a sacred oak engrafted with branches of a cherry tree, traveled on to the Crimea, dug up an anchor and the bones of Pope Clement on an island just off the quarries and salt mines of Cherson, and returned to Byzantium. But there was still something, something . . . This woman, Sophia, who was always before him, this woman whose eyes were Mary's and Veronica's, whose smile was a calmed-down mother's on the way of the cross, SLOVAKIA 131 whose whole bearing breathed Scripture and liturgy, this mystical body, still somehow eluded him. She was always just ahead of him in the caravan, just beyond his grasp. So often they were almost neck-and-neck, and then she would vanishSophia, the spirit of a woman from another time, Sophia, an angel, a puff of smoke, a whiff of incense, a cloud wafting off ... Something about Sophia, like a word, a sacrament, was not quite flesh and blood, not quite concrete. Sophia, the one woman he dreamed, drew him to heaven but hid herself in the dust of horses' hooves. Then a missive to Emperor Michael from Rastislav, prince of the rivers Morava and Vah, called Methodius and Constantine to an alphabet, gospels, liturgical books, and an apostolate to the Slovaks. For Constantine, Sophia was becoming more and more the gypsythe whim and will-o'-the-wisp of God. The Tatry mountains, linden trees, fields of poppies Young girls striking their foreheads to the gods, bearing wreaths of flowers and dancing at the altars of Lada, tossing handfuls of flour into roadside bushes and shrubbery for Meluzina, for Lada, goddess of beauty, for Meluzina, goddess of the wind ... Peasant mothers pulling their children away from the doorways to hide their faces in the lacework of their aprons and the gathers of their skirts against the lightning and storm, muttering charms against the thundergod Perun, mumbling pleas to Morena and zivena, death and life, those goddesses, wanton as a scattering of pebbles underfoot, whimsical as autumn leaves skittering across the fields ... 132 SLOVAKIA These women with cocks and hearts, apples, tulips, and slit leeks embroidered on their bodices and sleeves, these women in lace caps and bonnets, these flush-faced girls who stole behind haystacks and their white-washed cottages to sing, these flush-faced girls, love-longing, who wove ribbons through their caps and danced, these girls and women, earthy pagans, stopped and listened. The men set aside their plows and haymows, laid down their hatchets and tools, and, God knows why, heard Constantine, mulled it all over as if weighing a bargain with a trader or considering the terms of a truce with an old foe, and turned to ask to be baptized. And suddenly, like lightning cracking through a gray dead tree, it struck him: there she was standing, fullface, bright-eyed and smiling, in front of a peasant's hut. This phantom, this gypsy, this poppy, Sophia . . . an old Slovak grandmother in a black kerchief, her face weatherbeaten with laughter and weeping. It was as simple as that, mused ConstantineSophia, wisdom, was, had always been, a folkwoman humming and listening to the wind. (A grandmother who was a mother rocking by a fireside, embroidering, tatting, telling stories, a mother who was an apple-cheeked girl, fancy in flowers, ribbons and fine stitchery, giggling, hiding-and-seeking, sighing, lovelorn, an apple-cheeked girl who was a child dressed in hemp underwear, a wooly halenka, a linen blouse and pinafore, a child squatting on the ground playing with dolls made of dried-out cornhusks, a child who was a helpless infant, naked, nursed, and lulled to sleep . . . ) Constantine had followed Sophia and found her, SLOVAKIA 133 a toothless big-hearted grandmother, a sage old matriarch who taught her men to work, play, sing, survive catastrophe, to listen, learn, and lie down to dream. Sophia, Christ, among the Slovaks . . . Wisdom was the fondness with which he welled up, the awe and tenderness with which he poured water over the peasant's brow, whispered the words of baptism like sweet nothings and like a magic spell, and traced with his thumb a cross. This plain, unstudied wisdoma grandmother gumming dark bread, cabbage, cheese This lovethe sun, the wind, the land, the children, flesh and blood This carnival of joy .. . And Constantine was ready to go back to Rome, weakened, ill, to take to a monastery, change his name to Cyril, and retreat into a rough-hewn cell, to doze off under thin covers on a hard cot and pass away in a curlicue like a baby in a cradle, the unwinding of a clock, the bursting of a chick from an eggshell. Sister M. Pamela Smith, SS.C.M. Note: For many of the details of biography and the descriptions of costume, topography, and heritage, this poem is indebted to the following sources: Agnes Bocan, "An Introduction to Slovak Costume," Slovakia, 22 (1972), pp. 153-157. Stephen J. Palickar, Slovakian Culture in the Light of History, (Cambridge, Mass.: Hampshire Press, 1954). Sister M. Martina Tybor, SS.C.M., Sts. Cyril and Methodius: The Glory of the Slavs, (Milwaukee: Catholic Life Publications, Bruce Press, 1963).  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource St. Cyril in Love Description An account of the resource Sister M. Pamela Smith, SS.C.M. Slovakia, Vol. 25 (No. 48), 1975 pp. 128-133 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Smith, Sister M. Pamela, SS.C.M. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1975 name https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/e8beb5c44a72030b96b897daa1e29d0a.pdf f3f30dae1ca0f1318fe24e344ba3c6d7 PDF Text Text 134 SLOVAKIA L' udov1t Stur and Slovak Cultural Nationalism By Anthony X. Sutherland, Ph.D. There have been few individuals in the history of any nation who have had as much impact on the course of their nation's development than Eudovit stur, the nineteenth century Slovak nationalist, philosopher, linguist, and revolutionary leader. Considered as the principal formulator of the Slovak national ideology, his ideas on the Slovak language and nation have influenced in some way every generation of Slovaks since his death. In fact, much of Slovak history is incomprehensible without a basic knowledge of stur and his work. To some a re-examination of stur's idBas might seem unwarranted in light of the several scholarly studies on him that have appeared. Unfortunately though, most of these were written in French or in Slavic languages leaving the English reader with very little. In addition, stur has been frequently misunderstood in the West since most knowledge of him was based on his German book, Das Slawenthum und die Welt der Zukunft, which established him as a Russian political Panslav. Western historians have not done justice to stur, failing to research his Slavic works or examine his life in its entirety. In most East European nations nationalism appeared in two distinct phases, a cultural nationalism and a political nationalism. The first or cultural phase, lasting till about 1848, involved linguistic reform and cultural development; the second, political nationalism, beginning in 1848, was devoted to more political concerns such as the obtaining of cultural rights, economic and social reforms, as well as national independence. stur's career in Slovak national life was especially unique since, by becoming a participant in the Revolution of 1848, he was one of the first Slovak nationalists to ;move from mainly cultural concerns to active politics. Prior to the Revolution of 1848 stur completed the reform of the Slovak language creating a medium of �SLOVAKIA 135 written expression to be used by all Slovaks. Around the same time he founded the newspaper, Ndrodnje novini and its literary supplement, Orol Tatrdnsky, to defend his linguistic reform and foster the concept of the individuality of the Slovak nation. It was mainly these ideas of stur on the Slovak language and nation that have had most significance in Slovak history. stur came from a Lutheran background. 1 He was born October 29, 1815 in Uhrovec, the son of Samuel stur, director of the state schools in the Trencin district. 2 After attending local schools :Cudovit stur went to the gymnasium in Rab and then on to the Lutheran Lyceum in Bratislava. stur's studies included history, linguistics, philosophy, as well as Magyar and German. stur also came into contact with many important Slovak intellectuals as Samo Chalupka and Juraj Palkovic. stur soon became instructor of Slavic languages and history at the lyceum. In 1838-1839 stur continued his studies at the University of Halle in Germany. While at the University of Halle stur came under the influence of a certain Leopold Pee who stirred in him a love for Slavic history. These years were perhaps the most formative for the development of his thoughts. At Halle stur became acquainted with German Romanticism, especially with Herder's philosophy. He was also influenced by Hegel's philosophy, receiving lectures from the noted Hegelian, Johann E. Erdmann.3 From Hegelian philosophy stur learned the importance of the "idea" as the moving force in all history. He interpreted the Slovak national movement according to the dialectic, believing all history followed certain historical laws. stur believed in the inevitable triumph of the Slovak nation. Magyar feudal society was then in a process of disintegration and would give way to the new rising Slovak middle class who would carry on the Slovak national revival. Returning from Halle stur continued his teaching at the Lutheran Lyceum. Slovak cultural activities of stur's group were centered at this time in the Lyceum and in its Institute for Czecho-Slovak Language and Literature. During these years several societies were founded by Catholics and Protestants to promote literary development, the most famous being the Society of Lovers of Slovak Language �136 SLOVAKIA and Literature which included in its membership such great Slovak personalities as Jan Kollar and Martin Hamuljak. The principal issue confronting Slovak intellectuals at this time was the question of language. Slovaks during the first part of the nineteenth century were divided into two camps: Slovak Catholics adhered to the Slovak written language as codified by Anton Bernolak in the 1780s while Slovak Lutherans continued to use the Czech of the Kralice Bible and Hymn Book of Tranoscius used in the Lutheran Church. The question of language was a critical one for Slovak nationalism for the Slovaks could never hope to manifest any national unity while people continued to write in different literary forms . Some attempts were made to bring both schools to a working cooperation. In 1835 the almanac, Zora appeared which was intended to unify both Bernolak and Czech writers, but despite such manifestations of cooperation the language question remained unresolved. By the 1840s some members of the Bernolak school even considered returning to the use of a Slovakized Czech in their writings. 4 The movement for national unification of language was led by ~udovit stur and the younger generation of Slovak intellectuals. These people felt that Slovak literature would never develop on its own but remain an insignificant part of Czech literature unless all Slovaks agreed on a common literary medium. 5 The renewed Magyarization re-enforced the need to unify the nation. In 1844 the Hungarian Parliament voted to establish Magyar as the official language of the institution. This was followed by attempts to dissolve Slovak students societies and repress Slovak national life.6 In 1844 stur was dismissed from his teaching post at the Lyceum as a result of efforts to Magyarize protestant church institutions. It was clear to stur that for the success of any political movement against Magyar suppression it was essential to have a language that could be understood by the Slovak masses. 7 Feeling there was sufficient interest at least among the Bernolak writers for cooperation on the language question, stur set out to increase his contacts with the Slovak Catholic clergy in the Pazmaneum and Trnava seminaries.8 He �SLOVAKIA 137 visited Jan Holly, the foremost Bernolak writer, and others in order to arouse interest in solving the language problem.9 In mid 1840s stur and his associates decided to begin work on linguistic reform. Philological meetings were held on the subject of codification at Hlboke in 1843 and in Mikulas in 1844. stur's philological principles were finally accepted at a meeting at cachtice in 1847. A year before, the work of codification was presented and defended in two books: Ndrecja slovenskuo a potreba pisanja v tomto ndreci (1846) and Nauka reci slovenskej (1846). stur based the new literary Slovak on the Central dialect. This dialect was chosen on the belief that it was the purest of the dialects spoken, in addition to being the one spoken in the heart of the nation. stur wrote, "This means of our literary unity cannot be more natural than this language which is spoken in the center of our nation and which, as was already shown is the most genuine type and image of the old Slovak language and the most widely used in our nation, ... it has its own real genius and is truly a Slovak language." 10 In books, articles, and letters stur strove vigorously to obtain recognition for the new written language by members of the Slovak intellectual community. These writings provided excellent arguments for the use of Slovak as a separate language. stur believed that the division of the Slovaks over the use of language had done great damage to the Slovak nation. It was a sign that the Slovak people had not "come to an awareness that they wanted to live as a nation." 11 stur maintained that the Czech used in the Lutheran Church would only "vegetate and become idle," 12 but the new Slovak would flourish and be used in schools, cities, and in all aspects of social life. 13 Perhaps stur's main argument for his reform of Slovak was that without a common literary language Slovaks could never produce their own literature. To support this stur pointed to the example of the ancient Greeks. The Greeks were able to create many great works of literature and philosophy because they expressed themselves using their _o wn dialects and were not forced to write in an artificially imposed language. Each of the famous Greek authors, stur said, wrote in his own dialect, Sappho used the Aeolic dialect, Pindar the Doric, and Hesiod the Ion- �138 SLOVAKIA ic. 14 stur repeated that the Slovak language was the key to an independent Slovak life which would enable them to produce great works. "This strong, unbreakable confidence in ourselves, in our own strength, in our own life is now expressed in our latest endeavors: to improve and raise our nation with our own dialect, with the language of our ancestors ... " 15 It did not matter if the Slovaks were small in number, they were still capable of an independent life. stur wrote, "The Greek nation was small in number, great in deeds, in acts, in glory; the Chinese nation is enormous, 350,000,000 souls, but all this enormous nation is only a small part in the span of history, so to speak, a trifle in history and humanity." 16 stur seemed to imply that a nation was of little value unless it experienced its own life as in the creation of literature. The presence of literature or other forms of culture was proof of a nation's own spirituality or intellectuality (duchovnost') and origin (kmeiwvitost'). In Narecia slovenskuo stur wrote: The origin (kmenovitost') or lineage of a nation is a beautiful, noteworthy sign for the nation, giving evidence of its powers of spirit and intellectual vitality; therefore, anyone aware of his nation's roots is granted the incentive to preserve and carefully nurture and cultivate it to the best of his ability. Such concern for a nation's origin cannot but develop the intellectual life of the nation and cause it to flower into a healthy, handsome tree.17 For stur there were different degrees of this spirituality, the highest being that which manifested itself in culture. stur suggested that nations which did not display this spirituality were not worthy of history, for "only acts and deeds belong to history." 18 All nations possess some spirituality and have the powers to develop it, stur add':)d. 13 The Slavs have 'enormous ability or potential,' but as yet have not done much with it.20 The main principle in stur's philosophy was his concept of "life." 21 stur's writings contained many references to the "life of the nation" and the "spiritual life." Whereas Hodza and Hurban talked about "love of the language" and "love of the nation," stur spoke of "life of the nation" and language.22 This notion of "life," however, did not have the simple meaning of merely something living but was used more in the orative sense, as in the production of culture. �SLOVAKIA 139 The spirit (duch), which was the "essence of everything," 23 was present only in life, thus those who wanted to cultivate their spirit had to experience "life." 24 stur's writings revealed a close resemblance to the philosophy of Herder. This relationship between Herderian ideas and those of stur have not been adequately dealt with. Dimitrij cizevskij, the foremost authority on stur's philosophy, hinted that stur's concept of "spirit" (duch) probably came from Herder. 25 A close inspection would show that many of stur's ideas, particularly those of language, display a similarity with Herder. For stur, as with Herder, language was the main repository of a nation's characteristics and spirit, and provided the connecting link with past generations of the nation. stur asked, "What is closer to us, more part of us, more accessible than the natural language, than the language in which we all began to speak to the world, in which our present generation is joined, that language in which the spirit of our fathers lives, whose melodious voices resound in our valleys and hills and radiate our feelings, our thoughts of one mind, of one sentiment?" 26 According to Herder, language was the means by which a nation became a united entity; a nation without a language was a contradiction. In Die Beschwerden und Klagen der Slawen in Ungarn (1843) stur wrote, "Every nation is in the most fervid union with its own language ... Language is then the most certain sign of the essence and individuality of every nation . . . a nation stands up as a nation only together with its language, without it, it would not be a nation; if it has its personal language, it is recognized as a nation ... " 27 Likewise, stur wrote that the Slovak language was a symbol of Slovak unity. 28 He said: No nation can stand on its own feet unless it has the will to possess its own life, unless it understands that it is one nation, one moral personality ... Our life and nation must be Slovak, the bond of this life must be the qualities and wealth of our nation, it must be then the language of our ancestors.29 The new literary Slovak was welcomed by many members of the younger generation of Slovak intellectuals. stur's letters showed his confidence in the ultimate victory of Slovak in being accepted.30 Not all Slovaks, however, favorably received the new literary language. stur had to contend with several attacks on his work of codification �140 SLOVAKIA by Slovak Panslavs. stur anticipated this opposition and seemed to welcome it, seeing this as an opportunity to demonstrate the worthiness of his effort. In his essay, "Hlas proti hlasom," written in response to Kollar's attacks on Slovak, stur summarized his attitude towards the linguistic dispute. He wrote: The Czech voices against slovencina (Slovak language) have challenged us to this dispute. Everyone must defend his own things; who does not defend it, does not rely on it, does not want its victory, proves that he is not convinced of its truth. But we are highly convinced of the truth of our cause, it depends upon us that it endures, we want its victory, we are conscious of taking these steps with the most noble intentions, we accept then the dispute and with our own defense we will answer these attacks on our work. Our defense of this brings honor to our people and our nation; not to defend the honor of our nation or our honor is wickedness.al stur referred to Kollar's article, "Hlasove o potfebe jednoty spisovneho jazyka pro Cechy, Moravany, a Slovaky," attacking the literary Slovak as an "infamous disgrace of the Slovak language." 32 Nevertheless, stur denied he had any bitterness towards such opposition or desire to break off relations with them. 33 It should be remembered that stur was himself a Panslav, but whereas stur maintained there were eleven branches or tribes in the Slavic nation (Great Russians, Little Russians, Bulgarians, Serbians, Croatians, Slovenes, Poles, Czechs, Upper Lusatians, Lower Lusatians, and Slovaks), Kollar claimed there were only four: Czech, Polish, Illyrian, and Russian. To Kollar Slovak was simply a dialect of Czech, together they formed a united nation or tribe, thus the raising of Slovak to a separate literary language destroyed for Kollar natural unity of the two peoples. On several occasions stur denied that the use of a written Slovak would disrupt Slavic "mutuality" or "reciprocity" (vzdjomnost'). 34 stur did not recommend that every person write in his own local dialect but only if his dialect had its own individuality and purity.35 stur stressed Slavic unity, but wanted unity with diversity. He wrote, "Slavic life is varied as many branches on a linden tree, the nation is one, but one in diversity, so let this diversity be manifested in our spiritual life and in unity." 36 Each Slavic tribe (kmen) by developing its own potential, using its own dialect would contribute to the greater glory of Slavdom. 37 �SLOVAKIA 141 An important aspect of Shir's cultural Panslavism was the search for the nation's spirit (duch). Every nation, stur emphasized, had to find its own spirit and then cultivate it. This quest for the nation's spirit led stur to investigate all aspects of Slavic life including Slavic folk poetry and songs. 38 In 1853 stur published a major work in Slavic folklore, O ndrodnych povestiach a piesnach plemien slovanskych. stur considered the Slavs the most poetical and musical people in the world. Poetry or song was the peculiar Slavic way of expression. Whereas the Germans excelled in music, Romans in paintings, Greeks in sculpture, and Egyptians in architecture, "the Slavs poured out their soul and thought in tales, melodies and songs." 39 Poetry was viewed by stur as a higher form of art since it more perfectly expressed one's spirit ( duch) _4-0 In his book, 0 ndrodnych povestiach a piesnach plemien slovanskych, Shir presented a comparative study of Slavic folklore. One theme was selected, as love or loyalty, then was shown how it was expressed in the different Slavic dialects. stur concluded that all Slavic poetry from whatever tribe (kmen) displayed a common character and gave evidence of spirituality among the Slavs. He said they revealed a common world view, a common mind and feelings although expressed in different dialects. 41 In the late 1840s stur was drawn more into the political arena. stur's politics and activities during the Revolution of 1848 go beyond the purpose of this study, but it is important to explain how the revolution affected stur's thinking on the Slovak language and national ideology. Many of stur's writings showed his growing concern over Magyar attacks on Slovak national life. In his essay, Stary i navy vek Slovdku, stur compared the glorious past of the Slovaks in Great Moravia with the servile conditions prevalent among the Slovaks in the nineteenth century. stur wrote: "A new terrible, painful age has begun for the Slovaks. The spark of Magyar hatred against the Slovaks has inflamed more and more strongly, and after succeeding ages they have ignited a flame and in the beginning of our age this flame has exploded." 42 It is reasonablt · to assert that stur was not a real revolutionary by nature, and only when he saw the hopelessness of obtaining equality for the Slovaks did he resort to revolution. Before the revolution �142 SLOVAKIA stur worked peacefully to gain recognition for Slovak cultural rights. In 1845 stur traveled to Vienna and was favorably received by the Habsburg Archduke Louis and Austrian minister, Kolovrat. 43 Later during the revolution stur sided with Habsburg rulers against the Magyars with the expectation of receiving political and cultural equality in reward. The failure of the revolution, the disappointment in not receiving the promises of national freedom changed stur's outlook towards the Slovak problem. stur's discouragement was revealed in letters such as this. He wrote: Germans promised us national equality after the victorious struggle, Magyars are beaten but equality has become a mockery. In place of the former ruling language of Magyar all have received equal rights for their language except the Slovaks. Slovak is condemned again to the lowest levels of life ... it is relegated only to letters by the people and petitions from the people.44 The despair over the results of the revolution made stur believe that a small Slavic nation as the Slovaks could never expected the realization of its goals, thus its only salvation was to seek union with its Great Russian brothers. This was the theme of stur's book written in 1853, Das Slawenthum und die Welt der Zukunft, the first work of political Panslavism. In the first section of this book stur examined the situation of the Slavic peoples and found them held everywhere in slavery either by the Germans, Magyars, or Turks.45 Slavs originally had their own states as Great Moravia, Samo's Empire, and the Serbian Empire, but all of these in the end had been destroyed. 46 Under closer inspection it was seen by stur that the Slavs had always been weak and divided, for unlike the Germans, the Slavs had never developed the nation-state idea. The Slavs had been accustomed to ruling themselves democratically, and for this reason had been conquered so easily by the Huns, Petchenegs or others.47 Nevetheless, stur did not believe the situation was hopeless for the Slavs. As Hegel, stur felt all history moved in an unbroken wave of progression, and thus the Slavs would have their age of glory. He said, 'just as every plant does not bloom at the same time in nature, so every nation will have its own time under the sun.' 48 stur felt that if the Slavs were to take their place in history they would have to look for some new form of political organization. �SLOVAKIA 143 stur advanced three possibilities for the Slavs. The first possibility was a federated state with Western and South Slavs. stur rejected this alternative for several reasons. It would be impractical since many Slavs lived in areas highly mixed with non-Slavs. There would also be tension in certain regions between Slavic groups as between Poles and Russians in Galicia. 49 Religious differences could not be overlooked either. Slovaks were divided between Catholics and Lutherans, Serbs between Orthodox and Catholics.50 The second alternative of Austroslavism, mentioned by stur, was viewed as equally impractical. In an Austroslavic state stur said there would be little hope of cultural equality and a real danger of Germanization. In addition, there was always the threat of German colonization of Slavic districts. The third choice, and the one stur accepted, was the union of all Slavs into the Russian Empire. Only the Russians of all the Slavic peoples have been able to maintain their independence down through the centuries. They have been a light of hope to all other oppressed Slavs. stur asked, "Was it not Russia who enlivened our hopes, raised our sunken courage, lifted our dying desire for life? Was it not Russia who alone warded off the intolerable yoke of our peoples with positive help?" 51 Not only did he recommend political union of all Slavs in the Russian Empire but also advocated a return of all Slavs to the Orthodox Church and the acceptance of Russian as the common literary language. stur's program of political Panslavism appeared to stand in contradiction with many of his earlier thoughts. Before 1848 stur had fought for the recognition of Slovak as a separate literary language but in this book advocated the use of Russian as the common language of all Slavs. Some of stur's attachment to Russia could be explained by remembering that he had always been a Panslav to some extent. He did agree with Kollar's idea of Slavic "reciprocity" and did talk about the development of the Slovak nation in context with a greater Slavic community. This however, was merely cultural Panslavism. Perhaps the best explanation for stur's radical conversion to political Panslavism can be found in stur's own romantic nature and his disappointment over the failure of the revolution of 1848. The outcome of the revolution was viewed by stur as such a catastrophe that he saw no hope in the future �144 SLOVAKIA for an independent Slovak national life. The only viable alternative for the Slovaks if they were to survive at all would be to seek the protection of the Russians, one of the last remaining independent Slavic peoples. Had stur lived longer (stur died in 1856) it is open to question whether he would have continued to adhere to these doctrines of political Panslavism or again changed his ideas. This last phase of stur's intellectual activity was really of secondary importance, and perhaps should not be taken too seriously. His work Das Slawenthum was published in Russia in 1867 but remained unpublished in Slovakia until 1931. It was his ideas from the period before 1848 on the Slovak language and nation that have had the most bearing on the development of the Slovak national ideology. Although stur's accomplishments were wide and varied, his reform of the Slovak language was his greatest achievement and the principal event in the history of Slovak cultural nationalism. The establishment of Slovak as an acceptable literary medium enabled the Slovaks to survive as an independent ethnic group. Without a common language Slovaks would most certainly have been more easily assimilated by Czechs or succumbed to Magyarization. It was partly due to stur that language has remained the principal characteristic of Slovak national identity, overshadowing in importance even their common customs or common history. Lang11age has continued to be the critical issue in the Slovak national struggle since stur's time. stur, too, through his efforts to gain recognition for the Slovak nation and language helped turn the direction of many members of the Slovak intelligentsia from the vague, if not unrealistic Panslavism to the more practical goal of the development of the Slovak nation itself. stur's ideology made it possible for the Slovak nation to take its rightful place along side the other Slavic nations and prevented the Slovaks from remaining as insignificant part of the Czech nation. FOOTNOTES 1) Most of the biographical information on Shir was taken from: Milan Pisut, Karol Rosenbaum, and Viktor Kochol, "Literatura narodneho obrodenia," Dejiny slovenskej literatury, vol. II (Bratislava: Slovenska akademia vied, 1960), pp. 362-366. 2) Budovit Stur's father, Samuel Stur, was born March 16, 1789 in �SLOVAKIA 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11 ) 12) 13) 14) 15) 16) 17) 18) 19) 20) 21) 22) 23) 24) 25) 26) 27) 28) 29) 145 Lublin; moved to Uhrovec in 1813. He was the father of three sons, Karol, :I;udovit, and Samuel. :I;udovit Stu.r's grandfather Pavol Stur lived as a serf in Lublin. He died in 1827. Karol Golan, ":I;udovit Stur a slovenske narodne hnutie v tridsiatych rokoch 19. storocia." £udovit stur: Zivot a dielo, 1815-1856 (Bratislava: Slovenskii akademia vied, 1956), pp. 18-20. See Dr. Dimitrij Cizevskij, sturova filozofia zivota (Bratislava: Spisy slovenskej ucenej spolocnosti, 1941), p. 74. :I;udovit Holotik, and others, Dejiny Slovenska, vol. I (Bratislava: Slovenskii akademia vied, 1961), p. 517. Ibid., p. 517. Julius Botto, Slovaci: Vyvin ich narodneho povedomia, vol. I (Turciansky Sv. Martin, 1906), p. 47. Dejiny Slovenska, p. 518. Jozef Butvin, Slovenske narodnozjednocovacie hnutie (1780-1 848) (Bratislava: Slovenska akademia vied, 1965), pp. 219-220. Ibid ., pp. 253-254. :I;udovit Stur, "Hlas proti hlasom," Vybor zo spisov l!udovita Stura (Turciansky Sv. Martin, 1931), pp. 82-83. Ibid., p. 39. Letter of :I;udovit Stur to Frantisek Strakovic, Listy l!udovita ~ura, vol. II, ed. Dr. Jozef Ambrus (Bratislava: Slovenskii akademia vied, 1956), Letter No. 231. Stur, "Neopust'ajme sa," Vybor zo spisov £udovita stura, p. 39. Stur, "Neopust'ajme sa," ibid., p. 40. Stur, "Niirecia slovensko," Vybor zo spisov l!udovita stura, pp. 100-102. Stur, "Neopust'ajme sa," ibid., pp. 38-39. Ibid., pp. 43-44. Stur, "Narecia slovensko," ibid., p. 102. Quoted in Cizevskij, p. 36. Ibid., p . 36. Quoted in Cizevskij, p. 38. Ibid., pp. 14-15. Ibid., p. 15. Stur, "Niirecia slovensko," ibid., p. 111. Cizevskij, p. 40. Quoted in Cizevskij, p. 41. Ibid., p. 44. Stur, "Hlas proti hlasom," ibid., p. 80. Quoted in Butvin, p. 279. Stur, "Neopust'ajme sa," ibid., p. 44. Ibid., p. 39-40. 30) Letter of Stur to Samo Bohdan Hrobon, Listy II, Letter No. 194, 195. Letter of Stur to Martin Hamuljak, Listy, vol. III, Letter No. 397. �146 SLOVAKIA 31) Stur, "Hlas proti hlasom," ibid., p. 77. 32) Letter of Stur to Andrej Sladkovic, Listy I, Letter No. 238. 33 ) Letter of Stur to Michal M. Hodza, Listy I, Letter No. 182. Stur, "Hlas proti hlasom," ibid., pp. 83-84. 34) Stur, "Hlas proti hlasom," ibid., pp. 105-123. 35) Stur, "Narecia slovensko," ibid., p. 103. 36) Ibid. , pp. 103-104. Elena Varossova, "Svetonazor I.!udovita Stura," .r.udovit Stur: Zivot a dielo, pp. 102-103. Cizevskij, pp. 45-46. 37) Stur, "Hlas proti hlasom," ibid., p. 84. Stur, "Narecia slovensk6," ibid., pp. 113-114. Kollar's view in this regard is very similar to Stur's. The only difference was that Kollar recognized only the Czech, Russian, Polish, and Illyrian tribe while Stur recognized eleven including Slovak. Kollar wrote, "Each dialed should create new vital powers for the other tribes, to rejuvenate, build, and enrich the other, nevertheless it would not touch the other tribe or be ,touched itself, but all the rest would continue to maintain their own free sphere." Johann Kollar, Ueber die literarische Wechselseitigkeit (Leipzig: Otto Wigand, 1844), p. 6. 38) Stur's own poetry was typical of cultural nationalism. His two major poetical works, Svi:itoboj and Matus z Trencina concerned old Slovak heroes. Their structure and thematic development resembled the epic poems of Jan Holly. See Pisut, pp. 372-373. L'udovit Stur, Spevy a piesne (Pre~porok, 1853), the poem Svi:itoboj, pp. 9-31 and Matus z Trencina, pp. 35-93. 39) I.!udovit Stur, O narodnych povestiach a piesnach plemien slovanskych (Turciansky Sv. Martin: Matica slovenska, 1932), p. 9. 40) Ibid. , p. 16. 41) Ibid., p. 240. 42 ) I.!udovit Stur, Stary a novy vek Slovaku (Bratislava, 1935), p. 19. 43 ) Botto, p. 60. Letter of Stur to Ctiboh Zoch, Listy II, Letter No. 251. 44) Letter of Stur to Ismail Ivanovic Sreznevskij, Listy II, Letter No. 316. 45) I.!udovit Stur, Das Slawenthum und die Welt der Zukunft (Bratislava, 1931), p. 19. 46) Ibid. , p. 29. 47) Ibid., p. 32. 48) Ibid., p. 49. 49) Ibid., pp. 164-165. 50) Ibid., pp. 165-167. 51) Ibid., p. 192 BIBLIOGRAPHY I. WORKS BY STOR Das Slawenthum und. die Welt der Zukunft. Bratislava, 1931. Listy .r.udovita Stura. Edited by Dr. Jozef Ambrus. 3 volumes. Bratislava: Slovenska akademia vied, 1954, 1956, 1960. �SLOVAKIA 147 0 narodnych povestiach a piesiiach plemien slovanskych. Turciansky Sv. Martin: Matioa slovenska, 1932. Spevy a piesne. Presporok, 1853. Stary a novy vek Slovaku. Bratislava, 1935. Vybor zo spisov .Cudovita §tura. Turciansky Sv. Martin: Matica slovenska, 1931. II. HISTORIES OF SLOVAK LITERATURE Mraz, Andreas, Die L i teratur der Slowaken. Berlin: Volk Verlag, 1943. Mraz, Andrej, Slovenska vlastiveda, vol. V, Literatura a jazyk. Slovenska akademia vied, 1948. Pisut, Milan; Rosenbaum, Karol; Kochol, Viktor, L iteratura obrodenia, vol. II, of Dejiny slovenskej literatury. Slovenska akademia vied, 1960. III. OTHER WORKS und Reich Bratislava: narodneho Bratislava: Bokes, Frantisek, D'ejiny Slovakov a Slovenska od najstarsich cias ai po pritomnost'. Bratislava: Slovenska akademia vied, 1946. Botto, Julius, Slovaci: Vyvin ich narodneho povedomia, 2 volumes, Turciansky Sv. Martin, 1906. Butvin, Jozef, Slovenske narodnozjednocovacie hnutie (1780-1848). Bratislava: Slovenska akademia vied, 1965. Capek, Thomas, The Slovaks of Hungary. New York: Knickerbocker Press, 1906. Cizevskij, Dr. Dimitrij, Sturova filozofia zivota. Bratislava, 1941. Holotik, Uudovit and others, Dejiny Slovenska, vol. I. Bratislava: Slovenska akademia vied, 1961. Hrusovsky, Frantisek, Slovenske dejiny. Turciansky Sv. Martin, 1931. Kirschbaum, Joseph, .Cudovit Stur and His Place in the Slavic World. Cleveland: Slovak Institute, 1958. Kollar, Johann, Ueber die literarische Wechselseitigkeit. Leipzig: Otto Wigand, 1844. Matula, Dr. Vladimir; Golan, Karol, and others, :Cudovit Stur: Zivot a dielo (1815-1856). Bratislava: Slovenska akademia vied, 1956. Pauco, Dr. Jozef, .Cudovychova u sturovcov. Turciansky Sv. Martin: Matica slovenska, 1943. Seton-Watson, Robert William, A History of the Czechs and Slovaks. Hamden, Connecticut: Archon Books, 1965. Yurchak, Peter, The Slovaks: Their Hi story and Traditions. Whiting, Indiana: Rev. John Lach, 1947. IV. ARTICLES Apel, Gundrum, "A Byronic Hero in Slovak Literature," Slavonic and East European Review, XXXIV (June, 1956). Butvin, Jozef, "Uudovit Stur a jeho uloha v slovenskom narodnozjednocovacom hnuti," Historicke studie, XII (1967). Petrovich, Michael, "Uudovit Stur and Russian Panslavism," Journal of Central European Affairs (April, 1952). � 134 SLOVAKIA L' udov1t Stur and Slovak Cultural Nationalism By Anthony X. Sutherland, Ph.D. There have been few individuals in the history of any nation who have had as much impact on the course of their nation's development than Eudovit stur, the nineteenth century Slovak nationalist, philosopher, linguist, and revolutionary leader. Considered as the principal formulator of the Slovak national ideology, his ideas on the Slovak language and nation have influenced in some way every generation of Slovaks since his death. In fact, much of Slovak history is incomprehensible without a basic knowledge of stur and his work. To some a re-examination of stur's idBas might seem unwarranted in light of the several scholarly studies on him that have appeared. Unfortunately though, most of these were written in French or in Slavic languages leaving the English reader with very little. In addition, stur has been frequently misunderstood in the West since most knowledge of him was based on his German book, Das Slawenthum und die Welt der Zukunft, which established him as a Russian political Panslav. Western historians have not done justice to stur, failing to research his Slavic works or examine his life in its entirety. In most East European nations nationalism appeared in two distinct phases, a cultural nationalism and a political nationalism. The first or cultural phase, lasting till about 1848, involved linguistic reform and cultural development; the second, political nationalism, beginning in 1848, was devoted to more political concerns such as the obtaining of cultural rights, economic and social reforms, as well as national independence. stur's career in Slovak national life was especially unique since, by becoming a participant in the Revolution of 1848, he was one of the first Slovak nationalists to ;move from mainly cultural concerns to active politics. Prior to the Revolution of 1848 stur completed the reform of the Slovak language creating a medium of �SLOVAKIA 135 written expression to be used by all Slovaks. Around the same time he founded the newspaper, Ndrodnje novini and its literary supplement, Orol Tatrdnsky, to defend his linguistic reform and foster the concept of the individuality of the Slovak nation. It was mainly these ideas of stur on the Slovak language and nation that have had most significance in Slovak history. stur came from a Lutheran background. 1 He was born October 29, 1815 in Uhrovec, the son of Samuel stur, director of the state schools in the Trencin district. 2 After attending local schools :Cudovit stur went to the gymnasium in Rab and then on to the Lutheran Lyceum in Bratislava. stur's studies included history, linguistics, philosophy, as well as Magyar and German. stur also came into contact with many important Slovak intellectuals as Samo Chalupka and Juraj Palkovic. stur soon became instructor of Slavic languages and history at the lyceum. In 1838-1839 stur continued his studies at the University of Halle in Germany. While at the University of Halle stur came under the influence of a certain Leopold Pee who stirred in him a love for Slavic history. These years were perhaps the most formative for the development of his thoughts. At Halle stur became acquainted with German Romanticism, especially with Herder's philosophy. He was also influenced by Hegel's philosophy, receiving lectures from the noted Hegelian, Johann E. Erdmann.3 From Hegelian philosophy stur learned the importance of the "idea" as the moving force in all history. He interpreted the Slovak national movement according to the dialectic, believing all history followed certain historical laws. stur believed in the inevitable triumph of the Slovak nation. Magyar feudal society was then in a process of disintegration and would give way to the new rising Slovak middle class who would carry on the Slovak national revival. Returning from Halle stur continued his teaching at the Lutheran Lyceum. Slovak cultural activities of stur's group were centered at this time in the Lyceum and in its Institute for Czecho-Slovak Language and Literature. During these years several societies were founded by Catholics and Protestants to promote literary development, the most famous being the Society of Lovers of Slovak Language �136 SLOVAKIA and Literature which included in its membership such great Slovak personalities as Jan Kollar and Martin Hamuljak. The principal issue confronting Slovak intellectuals at this time was the question of language. Slovaks during the first part of the nineteenth century were divided into two camps: Slovak Catholics adhered to the Slovak written language as codified by Anton Bernolak in the 1780s while Slovak Lutherans continued to use the Czech of the Kralice Bible and Hymn Book of Tranoscius used in the Lutheran Church. The question of language was a critical one for Slovak nationalism for the Slovaks could never hope to manifest any national unity while people continued to write in different literary forms . Some attempts were made to bring both schools to a working cooperation. In 1835 the almanac, Zora appeared which was intended to unify both Bernolak and Czech writers, but despite such manifestations of cooperation the language question remained unresolved. By the 1840s some members of the Bernolak school even considered returning to the use of a Slovakized Czech in their writings. 4 The movement for national unification of language was led by ~udovit stur and the younger generation of Slovak intellectuals. These people felt that Slovak literature would never develop on its own but remain an insignificant part of Czech literature unless all Slovaks agreed on a common literary medium. 5 The renewed Magyarization re-enforced the need to unify the nation. In 1844 the Hungarian Parliament voted to establish Magyar as the official language of the institution. This was followed by attempts to dissolve Slovak students societies and repress Slovak national life.6 In 1844 stur was dismissed from his teaching post at the Lyceum as a result of efforts to Magyarize protestant church institutions. It was clear to stur that for the success of any political movement against Magyar suppression it was essential to have a language that could be understood by the Slovak masses. 7 Feeling there was sufficient interest at least among the Bernolak writers for cooperation on the language question, stur set out to increase his contacts with the Slovak Catholic clergy in the Pazmaneum and Trnava seminaries.8 He �SLOVAKIA 137 visited Jan Holly, the foremost Bernolak writer, and others in order to arouse interest in solving the language problem.9 In mid 1840s stur and his associates decided to begin work on linguistic reform. Philological meetings were held on the subject of codification at Hlboke in 1843 and in Mikulas in 1844. stur's philological principles were finally accepted at a meeting at cachtice in 1847. A year before, the work of codification was presented and defended in two books: Ndrecja slovenskuo a potreba pisanja v tomto ndreci (1846) and Nauka reci slovenskej (1846). stur based the new literary Slovak on the Central dialect. This dialect was chosen on the belief that it was the purest of the dialects spoken, in addition to being the one spoken in the heart of the nation. stur wrote, "This means of our literary unity cannot be more natural than this language which is spoken in the center of our nation and which, as was already shown is the most genuine type and image of the old Slovak language and the most widely used in our nation, ... it has its own real genius and is truly a Slovak language." 10 In books, articles, and letters stur strove vigorously to obtain recognition for the new written language by members of the Slovak intellectual community. These writings provided excellent arguments for the use of Slovak as a separate language. stur believed that the division of the Slovaks over the use of language had done great damage to the Slovak nation. It was a sign that the Slovak people had not "come to an awareness that they wanted to live as a nation." 11 stur maintained that the Czech used in the Lutheran Church would only "vegetate and become idle," 12 but the new Slovak would flourish and be used in schools, cities, and in all aspects of social life. 13 Perhaps stur's main argument for his reform of Slovak was that without a common literary language Slovaks could never produce their own literature. To support this stur pointed to the example of the ancient Greeks. The Greeks were able to create many great works of literature and philosophy because they expressed themselves using their _o wn dialects and were not forced to write in an artificially imposed language. Each of the famous Greek authors, stur said, wrote in his own dialect, Sappho used the Aeolic dialect, Pindar the Doric, and Hesiod the Ion- �138 SLOVAKIA ic. 14 stur repeated that the Slovak language was the key to an independent Slovak life which would enable them to produce great works. "This strong, unbreakable confidence in ourselves, in our own strength, in our own life is now expressed in our latest endeavors: to improve and raise our nation with our own dialect, with the language of our ancestors ... " 15 It did not matter if the Slovaks were small in number, they were still capable of an independent life. stur wrote, "The Greek nation was small in number, great in deeds, in acts, in glory; the Chinese nation is enormous, 350,000,000 souls, but all this enormous nation is only a small part in the span of history, so to speak, a trifle in history and humanity." 16 stur seemed to imply that a nation was of little value unless it experienced its own life as in the creation of literature. The presence of literature or other forms of culture was proof of a nation's own spirituality or intellectuality (duchovnost') and origin (kmeiwvitost'). In Narecia slovenskuo stur wrote: The origin (kmenovitost') or lineage of a nation is a beautiful, noteworthy sign for the nation, giving evidence of its powers of spirit and intellectual vitality; therefore, anyone aware of his nation's roots is granted the incentive to preserve and carefully nurture and cultivate it to the best of his ability. Such concern for a nation's origin cannot but develop the intellectual life of the nation and cause it to flower into a healthy, handsome tree.17 For stur there were different degrees of this spirituality, the highest being that which manifested itself in culture. stur suggested that nations which did not display this spirituality were not worthy of history, for "only acts and deeds belong to history." 18 All nations possess some spirituality and have the powers to develop it, stur add':)d. 13 The Slavs have 'enormous ability or potential,' but as yet have not done much with it.20 The main principle in stur's philosophy was his concept of "life." 21 stur's writings contained many references to the "life of the nation" and the "spiritual life." Whereas Hodza and Hurban talked about "love of the language" and "love of the nation," stur spoke of "life of the nation" and language.22 This notion of "life," however, did not have the simple meaning of merely something living but was used more in the orative sense, as in the production of culture. �SLOVAKIA 139 The spirit (duch), which was the "essence of everything," 23 was present only in life, thus those who wanted to cultivate their spirit had to experience "life." 24 stur's writings revealed a close resemblance to the philosophy of Herder. This relationship between Herderian ideas and those of stur have not been adequately dealt with. Dimitrij cizevskij, the foremost authority on stur's philosophy, hinted that stur's concept of "spirit" (duch) probably came from Herder. 25 A close inspection would show that many of stur's ideas, particularly those of language, display a similarity with Herder. For stur, as with Herder, language was the main repository of a nation's characteristics and spirit, and provided the connecting link with past generations of the nation. stur asked, "What is closer to us, more part of us, more accessible than the natural language, than the language in which we all began to speak to the world, in which our present generation is joined, that language in which the spirit of our fathers lives, whose melodious voices resound in our valleys and hills and radiate our feelings, our thoughts of one mind, of one sentiment?" 26 According to Herder, language was the means by which a nation became a united entity; a nation without a language was a contradiction. In Die Beschwerden und Klagen der Slawen in Ungarn (1843) stur wrote, "Every nation is in the most fervid union with its own language ... Language is then the most certain sign of the essence and individuality of every nation . . . a nation stands up as a nation only together with its language, without it, it would not be a nation; if it has its personal language, it is recognized as a nation ... " 27 Likewise, stur wrote that the Slovak language was a symbol of Slovak unity. 28 He said: No nation can stand on its own feet unless it has the will to possess its own life, unless it understands that it is one nation, one moral personality ... Our life and nation must be Slovak, the bond of this life must be the qualities and wealth of our nation, it must be then the language of our ancestors.29 The new literary Slovak was welcomed by many members of the younger generation of Slovak intellectuals. stur's letters showed his confidence in the ultimate victory of Slovak in being accepted.30 Not all Slovaks, however, favorably received the new literary language. stur had to contend with several attacks on his work of codification �140 SLOVAKIA by Slovak Panslavs. stur anticipated this opposition and seemed to welcome it, seeing this as an opportunity to demonstrate the worthiness of his effort. In his essay, "Hlas proti hlasom," written in response to Kollar's attacks on Slovak, stur summarized his attitude towards the linguistic dispute. He wrote: The Czech voices against slovencina (Slovak language) have challenged us to this dispute. Everyone must defend his own things; who does not defend it, does not rely on it, does not want its victory, proves that he is not convinced of its truth. But we are highly convinced of the truth of our cause, it depends upon us that it endures, we want its victory, we are conscious of taking these steps with the most noble intentions, we accept then the dispute and with our own defense we will answer these attacks on our work. Our defense of this brings honor to our people and our nation; not to defend the honor of our nation or our honor is wickedness.al stur referred to Kollar's article, "Hlasove o potfebe jednoty spisovneho jazyka pro Cechy, Moravany, a Slovaky," attacking the literary Slovak as an "infamous disgrace of the Slovak language." 32 Nevertheless, stur denied he had any bitterness towards such opposition or desire to break off relations with them. 33 It should be remembered that stur was himself a Panslav, but whereas stur maintained there were eleven branches or tribes in the Slavic nation (Great Russians, Little Russians, Bulgarians, Serbians, Croatians, Slovenes, Poles, Czechs, Upper Lusatians, Lower Lusatians, and Slovaks), Kollar claimed there were only four: Czech, Polish, Illyrian, and Russian. To Kollar Slovak was simply a dialect of Czech, together they formed a united nation or tribe, thus the raising of Slovak to a separate literary language destroyed for Kollar natural unity of the two peoples. On several occasions stur denied that the use of a written Slovak would disrupt Slavic "mutuality" or "reciprocity" (vzdjomnost'). 34 stur did not recommend that every person write in his own local dialect but only if his dialect had its own individuality and purity.35 stur stressed Slavic unity, but wanted unity with diversity. He wrote, "Slavic life is varied as many branches on a linden tree, the nation is one, but one in diversity, so let this diversity be manifested in our spiritual life and in unity." 36 Each Slavic tribe (kmen) by developing its own potential, using its own dialect would contribute to the greater glory of Slavdom. 37 �SLOVAKIA 141 An important aspect of Shir's cultural Panslavism was the search for the nation's spirit (duch). Every nation, stur emphasized, had to find its own spirit and then cultivate it. This quest for the nation's spirit led stur to investigate all aspects of Slavic life including Slavic folk poetry and songs. 38 In 1853 stur published a major work in Slavic folklore, O ndrodnych povestiach a piesnach plemien slovanskych. stur considered the Slavs the most poetical and musical people in the world. Poetry or song was the peculiar Slavic way of expression. Whereas the Germans excelled in music, Romans in paintings, Greeks in sculpture, and Egyptians in architecture, "the Slavs poured out their soul and thought in tales, melodies and songs." 39 Poetry was viewed by stur as a higher form of art since it more perfectly expressed one's spirit ( duch) _4-0 In his book, 0 ndrodnych povestiach a piesnach plemien slovanskych, Shir presented a comparative study of Slavic folklore. One theme was selected, as love or loyalty, then was shown how it was expressed in the different Slavic dialects. stur concluded that all Slavic poetry from whatever tribe (kmen) displayed a common character and gave evidence of spirituality among the Slavs. He said they revealed a common world view, a common mind and feelings although expressed in different dialects. 41 In the late 1840s stur was drawn more into the political arena. stur's politics and activities during the Revolution of 1848 go beyond the purpose of this study, but it is important to explain how the revolution affected stur's thinking on the Slovak language and national ideology. Many of stur's writings showed his growing concern over Magyar attacks on Slovak national life. In his essay, Stary i navy vek Slovdku, stur compared the glorious past of the Slovaks in Great Moravia with the servile conditions prevalent among the Slovaks in the nineteenth century. stur wrote: "A new terrible, painful age has begun for the Slovaks. The spark of Magyar hatred against the Slovaks has inflamed more and more strongly, and after succeeding ages they have ignited a flame and in the beginning of our age this flame has exploded." 42 It is reasonablt · to assert that stur was not a real revolutionary by nature, and only when he saw the hopelessness of obtaining equality for the Slovaks did he resort to revolution. Before the revolution �142 SLOVAKIA stur worked peacefully to gain recognition for Slovak cultural rights. In 1845 stur traveled to Vienna and was favorably received by the Habsburg Archduke Louis and Austrian minister, Kolovrat. 43 Later during the revolution stur sided with Habsburg rulers against the Magyars with the expectation of receiving political and cultural equality in reward. The failure of the revolution, the disappointment in not receiving the promises of national freedom changed stur's outlook towards the Slovak problem. stur's discouragement was revealed in letters such as this. He wrote: Germans promised us national equality after the victorious struggle, Magyars are beaten but equality has become a mockery. In place of the former ruling language of Magyar all have received equal rights for their language except the Slovaks. Slovak is condemned again to the lowest levels of life ... it is relegated only to letters by the people and petitions from the people.44 The despair over the results of the revolution made stur believe that a small Slavic nation as the Slovaks could never expected the realization of its goals, thus its only salvation was to seek union with its Great Russian brothers. This was the theme of stur's book written in 1853, Das Slawenthum und die Welt der Zukunft, the first work of political Panslavism. In the first section of this book stur examined the situation of the Slavic peoples and found them held everywhere in slavery either by the Germans, Magyars, or Turks.45 Slavs originally had their own states as Great Moravia, Samo's Empire, and the Serbian Empire, but all of these in the end had been destroyed. 46 Under closer inspection it was seen by stur that the Slavs had always been weak and divided, for unlike the Germans, the Slavs had never developed the nation-state idea. The Slavs had been accustomed to ruling themselves democratically, and for this reason had been conquered so easily by the Huns, Petchenegs or others.47 Nevetheless, stur did not believe the situation was hopeless for the Slavs. As Hegel, stur felt all history moved in an unbroken wave of progression, and thus the Slavs would have their age of glory. He said, 'just as every plant does not bloom at the same time in nature, so every nation will have its own time under the sun.' 48 stur felt that if the Slavs were to take their place in history they would have to look for some new form of political organization. �SLOVAKIA 143 stur advanced three possibilities for the Slavs. The first possibility was a federated state with Western and South Slavs. stur rejected this alternative for several reasons. It would be impractical since many Slavs lived in areas highly mixed with non-Slavs. There would also be tension in certain regions between Slavic groups as between Poles and Russians in Galicia. 49 Religious differences could not be overlooked either. Slovaks were divided between Catholics and Lutherans, Serbs between Orthodox and Catholics.50 The second alternative of Austroslavism, mentioned by stur, was viewed as equally impractical. In an Austroslavic state stur said there would be little hope of cultural equality and a real danger of Germanization. In addition, there was always the threat of German colonization of Slavic districts. The third choice, and the one stur accepted, was the union of all Slavs into the Russian Empire. Only the Russians of all the Slavic peoples have been able to maintain their independence down through the centuries. They have been a light of hope to all other oppressed Slavs. stur asked, "Was it not Russia who enlivened our hopes, raised our sunken courage, lifted our dying desire for life? Was it not Russia who alone warded off the intolerable yoke of our peoples with positive help?" 51 Not only did he recommend political union of all Slavs in the Russian Empire but also advocated a return of all Slavs to the Orthodox Church and the acceptance of Russian as the common literary language. stur's program of political Panslavism appeared to stand in contradiction with many of his earlier thoughts. Before 1848 stur had fought for the recognition of Slovak as a separate literary language but in this book advocated the use of Russian as the common language of all Slavs. Some of stur's attachment to Russia could be explained by remembering that he had always been a Panslav to some extent. He did agree with Kollar's idea of Slavic "reciprocity" and did talk about the development of the Slovak nation in context with a greater Slavic community. This however, was merely cultural Panslavism. Perhaps the best explanation for stur's radical conversion to political Panslavism can be found in stur's own romantic nature and his disappointment over the failure of the revolution of 1848. The outcome of the revolution was viewed by stur as such a catastrophe that he saw no hope in the future �144 SLOVAKIA for an independent Slovak national life. The only viable alternative for the Slovaks if they were to survive at all would be to seek the protection of the Russians, one of the last remaining independent Slavic peoples. Had stur lived longer (stur died in 1856) it is open to question whether he would have continued to adhere to these doctrines of political Panslavism or again changed his ideas. This last phase of stur's intellectual activity was really of secondary importance, and perhaps should not be taken too seriously. His work Das Slawenthum was published in Russia in 1867 but remained unpublished in Slovakia until 1931. It was his ideas from the period before 1848 on the Slovak language and nation that have had the most bearing on the development of the Slovak national ideology. Although stur's accomplishments were wide and varied, his reform of the Slovak language was his greatest achievement and the principal event in the history of Slovak cultural nationalism. The establishment of Slovak as an acceptable literary medium enabled the Slovaks to survive as an independent ethnic group. Without a common language Slovaks would most certainly have been more easily assimilated by Czechs or succumbed to Magyarization. It was partly due to stur that language has remained the principal characteristic of Slovak national identity, overshadowing in importance even their common customs or common history. Lang11age has continued to be the critical issue in the Slovak national struggle since stur's time. stur, too, through his efforts to gain recognition for the Slovak nation and language helped turn the direction of many members of the Slovak intelligentsia from the vague, if not unrealistic Panslavism to the more practical goal of the development of the Slovak nation itself. stur's ideology made it possible for the Slovak nation to take its rightful place along side the other Slavic nations and prevented the Slovaks from remaining as insignificant part of the Czech nation. FOOTNOTES 1) Most of the biographical information on Shir was taken from: Milan Pisut, Karol Rosenbaum, and Viktor Kochol, "Literatura narodneho obrodenia," Dejiny slovenskej literatury, vol. II (Bratislava: Slovenska akademia vied, 1960), pp. 362-366. 2) Budovit Stur's father, Samuel Stur, was born March 16, 1789 in �SLOVAKIA 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11 ) 12) 13) 14) 15) 16) 17) 18) 19) 20) 21) 22) 23) 24) 25) 26) 27) 28) 29) 145 Lublin; moved to Uhrovec in 1813. He was the father of three sons, Karol, :I;udovit, and Samuel. :I;udovit Stu.r's grandfather Pavol Stur lived as a serf in Lublin. He died in 1827. Karol Golan, ":I;udovit Stur a slovenske narodne hnutie v tridsiatych rokoch 19. storocia." £udovit stur: Zivot a dielo, 1815-1856 (Bratislava: Slovenskii akademia vied, 1956), pp. 18-20. See Dr. Dimitrij Cizevskij, sturova filozofia zivota (Bratislava: Spisy slovenskej ucenej spolocnosti, 1941), p. 74. :I;udovit Holotik, and others, Dejiny Slovenska, vol. I (Bratislava: Slovenskii akademia vied, 1961), p. 517. Ibid., p. 517. Julius Botto, Slovaci: Vyvin ich narodneho povedomia, vol. I (Turciansky Sv. Martin, 1906), p. 47. Dejiny Slovenska, p. 518. Jozef Butvin, Slovenske narodnozjednocovacie hnutie (1780-1 848) (Bratislava: Slovenska akademia vied, 1965), pp. 219-220. Ibid ., pp. 253-254. :I;udovit Stur, "Hlas proti hlasom," Vybor zo spisov l!udovita Stura (Turciansky Sv. Martin, 1931), pp. 82-83. Ibid., p. 39. Letter of :I;udovit Stur to Frantisek Strakovic, Listy l!udovita ~ura, vol. II, ed. Dr. Jozef Ambrus (Bratislava: Slovenskii akademia vied, 1956), Letter No. 231. Stur, "Neopust'ajme sa," Vybor zo spisov £udovita stura, p. 39. Stur, "Neopust'ajme sa," ibid., p. 40. Stur, "Niirecia slovensko," Vybor zo spisov l!udovita stura, pp. 100-102. Stur, "Neopust'ajme sa," ibid., pp. 38-39. Ibid., pp. 43-44. Stur, "Narecia slovensko," ibid., p. 102. Quoted in Cizevskij, p. 36. Ibid., p . 36. Quoted in Cizevskij, p. 38. Ibid., pp. 14-15. Ibid., p. 15. Stur, "Niirecia slovensko," ibid., p. 111. Cizevskij, p. 40. Quoted in Cizevskij, p. 41. Ibid., p. 44. Stur, "Hlas proti hlasom," ibid., p. 80. Quoted in Butvin, p. 279. Stur, "Neopust'ajme sa," ibid., p. 44. Ibid., p. 39-40. 30) Letter of Stur to Samo Bohdan Hrobon, Listy II, Letter No. 194, 195. Letter of Stur to Martin Hamuljak, Listy, vol. III, Letter No. 397. �146 SLOVAKIA 31) Stur, "Hlas proti hlasom," ibid., p. 77. 32) Letter of Stur to Andrej Sladkovic, Listy I, Letter No. 238. 33 ) Letter of Stur to Michal M. Hodza, Listy I, Letter No. 182. Stur, "Hlas proti hlasom," ibid., pp. 83-84. 34) Stur, "Hlas proti hlasom," ibid., pp. 105-123. 35) Stur, "Narecia slovensko," ibid., p. 103. 36) Ibid. , pp. 103-104. Elena Varossova, "Svetonazor I.!udovita Stura," .r.udovit Stur: Zivot a dielo, pp. 102-103. Cizevskij, pp. 45-46. 37) Stur, "Hlas proti hlasom," ibid., p. 84. Stur, "Narecia slovensk6," ibid., pp. 113-114. Kollar's view in this regard is very similar to Stur's. The only difference was that Kollar recognized only the Czech, Russian, Polish, and Illyrian tribe while Stur recognized eleven including Slovak. Kollar wrote, "Each dialed should create new vital powers for the other tribes, to rejuvenate, build, and enrich the other, nevertheless it would not touch the other tribe or be ,touched itself, but all the rest would continue to maintain their own free sphere." Johann Kollar, Ueber die literarische Wechselseitigkeit (Leipzig: Otto Wigand, 1844), p. 6. 38) Stur's own poetry was typical of cultural nationalism. His two major poetical works, Svi:itoboj and Matus z Trencina concerned old Slovak heroes. Their structure and thematic development resembled the epic poems of Jan Holly. See Pisut, pp. 372-373. L'udovit Stur, Spevy a piesne (Pre~porok, 1853), the poem Svi:itoboj, pp. 9-31 and Matus z Trencina, pp. 35-93. 39) I.!udovit Stur, O narodnych povestiach a piesnach plemien slovanskych (Turciansky Sv. Martin: Matica slovenska, 1932), p. 9. 40) Ibid. , p. 16. 41) Ibid., p. 240. 42 ) I.!udovit Stur, Stary a novy vek Slovaku (Bratislava, 1935), p. 19. 43 ) Botto, p. 60. Letter of Stur to Ctiboh Zoch, Listy II, Letter No. 251. 44) Letter of Stur to Ismail Ivanovic Sreznevskij, Listy II, Letter No. 316. 45) I.!udovit Stur, Das Slawenthum und die Welt der Zukunft (Bratislava, 1931), p. 19. 46) Ibid. , p. 29. 47) Ibid., p. 32. 48) Ibid., p. 49. 49) Ibid., pp. 164-165. 50) Ibid., pp. 165-167. 51) Ibid., p. 192 BIBLIOGRAPHY I. WORKS BY STOR Das Slawenthum und. die Welt der Zukunft. Bratislava, 1931. Listy .r.udovita Stura. Edited by Dr. Jozef Ambrus. 3 volumes. Bratislava: Slovenska akademia vied, 1954, 1956, 1960. �SLOVAKIA 147 0 narodnych povestiach a piesiiach plemien slovanskych. Turciansky Sv. Martin: Matioa slovenska, 1932. Spevy a piesne. Presporok, 1853. Stary a novy vek Slovaku. Bratislava, 1935. Vybor zo spisov .Cudovita §tura. Turciansky Sv. Martin: Matica slovenska, 1931. II. HISTORIES OF SLOVAK LITERATURE Mraz, Andreas, Die L i teratur der Slowaken. Berlin: Volk Verlag, 1943. Mraz, Andrej, Slovenska vlastiveda, vol. V, Literatura a jazyk. Slovenska akademia vied, 1948. Pisut, Milan; Rosenbaum, Karol; Kochol, Viktor, L iteratura obrodenia, vol. II, of Dejiny slovenskej literatury. Slovenska akademia vied, 1960. III. OTHER WORKS und Reich Bratislava: narodneho Bratislava: Bokes, Frantisek, D'ejiny Slovakov a Slovenska od najstarsich cias ai po pritomnost'. Bratislava: Slovenska akademia vied, 1946. Botto, Julius, Slovaci: Vyvin ich narodneho povedomia, 2 volumes, Turciansky Sv. Martin, 1906. Butvin, Jozef, Slovenske narodnozjednocovacie hnutie (1780-1848). Bratislava: Slovenska akademia vied, 1965. Capek, Thomas, The Slovaks of Hungary. New York: Knickerbocker Press, 1906. Cizevskij, Dr. Dimitrij, Sturova filozofia zivota. Bratislava, 1941. Holotik, Uudovit and others, Dejiny Slovenska, vol. I. Bratislava: Slovenska akademia vied, 1961. Hrusovsky, Frantisek, Slovenske dejiny. Turciansky Sv. Martin, 1931. Kirschbaum, Joseph, .Cudovit Stur and His Place in the Slavic World. Cleveland: Slovak Institute, 1958. Kollar, Johann, Ueber die literarische Wechselseitigkeit. Leipzig: Otto Wigand, 1844. Matula, Dr. Vladimir; Golan, Karol, and others, :Cudovit Stur: Zivot a dielo (1815-1856). Bratislava: Slovenska akademia vied, 1956. Pauco, Dr. Jozef, .Cudovychova u sturovcov. Turciansky Sv. Martin: Matica slovenska, 1943. Seton-Watson, Robert William, A History of the Czechs and Slovaks. Hamden, Connecticut: Archon Books, 1965. Yurchak, Peter, The Slovaks: Their Hi story and Traditions. Whiting, Indiana: Rev. John Lach, 1947. IV. ARTICLES Apel, Gundrum, "A Byronic Hero in Slovak Literature," Slavonic and East European Review, XXXIV (June, 1956). Butvin, Jozef, "Uudovit Stur a jeho uloha v slovenskom narodnozjednocovacom hnuti," Historicke studie, XII (1967). Petrovich, Michael, "Uudovit Stur and Russian Panslavism," Journal of Central European Affairs (April, 1952). � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1975, Vol. 25 Description An account of the resource Vol. 25 (No. 48), 1975. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1975 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document 134 SLOVAKIA L' udov1t Stur and Slovak Cultural Nationalism By Anthony X. Sutherland, Ph.D. There have been few individuals in the history of any nation who have had as much impact on the course of their nation's development than Eudovit stur, the nineteenth century Slovak nationalist, philosopher, linguist, and revolutionary leader. Considered as the principal formulator of the Slovak national ideology, his ideas on the Slovak language and nation have influenced in some way every generation of Slovaks since his death. In fact, much of Slovak history is incomprehensible without a basic knowledge of stur and his work. To some a re-examination of stur's idBas might seem unwarranted in light of the several scholarly studies on him that have appeared. Unfortunately though, most of these were written in French or in Slavic languages leaving the English reader with very little. In addition, stur has been frequently misunderstood in the West since most knowledge of him was based on his German book, Das Slawenthum und die Welt der Zukunft, which established him as a Russian political Panslav. Western historians have not done justice to stur, failing to research his Slavic works or examine his life in its entirety. In most East European nations nationalism appeared in two distinct phases, a cultural nationalism and a political nationalism. The first or cultural phase, lasting till about 1848, involved linguistic reform and cultural development; the second, political nationalism, beginning in 1848, was devoted to more political concerns such as the obtaining of cultural rights, economic and social reforms, as well as national independence. stur's career in Slovak national life was especially unique since, by becoming a participant in the Revolution of 1848, he was one of the first Slovak nationalists to ;move from mainly cultural concerns to active politics. Prior to the Revolution of 1848 stur completed the reform of the Slovak language creating a medium of SLOVAKIA 135 written expression to be used by all Slovaks. Around the same time he founded the newspaper, Ndrodnje novini and its literary supplement, Orol Tatrdnsky, to defend his linguistic reform and foster the concept of the individuality of the Slovak nation. It was mainly these ideas of stur on the Slovak language and nation that have had most significance in Slovak history. stur came from a Lutheran background. 1 He was born October 29, 1815 in Uhrovec, the son of Samuel stur, director of the state schools in the Trencin district. 2 After attending local schools :Cudovit stur went to the gymnasium in Rab and then on to the Lutheran Lyceum in Bratislava. stur's studies included history, linguistics, philosophy, as well as Magyar and German. stur also came into contact with many important Slovak intellectuals as Samo Chalupka and Juraj Palkovic. stur soon became instructor of Slavic languages and history at the lyceum. In 1838-1839 stur continued his studies at the University of Halle in Germany. While at the University of Halle stur came under the influence of a certain Leopold Pee who stirred in him a love for Slavic history. These years were perhaps the most formative for the development of his thoughts. At Halle stur became acquainted with German Romanticism, especially with Herder's philosophy. He was also influenced by Hegel's philosophy, receiving lectures from the noted Hegelian, Johann E. Erdmann.3 From Hegelian philosophy stur learned the importance of the "idea" as the moving force in all history. He interpreted the Slovak national movement according to the dialectic, believing all history followed certain historical laws. stur believed in the inevitable triumph of the Slovak nation. Magyar feudal society was then in a process of disintegration and would give way to the new rising Slovak middle class who would carry on the Slovak national revival. Returning from Halle stur continued his teaching at the Lutheran Lyceum. Slovak cultural activities of stur's group were centered at this time in the Lyceum and in its Institute for Czecho-Slovak Language and Literature. During these years several societies were founded by Catholics and Protestants to promote literary development, the most famous being the Society of Lovers of Slovak Language 136 SLOVAKIA and Literature which included in its membership such great Slovak personalities as Jan Kollar and Martin Hamuljak. The principal issue confronting Slovak intellectuals at this time was the question of language. Slovaks during the first part of the nineteenth century were divided into two camps: Slovak Catholics adhered to the Slovak written language as codified by Anton Bernolak in the 1780s while Slovak Lutherans continued to use the Czech of the Kralice Bible and Hymn Book of Tranoscius used in the Lutheran Church. The question of language was a critical one for Slovak nationalism for the Slovaks could never hope to manifest any national unity while people continued to write in different literary forms . Some attempts were made to bring both schools to a working cooperation. In 1835 the almanac, Zora appeared which was intended to unify both Bernolak and Czech writers, but despite such manifestations of cooperation the language question remained unresolved. By the 1840s some members of the Bernolak school even considered returning to the use of a Slovakized Czech in their writings. 4 The movement for national unification of language was led by ~udovit stur and the younger generation of Slovak intellectuals. These people felt that Slovak literature would never develop on its own but remain an insignificant part of Czech literature unless all Slovaks agreed on a common literary medium. 5 The renewed Magyarization re-enforced the need to unify the nation. In 1844 the Hungarian Parliament voted to establish Magyar as the official language of the institution. This was followed by attempts to dissolve Slovak students societies and repress Slovak national life.6 In 1844 stur was dismissed from his teaching post at the Lyceum as a result of efforts to Magyarize protestant church institutions. It was clear to stur that for the success of any political movement against Magyar suppression it was essential to have a language that could be understood by the Slovak masses. 7 Feeling there was sufficient interest at least among the Bernolak writers for cooperation on the language question, stur set out to increase his contacts with the Slovak Catholic clergy in the Pazmaneum and Trnava seminaries.8 He SLOVAKIA 137 visited Jan Holly, the foremost Bernolak writer, and others in order to arouse interest in solving the language problem.9 In mid 1840s stur and his associates decided to begin work on linguistic reform. Philological meetings were held on the subject of codification at Hlboke in 1843 and in Mikulas in 1844. stur's philological principles were finally accepted at a meeting at cachtice in 1847. A year before, the work of codification was presented and defended in two books: Ndrecja slovenskuo a potreba pisanja v tomto ndreci (1846) and Nauka reci slovenskej (1846). stur based the new literary Slovak on the Central dialect. This dialect was chosen on the belief that it was the purest of the dialects spoken, in addition to being the one spoken in the heart of the nation. stur wrote, "This means of our literary unity cannot be more natural than this language which is spoken in the center of our nation and which, as was already shown is the most genuine type and image of the old Slovak language and the most widely used in our nation, ... it has its own real genius and is truly a Slovak language." 10 In books, articles, and letters stur strove vigorously to obtain recognition for the new written language by members of the Slovak intellectual community. These writings provided excellent arguments for the use of Slovak as a separate language. stur believed that the division of the Slovaks over the use of language had done great damage to the Slovak nation. It was a sign that the Slovak people had not "come to an awareness that they wanted to live as a nation." 11 stur maintained that the Czech used in the Lutheran Church would only "vegetate and become idle," 12 but the new Slovak would flourish and be used in schools, cities, and in all aspects of social life. 13 Perhaps stur's main argument for his reform of Slovak was that without a common literary language Slovaks could never produce their own literature. To support this stur pointed to the example of the ancient Greeks. The Greeks were able to create many great works of literature and philosophy because they expressed themselves using their _o wn dialects and were not forced to write in an artificially imposed language. Each of the famous Greek authors, stur said, wrote in his own dialect, Sappho used the Aeolic dialect, Pindar the Doric, and Hesiod the Ion- 138 SLOVAKIA ic. 14 stur repeated that the Slovak language was the key to an independent Slovak life which would enable them to produce great works. "This strong, unbreakable confidence in ourselves, in our own strength, in our own life is now expressed in our latest endeavors: to improve and raise our nation with our own dialect, with the language of our ancestors ... " 15 It did not matter if the Slovaks were small in number, they were still capable of an independent life. stur wrote, "The Greek nation was small in number, great in deeds, in acts, in glory; the Chinese nation is enormous, 350,000,000 souls, but all this enormous nation is only a small part in the span of history, so to speak, a trifle in history and humanity." 16 stur seemed to imply that a nation was of little value unless it experienced its own life as in the creation of literature. The presence of literature or other forms of culture was proof of a nation's own spirituality or intellectuality (duchovnost') and origin (kmeiwvitost'). In Narecia slovenskuo stur wrote: The origin (kmenovitost') or lineage of a nation is a beautiful, noteworthy sign for the nation, giving evidence of its powers of spirit and intellectual vitality; therefore, anyone aware of his nation's roots is granted the incentive to preserve and carefully nurture and cultivate it to the best of his ability. Such concern for a nation's origin cannot but develop the intellectual life of the nation and cause it to flower into a healthy, handsome tree.17 For stur there were different degrees of this spirituality, the highest being that which manifested itself in culture. stur suggested that nations which did not display this spirituality were not worthy of history, for "only acts and deeds belong to history." 18 All nations possess some spirituality and have the powers to develop it, stur add':)d. 13 The Slavs have 'enormous ability or potential,' but as yet have not done much with it.20 The main principle in stur's philosophy was his concept of "life." 21 stur's writings contained many references to the "life of the nation" and the "spiritual life." Whereas Hodza and Hurban talked about "love of the language" and "love of the nation," stur spoke of "life of the nation" and language.22 This notion of "life," however, did not have the simple meaning of merely something living but was used more in the orative sense, as in the production of culture. SLOVAKIA 139 The spirit (duch), which was the "essence of everything," 23 was present only in life, thus those who wanted to cultivate their spirit had to experience "life." 24 stur's writings revealed a close resemblance to the philosophy of Herder. This relationship between Herderian ideas and those of stur have not been adequately dealt with. Dimitrij cizevskij, the foremost authority on stur's philosophy, hinted that stur's concept of "spirit" (duch) probably came from Herder. 25 A close inspection would show that many of stur's ideas, particularly those of language, display a similarity with Herder. For stur, as with Herder, language was the main repository of a nation's characteristics and spirit, and provided the connecting link with past generations of the nation. stur asked, "What is closer to us, more part of us, more accessible than the natural language, than the language in which we all began to speak to the world, in which our present generation is joined, that language in which the spirit of our fathers lives, whose melodious voices resound in our valleys and hills and radiate our feelings, our thoughts of one mind, of one sentiment?" 26 According to Herder, language was the means by which a nation became a united entity; a nation without a language was a contradiction. In Die Beschwerden und Klagen der Slawen in Ungarn (1843) stur wrote, "Every nation is in the most fervid union with its own language ... Language is then the most certain sign of the essence and individuality of every nation . . . a nation stands up as a nation only together with its language, without it, it would not be a nation; if it has its personal language, it is recognized as a nation ... " 27 Likewise, stur wrote that the Slovak language was a symbol of Slovak unity. 28 He said: No nation can stand on its own feet unless it has the will to possess its own life, unless it understands that it is one nation, one moral personality ... Our life and nation must be Slovak, the bond of this life must be the qualities and wealth of our nation, it must be then the language of our ancestors.29 The new literary Slovak was welcomed by many members of the younger generation of Slovak intellectuals. stur's letters showed his confidence in the ultimate victory of Slovak in being accepted.30 Not all Slovaks, however, favorably received the new literary language. stur had to contend with several attacks on his work of codification 140 SLOVAKIA by Slovak Panslavs. stur anticipated this opposition and seemed to welcome it, seeing this as an opportunity to demonstrate the worthiness of his effort. In his essay, "Hlas proti hlasom," written in response to Kollar's attacks on Slovak, stur summarized his attitude towards the linguistic dispute. He wrote: The Czech voices against slovencina (Slovak language) have challenged us to this dispute. Everyone must defend his own things; who does not defend it, does not rely on it, does not want its victory, proves that he is not convinced of its truth. But we are highly convinced of the truth of our cause, it depends upon us that it endures, we want its victory, we are conscious of taking these steps with the most noble intentions, we accept then the dispute and with our own defense we will answer these attacks on our work. Our defense of this brings honor to our people and our nation; not to defend the honor of our nation or our honor is wickedness.al stur referred to Kollar's article, "Hlasove o potfebe jednoty spisovneho jazyka pro Cechy, Moravany, a Slovaky," attacking the literary Slovak as an "infamous disgrace of the Slovak language." 32 Nevertheless, stur denied he had any bitterness towards such opposition or desire to break off relations with them. 33 It should be remembered that stur was himself a Panslav, but whereas stur maintained there were eleven branches or tribes in the Slavic nation (Great Russians, Little Russians, Bulgarians, Serbians, Croatians, Slovenes, Poles, Czechs, Upper Lusatians, Lower Lusatians, and Slovaks), Kollar claimed there were only four: Czech, Polish, Illyrian, and Russian. To Kollar Slovak was simply a dialect of Czech, together they formed a united nation or tribe, thus the raising of Slovak to a separate literary language destroyed for Kollar natural unity of the two peoples. On several occasions stur denied that the use of a written Slovak would disrupt Slavic "mutuality" or "reciprocity" (vzdjomnost'). 34 stur did not recommend that every person write in his own local dialect but only if his dialect had its own individuality and purity.35 stur stressed Slavic unity, but wanted unity with diversity. He wrote, "Slavic life is varied as many branches on a linden tree, the nation is one, but one in diversity, so let this diversity be manifested in our spiritual life and in unity." 36 Each Slavic tribe (kmen) by developing its own potential, using its own dialect would contribute to the greater glory of Slavdom. 37 SLOVAKIA 141 An important aspect of Shir's cultural Panslavism was the search for the nation's spirit (duch). Every nation, stur emphasized, had to find its own spirit and then cultivate it. This quest for the nation's spirit led stur to investigate all aspects of Slavic life including Slavic folk poetry and songs. 38 In 1853 stur published a major work in Slavic folklore, O ndrodnych povestiach a piesnach plemien slovanskych. stur considered the Slavs the most poetical and musical people in the world. Poetry or song was the peculiar Slavic way of expression. Whereas the Germans excelled in music, Romans in paintings, Greeks in sculpture, and Egyptians in architecture, "the Slavs poured out their soul and thought in tales, melodies and songs." 39 Poetry was viewed by stur as a higher form of art since it more perfectly expressed one's spirit ( duch) _4-0 In his book, 0 ndrodnych povestiach a piesnach plemien slovanskych, Shir presented a comparative study of Slavic folklore. One theme was selected, as love or loyalty, then was shown how it was expressed in the different Slavic dialects. stur concluded that all Slavic poetry from whatever tribe (kmen) displayed a common character and gave evidence of spirituality among the Slavs. He said they revealed a common world view, a common mind and feelings although expressed in different dialects. 41 In the late 1840s stur was drawn more into the political arena. stur's politics and activities during the Revolution of 1848 go beyond the purpose of this study, but it is important to explain how the revolution affected stur's thinking on the Slovak language and national ideology. Many of stur's writings showed his growing concern over Magyar attacks on Slovak national life. In his essay, Stary i navy vek Slovdku, stur compared the glorious past of the Slovaks in Great Moravia with the servile conditions prevalent among the Slovaks in the nineteenth century. stur wrote: "A new terrible, painful age has begun for the Slovaks. The spark of Magyar hatred against the Slovaks has inflamed more and more strongly, and after succeeding ages they have ignited a flame and in the beginning of our age this flame has exploded." 42 It is reasonablt · to assert that stur was not a real revolutionary by nature, and only when he saw the hopelessness of obtaining equality for the Slovaks did he resort to revolution. Before the revolution 142 SLOVAKIA stur worked peacefully to gain recognition for Slovak cultural rights. In 1845 stur traveled to Vienna and was favorably received by the Habsburg Archduke Louis and Austrian minister, Kolovrat. 43 Later during the revolution stur sided with Habsburg rulers against the Magyars with the expectation of receiving political and cultural equality in reward. The failure of the revolution, the disappointment in not receiving the promises of national freedom changed stur's outlook towards the Slovak problem. stur's discouragement was revealed in letters such as this. He wrote: Germans promised us national equality after the victorious struggle, Magyars are beaten but equality has become a mockery. In place of the former ruling language of Magyar all have received equal rights for their language except the Slovaks. Slovak is condemned again to the lowest levels of life ... it is relegated only to letters by the people and petitions from the people.44 The despair over the results of the revolution made stur believe that a small Slavic nation as the Slovaks could never expected the realization of its goals, thus its only salvation was to seek union with its Great Russian brothers. This was the theme of stur's book written in 1853, Das Slawenthum und die Welt der Zukunft, the first work of political Panslavism. In the first section of this book stur examined the situation of the Slavic peoples and found them held everywhere in slavery either by the Germans, Magyars, or Turks.45 Slavs originally had their own states as Great Moravia, Samo's Empire, and the Serbian Empire, but all of these in the end had been destroyed. 46 Under closer inspection it was seen by stur that the Slavs had always been weak and divided, for unlike the Germans, the Slavs had never developed the nation-state idea. The Slavs had been accustomed to ruling themselves democratically, and for this reason had been conquered so easily by the Huns, Petchenegs or others.47 Nevetheless, stur did not believe the situation was hopeless for the Slavs. As Hegel, stur felt all history moved in an unbroken wave of progression, and thus the Slavs would have their age of glory. He said, 'just as every plant does not bloom at the same time in nature, so every nation will have its own time under the sun.' 48 stur felt that if the Slavs were to take their place in history they would have to look for some new form of political organization. SLOVAKIA 143 stur advanced three possibilities for the Slavs. The first possibility was a federated state with Western and South Slavs. stur rejected this alternative for several reasons. It would be impractical since many Slavs lived in areas highly mixed with non-Slavs. There would also be tension in certain regions between Slavic groups as between Poles and Russians in Galicia. 49 Religious differences could not be overlooked either. Slovaks were divided between Catholics and Lutherans, Serbs between Orthodox and Catholics.50 The second alternative of Austroslavism, mentioned by stur, was viewed as equally impractical. In an Austroslavic state stur said there would be little hope of cultural equality and a real danger of Germanization. In addition, there was always the threat of German colonization of Slavic districts. The third choice, and the one stur accepted, was the union of all Slavs into the Russian Empire. Only the Russians of all the Slavic peoples have been able to maintain their independence down through the centuries. They have been a light of hope to all other oppressed Slavs. stur asked, "Was it not Russia who enlivened our hopes, raised our sunken courage, lifted our dying desire for life? Was it not Russia who alone warded off the intolerable yoke of our peoples with positive help?" 51 Not only did he recommend political union of all Slavs in the Russian Empire but also advocated a return of all Slavs to the Orthodox Church and the acceptance of Russian as the common literary language. stur's program of political Panslavism appeared to stand in contradiction with many of his earlier thoughts. Before 1848 stur had fought for the recognition of Slovak as a separate literary language but in this book advocated the use of Russian as the common language of all Slavs. Some of stur's attachment to Russia could be explained by remembering that he had always been a Panslav to some extent. He did agree with Kollar's idea of Slavic "reciprocity" and did talk about the development of the Slovak nation in context with a greater Slavic community. This however, was merely cultural Panslavism. Perhaps the best explanation for stur's radical conversion to political Panslavism can be found in stur's own romantic nature and his disappointment over the failure of the revolution of 1848. The outcome of the revolution was viewed by stur as such a catastrophe that he saw no hope in the future 144 SLOVAKIA for an independent Slovak national life. The only viable alternative for the Slovaks if they were to survive at all would be to seek the protection of the Russians, one of the last remaining independent Slavic peoples. Had stur lived longer (stur died in 1856) it is open to question whether he would have continued to adhere to these doctrines of political Panslavism or again changed his ideas. This last phase of stur's intellectual activity was really of secondary importance, and perhaps should not be taken too seriously. His work Das Slawenthum was published in Russia in 1867 but remained unpublished in Slovakia until 1931. It was his ideas from the period before 1848 on the Slovak language and nation that have had the most bearing on the development of the Slovak national ideology. Although stur's accomplishments were wide and varied, his reform of the Slovak language was his greatest achievement and the principal event in the history of Slovak cultural nationalism. The establishment of Slovak as an acceptable literary medium enabled the Slovaks to survive as an independent ethnic group. Without a common language Slovaks would most certainly have been more easily assimilated by Czechs or succumbed to Magyarization. It was partly due to stur that language has remained the principal characteristic of Slovak national identity, overshadowing in importance even their common customs or common history. Lang11age has continued to be the critical issue in the Slovak national struggle since stur's time. stur, too, through his efforts to gain recognition for the Slovak nation and language helped turn the direction of many members of the Slovak intelligentsia from the vague, if not unrealistic Panslavism to the more practical goal of the development of the Slovak nation itself. stur's ideology made it possible for the Slovak nation to take its rightful place along side the other Slavic nations and prevented the Slovaks from remaining as insignificant part of the Czech nation. FOOTNOTES 1) Most of the biographical information on Shir was taken from: Milan Pisut, Karol Rosenbaum, and Viktor Kochol, "Literatura narodneho obrodenia," Dejiny slovenskej literatury, vol. II (Bratislava: Slovenska akademia vied, 1960), pp. 362-366. 2) Budovit Stur's father, Samuel Stur, was born March 16, 1789 in SLOVAKIA 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11 ) 12) 13) 14) 15) 16) 17) 18) 19) 20) 21) 22) 23) 24) 25) 26) 27) 28) 29) 145 Lublin; moved to Uhrovec in 1813. He was the father of three sons, Karol, :I;udovit, and Samuel. :I;udovit Stu.r's grandfather Pavol Stur lived as a serf in Lublin. He died in 1827. Karol Golan, ":I;udovit Stur a slovenske narodne hnutie v tridsiatych rokoch 19. storocia." £udovit stur: Zivot a dielo, 1815-1856 (Bratislava: Slovenskii akademia vied, 1956), pp. 18-20. See Dr. Dimitrij Cizevskij, sturova filozofia zivota (Bratislava: Spisy slovenskej ucenej spolocnosti, 1941), p. 74. :I;udovit Holotik, and others, Dejiny Slovenska, vol. I (Bratislava: Slovenskii akademia vied, 1961), p. 517. Ibid., p. 517. Julius Botto, Slovaci: Vyvin ich narodneho povedomia, vol. I (Turciansky Sv. Martin, 1906), p. 47. Dejiny Slovenska, p. 518. Jozef Butvin, Slovenske narodnozjednocovacie hnutie (1780-1 848) (Bratislava: Slovenska akademia vied, 1965), pp. 219-220. Ibid ., pp. 253-254. :I;udovit Stur, "Hlas proti hlasom," Vybor zo spisov l!udovita Stura (Turciansky Sv. Martin, 1931), pp. 82-83. Ibid., p. 39. Letter of :I;udovit Stur to Frantisek Strakovic, Listy l!udovita ~ura, vol. II, ed. Dr. Jozef Ambrus (Bratislava: Slovenskii akademia vied, 1956), Letter No. 231. Stur, "Neopust'ajme sa," Vybor zo spisov £udovita stura, p. 39. Stur, "Neopust'ajme sa," ibid., p. 40. Stur, "Niirecia slovensko," Vybor zo spisov l!udovita stura, pp. 100-102. Stur, "Neopust'ajme sa," ibid., pp. 38-39. Ibid., pp. 43-44. Stur, "Narecia slovensko," ibid., p. 102. Quoted in Cizevskij, p. 36. Ibid., p . 36. Quoted in Cizevskij, p. 38. Ibid., pp. 14-15. Ibid., p. 15. Stur, "Niirecia slovensko," ibid., p. 111. Cizevskij, p. 40. Quoted in Cizevskij, p. 41. Ibid., p. 44. Stur, "Hlas proti hlasom," ibid., p. 80. Quoted in Butvin, p. 279. Stur, "Neopust'ajme sa," ibid., p. 44. Ibid., p. 39-40. 30) Letter of Stur to Samo Bohdan Hrobon, Listy II, Letter No. 194, 195. Letter of Stur to Martin Hamuljak, Listy, vol. III, Letter No. 397. 146 SLOVAKIA 31) Stur, "Hlas proti hlasom," ibid., p. 77. 32) Letter of Stur to Andrej Sladkovic, Listy I, Letter No. 238. 33 ) Letter of Stur to Michal M. Hodza, Listy I, Letter No. 182. Stur, "Hlas proti hlasom," ibid., pp. 83-84. 34) Stur, "Hlas proti hlasom," ibid., pp. 105-123. 35) Stur, "Narecia slovensko," ibid., p. 103. 36) Ibid. , pp. 103-104. Elena Varossova, "Svetonazor I.!udovita Stura," .r.udovit Stur: Zivot a dielo, pp. 102-103. Cizevskij, pp. 45-46. 37) Stur, "Hlas proti hlasom," ibid., p. 84. Stur, "Narecia slovensk6," ibid., pp. 113-114. Kollar's view in this regard is very similar to Stur's. The only difference was that Kollar recognized only the Czech, Russian, Polish, and Illyrian tribe while Stur recognized eleven including Slovak. Kollar wrote, "Each dialed should create new vital powers for the other tribes, to rejuvenate, build, and enrich the other, nevertheless it would not touch the other tribe or be ,touched itself, but all the rest would continue to maintain their own free sphere." Johann Kollar, Ueber die literarische Wechselseitigkeit (Leipzig: Otto Wigand, 1844), p. 6. 38) Stur's own poetry was typical of cultural nationalism. His two major poetical works, Svi:itoboj and Matus z Trencina concerned old Slovak heroes. Their structure and thematic development resembled the epic poems of Jan Holly. See Pisut, pp. 372-373. L'udovit Stur, Spevy a piesne (Pre~porok, 1853), the poem Svi:itoboj, pp. 9-31 and Matus z Trencina, pp. 35-93. 39) I.!udovit Stur, O narodnych povestiach a piesnach plemien slovanskych (Turciansky Sv. Martin: Matica slovenska, 1932), p. 9. 40) Ibid. , p. 16. 41) Ibid., p. 240. 42 ) I.!udovit Stur, Stary a novy vek Slovaku (Bratislava, 1935), p. 19. 43 ) Botto, p. 60. Letter of Stur to Ctiboh Zoch, Listy II, Letter No. 251. 44) Letter of Stur to Ismail Ivanovic Sreznevskij, Listy II, Letter No. 316. 45) I.!udovit Stur, Das Slawenthum und die Welt der Zukunft (Bratislava, 1931), p. 19. 46) Ibid. , p. 29. 47) Ibid., p. 32. 48) Ibid., p. 49. 49) Ibid., pp. 164-165. 50) Ibid., pp. 165-167. 51) Ibid., p. 192 BIBLIOGRAPHY I. WORKS BY STOR Das Slawenthum und. die Welt der Zukunft. Bratislava, 1931. Listy .r.udovita Stura. Edited by Dr. Jozef Ambrus. 3 volumes. Bratislava: Slovenska akademia vied, 1954, 1956, 1960. SLOVAKIA 147 0 narodnych povestiach a piesiiach plemien slovanskych. Turciansky Sv. Martin: Matioa slovenska, 1932. Spevy a piesne. Presporok, 1853. Stary a novy vek Slovaku. Bratislava, 1935. Vybor zo spisov .Cudovita §tura. Turciansky Sv. Martin: Matica slovenska, 1931. II. HISTORIES OF SLOVAK LITERATURE Mraz, Andreas, Die L i teratur der Slowaken. Berlin: Volk Verlag, 1943. Mraz, Andrej, Slovenska vlastiveda, vol. V, Literatura a jazyk. Slovenska akademia vied, 1948. Pisut, Milan; Rosenbaum, Karol; Kochol, Viktor, L iteratura obrodenia, vol. II, of Dejiny slovenskej literatury. Slovenska akademia vied, 1960. III. OTHER WORKS und Reich Bratislava: narodneho Bratislava: Bokes, Frantisek, D'ejiny Slovakov a Slovenska od najstarsich cias ai po pritomnost'. Bratislava: Slovenska akademia vied, 1946. Botto, Julius, Slovaci: Vyvin ich narodneho povedomia, 2 volumes, Turciansky Sv. Martin, 1906. Butvin, Jozef, Slovenske narodnozjednocovacie hnutie (1780-1848). Bratislava: Slovenska akademia vied, 1965. Capek, Thomas, The Slovaks of Hungary. New York: Knickerbocker Press, 1906. Cizevskij, Dr. Dimitrij, Sturova filozofia zivota. Bratislava, 1941. Holotik, Uudovit and others, Dejiny Slovenska, vol. I. Bratislava: Slovenska akademia vied, 1961. Hrusovsky, Frantisek, Slovenske dejiny. Turciansky Sv. Martin, 1931. Kirschbaum, Joseph, .Cudovit Stur and His Place in the Slavic World. Cleveland: Slovak Institute, 1958. Kollar, Johann, Ueber die literarische Wechselseitigkeit. Leipzig: Otto Wigand, 1844. Matula, Dr. Vladimir; Golan, Karol, and others, :Cudovit Stur: Zivot a dielo (1815-1856). Bratislava: Slovenska akademia vied, 1956. Pauco, Dr. Jozef, .Cudovychova u sturovcov. Turciansky Sv. Martin: Matica slovenska, 1943. Seton-Watson, Robert William, A History of the Czechs and Slovaks. Hamden, Connecticut: Archon Books, 1965. Yurchak, Peter, The Slovaks: Their Hi story and Traditions. Whiting, Indiana: Rev. John Lach, 1947. IV. ARTICLES Apel, Gundrum, "A Byronic Hero in Slovak Literature," Slavonic and East European Review, XXXIV (June, 1956). Butvin, Jozef, "Uudovit Stur a jeho uloha v slovenskom narodnozjednocovacom hnuti," Historicke studie, XII (1967). Petrovich, Michael, "Uudovit Stur and Russian Panslavism," Journal of Central European Affairs (April, 1952).  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Ľudovít Štúr and Slovak Cultural Nationalism Description An account of the resource Anthony X. Sutherland, Ph.D. Slovakia, Vol. 25 (No. 48), 1975 pp. 134-147 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Sutherland, Anthony X. (Anthony Xavier) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1975 LCNAF https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/5a376ab10e6521274535c037bbedd018.pdf 9e28adb30f75dd082e19fee3aeaaed22 PDF Text Text 148 SLOVAKIA Be/ore Life's Stirring ... and Beyond the Grave In one of our loved Slovak folk ballads we sing: Love! 0 Love! Dear God, where do we people get you, Love ? You neither grow on sweeping hillsides nor do they sow you in the planted fields! And when it comes to the subject of a mother's love, there is no beginning nor will there ever be an end to the countless poetic tributes that this topic inspires. It is a love that develops even before a child's conception and it endures long beyond the grave. It is a love that comes closest to the Creator's own ... and closest to the created. Let us briefly consider one of its manifestations. There once lived an ordinary simple Slovak mother who cherished a genuinely profound love of God and neighbor. She had a typically hard life, and she struggled along valiantly, comforted by the privilege of bringing ten children into this world. In the proverbial sweat of her brow and by dint of heroic effort, often at the cost of such extreme self-denial that it bordered on near-starvation, she nurtured her brood, trained her children and brought them up to serve their God and their country faithfully. And all along, day by day, the relentless hardships of life and the taxing demands that were made upon her as a wife and mother began to consume the candle of her life at both ends. She was not unaware of the waning of her energies; she sensed the approach of the last breath of her life, the final beat of that generous heart of hers that had meted out unstinted love, devotion and sacrifice as only an ideal mother can give it. She kept the premonition of her declining a deep personal secret. She felt the approach of death but she bravely fulfilled her daily tasks without complaint until utter exhaustion finally put her to bed where she suffered patiently until death finally snapped the thread of her life. �SLOVAKIA 149 After her funeral, her children found her will. Her weak and trembling hand had written it on a bit of pape;,· in the intimate expression of her own tender eastern Slovak dialect which defies exact translation: My dearest ones-my husband, children and Mother. My limbs grow weak and helpless ... my breath is labored n:>w . . . I lnve no way of knowing whether I shall h:1ve time to bid you all a loving farewell or not. But when I do go, do not mourn for me too greatly, for all of us must one day go beyond the point of return to this life. I ask you, instead, to pray for me. And so, God be with you, good-bye . May the dear Lord bless you. I have fifty dollars saved in the bank. Use that to have Masses offered for my soul. A hundred dollars are saved up in a box at home. Fifty dollars of that is to go for Christine's dowery, and the other fifty is for Tom's high school graduation outfit-a new suit, shoes, shirt, hat, under-clothing and socks. We generally claim that there is no love that can match the extreme or supreme sacrifices often made on behalf of family, children, nation or friend. And what commentary can we offer in the case of the mother whose sentiments are embodied in the lines quoted above? How many of us have ever witnessed a greater love and concern, a lovelier and a fairer sharing of a charmingly modest accumulation of this world's goods, representing the gross sum of hard earned and lovingly reserved savings of a hard lifetime amid scant blessings in material assets? Has there been at death's door another such remembering of significant and memorable events to come in the lives of others? We must admit that it is not often so. Very often we share in glorious eulogies-odes and panegyrics, resounding accounts and distinguished documentation of the Hchievements and deserts of great men-rulers, deserving statesmen, soldiers, philosophers and scholars-all individual~ of renown. Yet this simple great-souled mother excels the merits and the glory of the famed and glorified, of the great figure s of heroic stature. Unassuming and charming, simple and limitless in self-sacrifice in all her lifetime ... she is compellingly beautiful, loving, and most touchingly thoughtful even in the extreme hour of death .. . concerned with R. movingly loving .solicitude and personal measure of sacrifice �SLOVAKIA 150 to make it possible for her dear children to be assured of the extra details that will add to the personally momentous events in their young lives. Even in death, she reaches out with her undying maternal love. It must be added that these were th.e delicate lineaments that distinguished the mother of our late Peter P. Yurchak, former President of the Slovak League of America, an outstanding Slovak jurist earlier in our time. She was Mary Yurchak, one among the many superlatively motherly, solicitous ideals of Slovak womanhood, exemplary in marriage and family ties, eminently outstanding as mothers in their homes-the rare blessing and blessedness with which God has so generously endowed so many of our Slovak young people even to our day. These then are among the rare gifts committed to us by the provident love of our Heavenly Father, but-most unfortunately and regrettably-it is a heart-breaking tragedy of our times that some unthinking modern Slovak young people fail to value and appreciate these crown jewels of God's own goodness and blessing to us. The unchangeable mandate HONOR YOUR FATHER AND MOTHER, has a unique applicability and value for children of Slovak parenthood and ancestry. (Translated at Jankola Library) * * * THE AIMS OF THE SLOVAK LEAGUE OF AMERICA ARE: To promote education among the Slovaks in America; To encourage them to become alert and loyal citizens of the United States; To advance the Slovaks in the United States and elsewhere morally, economically, socially and politically; To promote and support cultural, civic, and charitable projects for the benefit of its members. No member of the communist party or of any organization recognized as subversive under the laws of the United States can become a member of the Slovak League of America. � 148 SLOVAKIA Be/ore Life's Stirring ... and Beyond the Grave In one of our loved Slovak folk ballads we sing: Love! 0 Love! Dear God, where do we people get you, Love ? You neither grow on sweeping hillsides nor do they sow you in the planted fields! And when it comes to the subject of a mother's love, there is no beginning nor will there ever be an end to the countless poetic tributes that this topic inspires. It is a love that develops even before a child's conception and it endures long beyond the grave. It is a love that comes closest to the Creator's own ... and closest to the created. Let us briefly consider one of its manifestations. There once lived an ordinary simple Slovak mother who cherished a genuinely profound love of God and neighbor. She had a typically hard life, and she struggled along valiantly, comforted by the privilege of bringing ten children into this world. In the proverbial sweat of her brow and by dint of heroic effort, often at the cost of such extreme self-denial that it bordered on near-starvation, she nurtured her brood, trained her children and brought them up to serve their God and their country faithfully. And all along, day by day, the relentless hardships of life and the taxing demands that were made upon her as a wife and mother began to consume the candle of her life at both ends. She was not unaware of the waning of her energies; she sensed the approach of the last breath of her life, the final beat of that generous heart of hers that had meted out unstinted love, devotion and sacrifice as only an ideal mother can give it. She kept the premonition of her declining a deep personal secret. She felt the approach of death but she bravely fulfilled her daily tasks without complaint until utter exhaustion finally put her to bed where she suffered patiently until death finally snapped the thread of her life. �SLOVAKIA 149 After her funeral, her children found her will. Her weak and trembling hand had written it on a bit of pape;,· in the intimate expression of her own tender eastern Slovak dialect which defies exact translation: My dearest ones-my husband, children and Mother. My limbs grow weak and helpless ... my breath is labored n:>w . . . I lnve no way of knowing whether I shall h:1ve time to bid you all a loving farewell or not. But when I do go, do not mourn for me too greatly, for all of us must one day go beyond the point of return to this life. I ask you, instead, to pray for me. And so, God be with you, good-bye . May the dear Lord bless you. I have fifty dollars saved in the bank. Use that to have Masses offered for my soul. A hundred dollars are saved up in a box at home. Fifty dollars of that is to go for Christine's dowery, and the other fifty is for Tom's high school graduation outfit-a new suit, shoes, shirt, hat, under-clothing and socks. We generally claim that there is no love that can match the extreme or supreme sacrifices often made on behalf of family, children, nation or friend. And what commentary can we offer in the case of the mother whose sentiments are embodied in the lines quoted above? How many of us have ever witnessed a greater love and concern, a lovelier and a fairer sharing of a charmingly modest accumulation of this world's goods, representing the gross sum of hard earned and lovingly reserved savings of a hard lifetime amid scant blessings in material assets? Has there been at death's door another such remembering of significant and memorable events to come in the lives of others? We must admit that it is not often so. Very often we share in glorious eulogies-odes and panegyrics, resounding accounts and distinguished documentation of the Hchievements and deserts of great men-rulers, deserving statesmen, soldiers, philosophers and scholars-all individual~ of renown. Yet this simple great-souled mother excels the merits and the glory of the famed and glorified, of the great figure s of heroic stature. Unassuming and charming, simple and limitless in self-sacrifice in all her lifetime ... she is compellingly beautiful, loving, and most touchingly thoughtful even in the extreme hour of death .. . concerned with R. movingly loving .solicitude and personal measure of sacrifice �SLOVAKIA 150 to make it possible for her dear children to be assured of the extra details that will add to the personally momentous events in their young lives. Even in death, she reaches out with her undying maternal love. It must be added that these were th.e delicate lineaments that distinguished the mother of our late Peter P. Yurchak, former President of the Slovak League of America, an outstanding Slovak jurist earlier in our time. She was Mary Yurchak, one among the many superlatively motherly, solicitous ideals of Slovak womanhood, exemplary in marriage and family ties, eminently outstanding as mothers in their homes-the rare blessing and blessedness with which God has so generously endowed so many of our Slovak young people even to our day. These then are among the rare gifts committed to us by the provident love of our Heavenly Father, but-most unfortunately and regrettably-it is a heart-breaking tragedy of our times that some unthinking modern Slovak young people fail to value and appreciate these crown jewels of God's own goodness and blessing to us. The unchangeable mandate HONOR YOUR FATHER AND MOTHER, has a unique applicability and value for children of Slovak parenthood and ancestry. (Translated at Jankola Library) * * * THE AIMS OF THE SLOVAK LEAGUE OF AMERICA ARE: To promote education among the Slovaks in America; To encourage them to become alert and loyal citizens of the United States; To advance the Slovaks in the United States and elsewhere morally, economically, socially and politically; To promote and support cultural, civic, and charitable projects for the benefit of its members. No member of the communist party or of any organization recognized as subversive under the laws of the United States can become a member of the Slovak League of America. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1975, Vol. 25 Description An account of the resource Vol. 25 (No. 48), 1975. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1975 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document 148 SLOVAKIA Be/ore Life's Stirring ... and Beyond the Grave In one of our loved Slovak folk ballads we sing: Love! 0 Love! Dear God, where do we people get you, Love ? You neither grow on sweeping hillsides nor do they sow you in the planted fields! And when it comes to the subject of a mother's love, there is no beginning nor will there ever be an end to the countless poetic tributes that this topic inspires. It is a love that develops even before a child's conception and it endures long beyond the grave. It is a love that comes closest to the Creator's own ... and closest to the created. Let us briefly consider one of its manifestations. There once lived an ordinary simple Slovak mother who cherished a genuinely profound love of God and neighbor. She had a typically hard life, and she struggled along valiantly, comforted by the privilege of bringing ten children into this world. In the proverbial sweat of her brow and by dint of heroic effort, often at the cost of such extreme self-denial that it bordered on near-starvation, she nurtured her brood, trained her children and brought them up to serve their God and their country faithfully. And all along, day by day, the relentless hardships of life and the taxing demands that were made upon her as a wife and mother began to consume the candle of her life at both ends. She was not unaware of the waning of her energies; she sensed the approach of the last breath of her life, the final beat of that generous heart of hers that had meted out unstinted love, devotion and sacrifice as only an ideal mother can give it. She kept the premonition of her declining a deep personal secret. She felt the approach of death but she bravely fulfilled her daily tasks without complaint until utter exhaustion finally put her to bed where she suffered patiently until death finally snapped the thread of her life. SLOVAKIA 149 After her funeral, her children found her will. Her weak and trembling hand had written it on a bit of pape;,· in the intimate expression of her own tender eastern Slovak dialect which defies exact translation: My dearest ones-my husband, children and Mother. My limbs grow weak and helpless ... my breath is labored n:>w . . . I lnve no way of knowing whether I shall h:1ve time to bid you all a loving farewell or not. But when I do go, do not mourn for me too greatly, for all of us must one day go beyond the point of return to this life. I ask you, instead, to pray for me. And so, God be with you, good-bye . May the dear Lord bless you. I have fifty dollars saved in the bank. Use that to have Masses offered for my soul. A hundred dollars are saved up in a box at home. Fifty dollars of that is to go for Christine's dowery, and the other fifty is for Tom's high school graduation outfit-a new suit, shoes, shirt, hat, under-clothing and socks. We generally claim that there is no love that can match the extreme or supreme sacrifices often made on behalf of family, children, nation or friend. And what commentary can we offer in the case of the mother whose sentiments are embodied in the lines quoted above? How many of us have ever witnessed a greater love and concern, a lovelier and a fairer sharing of a charmingly modest accumulation of this world's goods, representing the gross sum of hard earned and lovingly reserved savings of a hard lifetime amid scant blessings in material assets? Has there been at death's door another such remembering of significant and memorable events to come in the lives of others? We must admit that it is not often so. Very often we share in glorious eulogies-odes and panegyrics, resounding accounts and distinguished documentation of the Hchievements and deserts of great men-rulers, deserving statesmen, soldiers, philosophers and scholars-all individual~ of renown. Yet this simple great-souled mother excels the merits and the glory of the famed and glorified, of the great figure s of heroic stature. Unassuming and charming, simple and limitless in self-sacrifice in all her lifetime ... she is compellingly beautiful, loving, and most touchingly thoughtful even in the extreme hour of death .. . concerned with R. movingly loving .solicitude and personal measure of sacrifice SLOVAKIA 150 to make it possible for her dear children to be assured of the extra details that will add to the personally momentous events in their young lives. Even in death, she reaches out with her undying maternal love. It must be added that these were th.e delicate lineaments that distinguished the mother of our late Peter P. Yurchak, former President of the Slovak League of America, an outstanding Slovak jurist earlier in our time. She was Mary Yurchak, one among the many superlatively motherly, solicitous ideals of Slovak womanhood, exemplary in marriage and family ties, eminently outstanding as mothers in their homes-the rare blessing and blessedness with which God has so generously endowed so many of our Slovak young people even to our day. These then are among the rare gifts committed to us by the provident love of our Heavenly Father, but-most unfortunately and regrettably-it is a heart-breaking tragedy of our times that some unthinking modern Slovak young people fail to value and appreciate these crown jewels of God's own goodness and blessing to us. The unchangeable mandate HONOR YOUR FATHER AND MOTHER, has a unique applicability and value for children of Slovak parenthood and ancestry. (Translated at Jankola Library) * * * THE AIMS OF THE SLOVAK LEAGUE OF AMERICA ARE: To promote education among the Slovaks in America; To encourage them to become alert and loyal citizens of the United States; To advance the Slovaks in the United States and elsewhere morally, economically, socially and politically; To promote and support cultural, civic, and charitable projects for the benefit of its members. No member of the communist party or of any organization recognized as subversive under the laws of the United States can become a member of the Slovak League of America.  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Before Life's Stirring ... and Beyond the Grave Description An account of the resource Slovakia, Vol. 25 (No. 48), 1975 pp. 148-150 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1975 https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/a69c481a67fc36517452bab3674963dd.pdf 564073c57c0039e40b17f4e6621fbcd6 PDF Text Text SLOVAKIA 151 Scientific Literature by Slovaks Abroad* J. M. Ki r s c h b au m In the three waves of emigres who left Slovakia since the end of the Second World War, there have been many more scientists and a greater number of books published from various scientific fields than is generally known. The Slovak press abroad, including almanacs and kalendars, paid attention mostly to books, essays and articles which deal with humanities and social sciences or, in other words, with history, political science, philology, philosophy, th::ology, and so on. The vast field of applied science usually escaped the attention of the Slovak press abroad, except for the names and works of some scientists whose participation in international congresses or the results of their research were recorded on the pages of Slovak newpapers. Sometimes, the Slovak press, including periodicals, ignored even works from the field of history and political science if they dealt with Slovakia only indirectly. For instance, a successful book by Dr. Stefan Osusky, The Way of the Free , (New York, 1951), which was published also in Italian and Japanese translations, was never reviewed in Slovak publications. Another interesting book, The United States and Central Eastern Europe, by Prof. V. Mamatey (Princeton University Press, 1957), and his essay on Woodrow Wilson's policy, did not receive the attention they deserved. A number of books by Prof. Eugen Lobl, published in German and English, also remained known only to a limited number of Slovak intellectuals abroad, even though they attracted the attention of scholarly publications and political circles in Europe and on the American Continent. Theological and historical writings by Msgr. Joseph Tomko, well received • A summary of a paper delivered at the General Meeting of th e Slovak World Congress on June 28, 1973 in Chicago, Ill. �152 SLOVAKIA by critics in Europe, are also much less known among Slovaks than they deserve. The responsibility for the fact that scientific literature by Slovaks abroad is unknown, quite often to Slovaks themselves, lies in the first place in the lack of any organization of Slovak scientists and cultural workers . The Association of Slovak Writers and Artists undoubtedly deserves recognition for keeping alive Slovak literature abroad in one of the most crucial periods of Slovak literary life. The members of the Association are, however, mostly poets, writers and authors of books from political and literary history. The Slovak Institute in Cleveland and Rome performs the meritorious function of a library, and publishes especially in the field of humanities or belles lettres. Since scientists from the vast field of applied sciences remained unorganized, they have no publication which would record the results of their research or publish reviews of their writings. Two bibliographies - Slovak Bibliography Abroad 1945-1965, compiled by Prof. M. Lacko, and Literdrny Almanach Slovdka v Amerike, edited and published by Dr. J. Pauco in 1967 and 1968, contain some basic information on Slovak scientists and their work abroad. They do not, however, give an exhaustive picture either of Slovaks active in various scientific disciplines or of their published writings. Besides, since 1967, when the Bibliography and Almanachs were published, the ranks of Slovak scientists were enlarged not only by those who left Slovakia in 1968 and became active in academic life or scientific research, but also by a new generation of graduates of American, European and South American universities who made science their field of professional activity. The largest number of books, essays and articles in foreign languages by Slovaks abroad, covers the disciplines which belong to the category of the humanities and the social sciences. It is especially history, political science, literary history and philology which were cultivated by Slovak intellectuals abroad and attracted the attention of the Slovak press in a greater degree that other disciplines. While in 1945 there was hardly a book in foreign languages on Slovakia and the Slovaks, today there are a number of �SLOVAKIA 153 book, essays and articles in foreign language periodicals which have been accepted by critics in Europe as well as on the American Continent as "standard works ." The names of the authors in this field are better known, as I mentioned, than the names of scientists in other fields. In alphabetical order, we should mention at least those who published their writings in book form. In History : s. B. Bue, V. Bucko, J . Cieker, J . Cincik, K . c ulen, F. t:>urcansky, M. St. t:>urica, A. Grebert, s. Glejdura, F . Hrobak, F. Hrusovsky, J.M. Kirschbaum, M. Lacko, J . Lettrich, A. Macek, V. Mamatey, J. A. Mikus, s. Nahalka, J. Pauco, M. Stolarik, J. Tomko, F. Vnuk, G. Woytko and others. In Literary History and Linguistics: Prof. H . Bartek, J.M. Kirschbaum, J . Konus, I. Kruzliak, M. Lacko, J. Lihani, L. Luzbetak, s. Meciar, J. Mest'ancik, A. Pir, c. Potocek, J. Rekem, J. Vavrovic, F. Vnuk, J. E. Bor-Zat'ko. In Social Sciences : F. t:>urcansky, s. Glejdura, J. M. Kirschbaum, E . Lobl, J. Mikus, s. Polakovic, s. Osusky, J. Rudinsky, J. Stasko, James Zat'ko, T. G. Zubek. All these names, except for Luzbetak who published essays on the language of the residents of New Guinea, are generally known to the Slovak press. As far as Prof. M. Novak is concerned, we should perhaps mention that this author published a dozen books from the field of theology, philosophy and other social sciences, but he became well known to Slovaks a few years ago when he wrote about his Slovak origin in his successful book: The Rise of the Unmeltable Ethnics. There is no doubt that as time passes, we will have other similar cases among American Slovaks. The number of published books, essays and articles of the above-mentioned authors would amount to hundreds, the major part of which has been recorded in L9-cko 's Bibliography and in the two issues of the Literarny Almanach Slovaka v Amerike. Books and essays of some authors were recorded, however, also in bibliographies published in Germany, the United States and Canada.* Bibliographies * Daniel Dorotich, A Bibliography of Canadian Slavist s, University of Saskatchewan (1972) ; Sudosteuropa Bibliographie (Munich, 1934); A. Gregorowich, Canadian Ethnic Bibliography (Toronto, 1972). �154 SLOVAKIA published in Slovakia - and there is a considerable number of them - did not, of course, mention books by Slovaks abroad except for one or two authors. Scientific works from the field of philosophy, theology, and religion in the broad sense of the word follows in the number of published books and articles on history and the social sciences. The important center in this respect has been Rome where a great number of foreign language studies were published by professors of universities in tha eternal city. Among the best known are Prof. Daniel Foltin, M. Lacko, Felix Litva, s . Nahalka, V. Pavlovsky, s . Porubcan, F . skoda, s . Smrzik, J. Tomko, F. Zeman and others. Rome will be remembered also for the series of Slovak Studi es published by the Slovak Institute and edited by some of the above mentioned authors. On the American Continent we have to mention especially the writings by the well-known theologian, Prof. Jaroslav Pelikan, J. Dieska, I:. Gleiman, K. Murin who published some of his studies also in France, Prof. F. Zeman, A. Zan, T. G. Zubek and Prof. J . Papin who became known as the editor of two volumes of papers delivered by prominent theologians at a symposium organized at Villanova University. The least known among Slovak intellectuals abroad remained those active in applied science even though r, number of Slovak scientists excelled in this field. The Bibliography compiled by Prof. Lacko recorded about 300 items published before 1965 in book form or as contributions to scientific periodicals and symposia. The Bibliography gives the names only of twenty authors. There is no doubt that already before 1965 and since that time, many more Slave.ks made their nam~ in these disciplines, especially in the United States, Canada and Europe. An interesting example in this respect is the successful book: Reliability Theory and Practice by Igor Bazovsky, published in Prentice-Hall Spaca Technology series in 1962. The book was published the same year in Japan, in 1965 in the Soviet Union, in 1966 in France, and in 1969 in Italy. Translations into other languages are in course of preparation. Bazovsky also published a number of studies in scientific periodicals and delivered papers at international conferences and congresses. Since 1963, he has been lecturing on Reliability Engineering at the University of Arizona, Tuscon, Arizona. �SLOVAKIA 155 Another example of a successful Slovak scientist hardly known among Slovaks is Prof. John P. Zubek (born in Slovakia in 1925), who made quite an impressive contribution in psychology as a professor, researcher and author of many academic papers. In cooperation with Peter A. Solberg, Prof. Zubek published two books : Doukhobors at War (1952) and Human Development (1954). His list of published scholarly articles and contributions to scientific periodicals and encyclopedias which he prepared alone or in cooperation with known scientists, contains 49 items. Together with T. J. Meyers, he has prepared a symposium: Censory Deprivation recently published in New York. He came to Canada at the age of 5 and was educated first at the University of British Columbia and later at the University of Toronto and at John Hopkins University . From 19G) he held academic positions at McGill University and the University of Manitoba as professor and chairman of the Department of Psychology. No doubt there are other similar cases. The number of Slovak scientists active in various disciplines from astronomy to nuclear physics who were not recorded by Slovak periodicals and newspapers would be surprising. Among those who are well-known through the Slovak press we have to mention Prof. A. Bugan, Prof. G. Bakos, Dr. J. Barboriak, Prof. J . Fabianek, G. Lazarcik, Prof. Julius Rudinsky, Prof. Otto , Anna Sirek, Prof. A. iitnak and others. The writings and names of many others remained unnoticed by the Slovak press even though they have been recognized by international scientific authorities. Writings by Slovak scientists active in applied science were mostly published in English, French, German and Swedish (Milan J. Simak) in scientific periodicals and occasionally also in book form. This survey does not aim, of course, at the evaluation of scientific works by Slovaks abroad. The fact that many of them were published in academic periodicals of wellknown universities, scientific institutions, or were delivered at international congresses and published in symposia, is perhaps sufficient proof that they satisfied scientific criteria. �156 SLOVAKIA Works by several Slovak authors were, however, reviewed and favorably evaluated also by foreign critics in the United States and Europe, and the list of books of some Slovak writers is impressive. Prof. Michael Novak, whom it he senior class at Stanford voted in 1967 one of the three most outstanding professors and in 1972 "distinguished lecturer" at the University of California, Santa Barbara, is the best known American Slovak author. He also taught at Harvard University epistemology and ethics. The list of his publications reads as follows: BOOKS .A New Generation: American and Catholic (Herder & Herder: February, 1964). A collection of essays on American Catholicism. The Open Church: Vatican II: Act II (Macmillan: May, 1964) . The Experience of Marriage (Macmillan: Oct., 1964). Editor. Belief and Unbelief (Macmillan: 1965). Paperback edition published by New American Library, 1967. There is also a German edition. The Rise of Unmeltable Ethnics (Macmillan, 1972). A Book of Elements, with Karen Laub-Novak (Herder & Herder, 1972) . A Time to Build (Macmillan, 1967). American Philosophy and the Future (editor.). To appear. (Scribner's, 1968). ASCENT OF THE MOUNTAIN, FLIGHT OF THE DOVE: An Invitation to Religious Studies (Harper and Row, 1971) . POLITICS: Realism and Imagination (Herder & Herder, 1971) . Mr. Novak's books have appeared in overseas editions since 1962: France, Germany, Holland, Italy, Spain and England. CHAPTERS IN BOOKS Spirit as Inquiry ed. Frederick E . Crowe; Studies in honor of Bernard Lonergan, S. J. "Lonergan's Starting Place; The Performance of Asking Questions," pp. 82-101. Also in Continuum, Winter, 1965. ·"God in the Colleges: The Dehumanization of the University," in The New Student Left: An Anthology, Ed. by Mitchell Cohen and Dennis Hale, Beacon Press, Boston: 1966, pp. 258-270. Also in American Colloquy, Ed. by Leonard Liek and David Hawke, Bobbs-Merrill, Indianapolis: 1963, pp. 690-702. Reprinted also in Commitment Vol. 1, 4 (Nov. 22, 1966) , pp. 1-7. ·"Moral Society and Immoral Man," in Church-State Relations in Ec1imenical Prospective. Ed. by Elwyn A. Smith, Duquesne University Press, Pittsburgh: 1966, pp. 92-109. ·"The New Nuns," (abridged version) in The New Nuns, ed. by Sister �SLOVAKIA 157 M. Charles Borromeo, C.S.C., New American Library, New York : 1967, pp. 13-30. "The Christian and the Atheist,"· in The Meaning of the Death of GOlt , ed. by Berna rd Murchland, Random House, New York: 1937. MONOGRAPHS Editor of series of booklets Men Who Make the Council (portra its of Vatican II leaders), University of Notre Dame Press, 1964. A Lay View of the World We L ive I n; Reflections on the I nstitutional Church; The Gospels and the World. Chicago: Mundelein College, Sisters of the BVM, 1966, 67 pages. Vi etnam: Crisis of Conscience. New York : Association Press, Behrman House, and Herder & Herder; in collaboration with Robert McAfce Brown and Abraham Heschcl, 1967. Th e Secdar Saint, DeYoung lectures given at the Illinois State Univer- sity March 29 -31, 1967; to appear. " Toward a Positive Sexual Morality," in What Catholics Thi;ik About Birth Control, ed. by William Birmingham, Signet, 1964, pp. 109-128. "The Ever-Changi ng, Fallible Church" in Generation of the Third Eye, ed. by Daniel Callahan, Sheed and Ward : 1965, pp. 162-172. "Diversity of Structures and Freedom Within Structures of th e Church," in Concilium Dogma Vol. 1 The Church and Mankind, ed. by Edward Schi!lebeecky, O.P., Paulist Press: 1964, pp. 103-113. "The Break wit h Platonic Religion," The Church in the World , ed . by J ohn Deedey, 1965. Prof. Eugene Lobl (also Loe bl), who teaches economics at Vassar College, has an interesting career behind him in Government service of Czecho-Slovakia which ended in his five years solitary confinement by the Communist regime . After the Soviet invasion he left Slovakia and lectured in Germany, and in the United States at Princeton and som e twenty American universities before he settled at Vassar College, where he teaches "Critique of Theory and Practic~ of Marxist Thought," "Man and Society" and "Humanistic Economics." Among his writings published in exile are the following : In 1967, Dr. Lobl's manuscript, prepared while in soli tary confinement, was published under the title, M ental Worlc as the Re .1! Source of Wealth in: Czecho-Slovakia by the Academy of Sci ence. In Germany, by Econ Verlag, Dilsseldorf under the title Geistige Arbeit die wahre Quelle des Reichtums. He also published an analysis of the Soviet trials. In Czecho-Slovakia, the book was published shortly before the Soviet inva ::ion and became a bestseller. It has been translated and published in: AUSTRIA by Europa Verlag under the title: Die Revolution Rehabilitiert ihre Kinder (The Revolution Reh abilitates its Children). �158 SLOVAKIA BRAZIL, by Editora Laudes, Rio de Janeiro. FRANCE, by Editions Stock under the title: Proces ii Prague. GREAT BRITAIN, by Elek Publishing Company under the title: Sentenced and Tried. ITALY, by Vallecchi Editore under the titI,e, Testimonianza sui processo al centoro do conspirazione antistate capeggiatto da Rudolf Slansky. JAPAN, by Tuttle. UNITED STATES, by Grove Press under the title, Stalinism in Prague, The Loebl Story. Further, an analysis of the background of the Prague spring has been published in : Austria ·a nd Germany by Europa Verlag under the title : Die Intellectualle Revolution. It was also published in Izrael. Dr. Lobl's book, dealing with the problems of the student movement in the United States in the sixties, and exposing their philosophical shortcoming as the roots of the problems of contemporary society, has been published in: AUSTRIA and GERMANY by Econ Verlag, Diisseldorf under the title: Gesprache mit den Ratlosen. GREAT BRITAIN, by Allen and Unwin under the title: Conversations with the Bewildered. UNITED STATES, by Schenkman in Bo3ton und er the same title. An analysis and confrontation of theory and practice of applied Marxism has been published in: GERMANY, by Econ Verlag under the title : Marxismus Wegweiser und Irrweg (Marxism the Signpost and Dead End ). His manuscript on "A Few Blades of Grass," a recollection is being edited for publishing in 1974. Economics and Our Future, a critique of contemporary economics and an outline for a humanistic orientation of the economy, is in print in Germany. The English manuscript is being edited. Prof. Msgr. Jozef Tomko, who alternatively taught at the International University of Social Sciences, tlB Pontificia Universitas Gregoriana and Diplomatic Academy in Rome, is foremost Slovak scholar in Rome. His works in Latin and German were reviewed in several European countries. He also published in Slovak. Among his foreign language works we should mention the following: BOOKS De inhabitatione Spiritus Sancti ir anima iusti secundum B. Petrum de Tarantasia, Roma, 1951. Il rapporto di larnro in Cecoslovacchia negii anni 1945-1954, Roma, 1956. Die Errichtung der Diozesen Zips, Neusohl und Rosenau (1776) und da s konigliche Patronatsrecht in Ungarn, Wien, Herder, 1968. It w.1s �SLOVAKIA 159 reviewed in Archiv fur katholisches Kirchenrecht, Zeitschrift fur katholische Theologie, Theol.-prakt. Quartalschrift Linz, Archiv fur Kirchenrecht, Sudostdeutsches Archiv, Bollettino bibliografico internazionale, Bibliographica de Salamanca. De Litteris Apostolicis "Matrimonia mixta," Napoli, D'Auria , 1970. Matrimoni misti, Napoli, Edizioni Dehoniane, 1971. The book was reviewed in La Civilta Cattolica, Apollinaris, La Famiglia, Rassegna di teologia, L'Osservatore Romano, A1;venire, La lib erte (Fribourg), Theologische Revue, Catholic Herald (London), etc. Svetlo narodov (The Light of Nations), Rome, 1972. Blazenstva, (Rome, 1973). Krest'an a svet (Christian and the World), Rome, 1974. CHAPTERS IN BOOKS EDITED IN COOPERATION WITH OTHER AUTHORS "Aspetti teologici della problematica dei matrimoni misti," in La collegialita episcopale per it futuro della Chiesa, Firenze, Valleccni, 1969, pp. 445-479. "II matrimonio dei battezzati non credenti," in Matrimonio famiglia e diverzio, Napoli, Edizioni Dehoniane, 1971 (Second edition 1973) , pp. 347-367. "De Sacra Congregatione pro Doctrina fidei," in Adnotationes Professorum, Pontificia Universitas Gregoriana, Cursus renovationis canonicae, Roma, 1971, pp. 411-426. "De causis circa fidei privilegium," in Adnotationes Professorum, Pontificia Universitas Gregoriana, Rome, 1972, pp. 379-406. ARTICLES "Celebrazioni rnmana in onore degli Apostoli degli Slavi," Rivista diocesana di Roma, 1963, pp. 634-637. "Historicko-pravna problematika a pramene k dejinam slovenskych diecez," Most 9 (1962), pp. 27-36. "Cirkevna pravomoc sv. Stefana, uhorskeho kral'a," Most 11 (1964), pp. 33-48. "La nuova disciplina dei matrimoni misti," L'Osservatore Romano, 1. maggio 1970. "S. Congregatio pro doctrina fidei, Agendi ratio in doctrinarum examine," Monitor Ecclesiasticus, 96 (1971). "La riforma del Sant' Uffizio," Rassegna di teologia 12 (1971) 4, pp. 209-215. "11 nuovo ve·golamento per l'esame delle dottrine," Vita consacrata 7 (1971) 5, pp. 404-409. Contributions in Lexikon fur Theologie and Kirche and Bibliographisches Lexikon zur Geschichte Sudosteuropas (Mtinchen, 1973: L. Bartholomaeides). � SLOVAKIA 151 Scientific Literature by Slovaks Abroad* J. M. Ki r s c h b au m In the three waves of emigres who left Slovakia since the end of the Second World War, there have been many more scientists and a greater number of books published from various scientific fields than is generally known. The Slovak press abroad, including almanacs and kalendars, paid attention mostly to books, essays and articles which deal with humanities and social sciences or, in other words, with history, political science, philology, philosophy, th::ology, and so on. The vast field of applied science usually escaped the attention of the Slovak press abroad, except for the names and works of some scientists whose participation in international congresses or the results of their research were recorded on the pages of Slovak newpapers. Sometimes, the Slovak press, including periodicals, ignored even works from the field of history and political science if they dealt with Slovakia only indirectly. For instance, a successful book by Dr. Stefan Osusky, The Way of the Free , (New York, 1951), which was published also in Italian and Japanese translations, was never reviewed in Slovak publications. Another interesting book, The United States and Central Eastern Europe, by Prof. V. Mamatey (Princeton University Press, 1957), and his essay on Woodrow Wilson's policy, did not receive the attention they deserved. A number of books by Prof. Eugen Lobl, published in German and English, also remained known only to a limited number of Slovak intellectuals abroad, even though they attracted the attention of scholarly publications and political circles in Europe and on the American Continent. Theological and historical writings by Msgr. Joseph Tomko, well received • A summary of a paper delivered at the General Meeting of th e Slovak World Congress on June 28, 1973 in Chicago, Ill. �152 SLOVAKIA by critics in Europe, are also much less known among Slovaks than they deserve. The responsibility for the fact that scientific literature by Slovaks abroad is unknown, quite often to Slovaks themselves, lies in the first place in the lack of any organization of Slovak scientists and cultural workers . The Association of Slovak Writers and Artists undoubtedly deserves recognition for keeping alive Slovak literature abroad in one of the most crucial periods of Slovak literary life. The members of the Association are, however, mostly poets, writers and authors of books from political and literary history. The Slovak Institute in Cleveland and Rome performs the meritorious function of a library, and publishes especially in the field of humanities or belles lettres. Since scientists from the vast field of applied sciences remained unorganized, they have no publication which would record the results of their research or publish reviews of their writings. Two bibliographies - Slovak Bibliography Abroad 1945-1965, compiled by Prof. M. Lacko, and Literdrny Almanach Slovdka v Amerike, edited and published by Dr. J. Pauco in 1967 and 1968, contain some basic information on Slovak scientists and their work abroad. They do not, however, give an exhaustive picture either of Slovaks active in various scientific disciplines or of their published writings. Besides, since 1967, when the Bibliography and Almanachs were published, the ranks of Slovak scientists were enlarged not only by those who left Slovakia in 1968 and became active in academic life or scientific research, but also by a new generation of graduates of American, European and South American universities who made science their field of professional activity. The largest number of books, essays and articles in foreign languages by Slovaks abroad, covers the disciplines which belong to the category of the humanities and the social sciences. It is especially history, political science, literary history and philology which were cultivated by Slovak intellectuals abroad and attracted the attention of the Slovak press in a greater degree that other disciplines. While in 1945 there was hardly a book in foreign languages on Slovakia and the Slovaks, today there are a number of �SLOVAKIA 153 book, essays and articles in foreign language periodicals which have been accepted by critics in Europe as well as on the American Continent as "standard works ." The names of the authors in this field are better known, as I mentioned, than the names of scientists in other fields. In alphabetical order, we should mention at least those who published their writings in book form. In History : s. B. Bue, V. Bucko, J . Cieker, J . Cincik, K . c ulen, F. t:>urcansky, M. St. t:>urica, A. Grebert, s. Glejdura, F . Hrobak, F. Hrusovsky, J.M. Kirschbaum, M. Lacko, J . Lettrich, A. Macek, V. Mamatey, J. A. Mikus, s. Nahalka, J. Pauco, M. Stolarik, J. Tomko, F. Vnuk, G. Woytko and others. In Literary History and Linguistics: Prof. H . Bartek, J.M. Kirschbaum, J . Konus, I. Kruzliak, M. Lacko, J. Lihani, L. Luzbetak, s. Meciar, J. Mest'ancik, A. Pir, c. Potocek, J. Rekem, J. Vavrovic, F. Vnuk, J. E. Bor-Zat'ko. In Social Sciences : F. t:>urcansky, s. Glejdura, J. M. Kirschbaum, E . Lobl, J. Mikus, s. Polakovic, s. Osusky, J. Rudinsky, J. Stasko, James Zat'ko, T. G. Zubek. All these names, except for Luzbetak who published essays on the language of the residents of New Guinea, are generally known to the Slovak press. As far as Prof. M. Novak is concerned, we should perhaps mention that this author published a dozen books from the field of theology, philosophy and other social sciences, but he became well known to Slovaks a few years ago when he wrote about his Slovak origin in his successful book: The Rise of the Unmeltable Ethnics. There is no doubt that as time passes, we will have other similar cases among American Slovaks. The number of published books, essays and articles of the above-mentioned authors would amount to hundreds, the major part of which has been recorded in L9-cko 's Bibliography and in the two issues of the Literarny Almanach Slovaka v Amerike. Books and essays of some authors were recorded, however, also in bibliographies published in Germany, the United States and Canada.* Bibliographies * Daniel Dorotich, A Bibliography of Canadian Slavist s, University of Saskatchewan (1972) ; Sudosteuropa Bibliographie (Munich, 1934); A. Gregorowich, Canadian Ethnic Bibliography (Toronto, 1972). �154 SLOVAKIA published in Slovakia - and there is a considerable number of them - did not, of course, mention books by Slovaks abroad except for one or two authors. Scientific works from the field of philosophy, theology, and religion in the broad sense of the word follows in the number of published books and articles on history and the social sciences. The important center in this respect has been Rome where a great number of foreign language studies were published by professors of universities in tha eternal city. Among the best known are Prof. Daniel Foltin, M. Lacko, Felix Litva, s . Nahalka, V. Pavlovsky, s . Porubcan, F . skoda, s . Smrzik, J. Tomko, F. Zeman and others. Rome will be remembered also for the series of Slovak Studi es published by the Slovak Institute and edited by some of the above mentioned authors. On the American Continent we have to mention especially the writings by the well-known theologian, Prof. Jaroslav Pelikan, J. Dieska, I:. Gleiman, K. Murin who published some of his studies also in France, Prof. F. Zeman, A. Zan, T. G. Zubek and Prof. J . Papin who became known as the editor of two volumes of papers delivered by prominent theologians at a symposium organized at Villanova University. The least known among Slovak intellectuals abroad remained those active in applied science even though r, number of Slovak scientists excelled in this field. The Bibliography compiled by Prof. Lacko recorded about 300 items published before 1965 in book form or as contributions to scientific periodicals and symposia. The Bibliography gives the names only of twenty authors. There is no doubt that already before 1965 and since that time, many more Slave.ks made their nam~ in these disciplines, especially in the United States, Canada and Europe. An interesting example in this respect is the successful book: Reliability Theory and Practice by Igor Bazovsky, published in Prentice-Hall Spaca Technology series in 1962. The book was published the same year in Japan, in 1965 in the Soviet Union, in 1966 in France, and in 1969 in Italy. Translations into other languages are in course of preparation. Bazovsky also published a number of studies in scientific periodicals and delivered papers at international conferences and congresses. Since 1963, he has been lecturing on Reliability Engineering at the University of Arizona, Tuscon, Arizona. �SLOVAKIA 155 Another example of a successful Slovak scientist hardly known among Slovaks is Prof. John P. Zubek (born in Slovakia in 1925), who made quite an impressive contribution in psychology as a professor, researcher and author of many academic papers. In cooperation with Peter A. Solberg, Prof. Zubek published two books : Doukhobors at War (1952) and Human Development (1954). His list of published scholarly articles and contributions to scientific periodicals and encyclopedias which he prepared alone or in cooperation with known scientists, contains 49 items. Together with T. J. Meyers, he has prepared a symposium: Censory Deprivation recently published in New York. He came to Canada at the age of 5 and was educated first at the University of British Columbia and later at the University of Toronto and at John Hopkins University . From 19G) he held academic positions at McGill University and the University of Manitoba as professor and chairman of the Department of Psychology. No doubt there are other similar cases. The number of Slovak scientists active in various disciplines from astronomy to nuclear physics who were not recorded by Slovak periodicals and newspapers would be surprising. Among those who are well-known through the Slovak press we have to mention Prof. A. Bugan, Prof. G. Bakos, Dr. J. Barboriak, Prof. J . Fabianek, G. Lazarcik, Prof. Julius Rudinsky, Prof. Otto , Anna Sirek, Prof. A. iitnak and others. The writings and names of many others remained unnoticed by the Slovak press even though they have been recognized by international scientific authorities. Writings by Slovak scientists active in applied science were mostly published in English, French, German and Swedish (Milan J. Simak) in scientific periodicals and occasionally also in book form. This survey does not aim, of course, at the evaluation of scientific works by Slovaks abroad. The fact that many of them were published in academic periodicals of wellknown universities, scientific institutions, or were delivered at international congresses and published in symposia, is perhaps sufficient proof that they satisfied scientific criteria. �156 SLOVAKIA Works by several Slovak authors were, however, reviewed and favorably evaluated also by foreign critics in the United States and Europe, and the list of books of some Slovak writers is impressive. Prof. Michael Novak, whom it he senior class at Stanford voted in 1967 one of the three most outstanding professors and in 1972 "distinguished lecturer" at the University of California, Santa Barbara, is the best known American Slovak author. He also taught at Harvard University epistemology and ethics. The list of his publications reads as follows: BOOKS .A New Generation: American and Catholic (Herder & Herder: February, 1964). A collection of essays on American Catholicism. The Open Church: Vatican II: Act II (Macmillan: May, 1964) . The Experience of Marriage (Macmillan: Oct., 1964). Editor. Belief and Unbelief (Macmillan: 1965). Paperback edition published by New American Library, 1967. There is also a German edition. The Rise of Unmeltable Ethnics (Macmillan, 1972). A Book of Elements, with Karen Laub-Novak (Herder & Herder, 1972) . A Time to Build (Macmillan, 1967). American Philosophy and the Future (editor.). To appear. (Scribner's, 1968). ASCENT OF THE MOUNTAIN, FLIGHT OF THE DOVE: An Invitation to Religious Studies (Harper and Row, 1971) . POLITICS: Realism and Imagination (Herder & Herder, 1971) . Mr. Novak's books have appeared in overseas editions since 1962: France, Germany, Holland, Italy, Spain and England. CHAPTERS IN BOOKS Spirit as Inquiry ed. Frederick E . Crowe; Studies in honor of Bernard Lonergan, S. J. "Lonergan's Starting Place; The Performance of Asking Questions," pp. 82-101. Also in Continuum, Winter, 1965. ·"God in the Colleges: The Dehumanization of the University," in The New Student Left: An Anthology, Ed. by Mitchell Cohen and Dennis Hale, Beacon Press, Boston: 1966, pp. 258-270. Also in American Colloquy, Ed. by Leonard Liek and David Hawke, Bobbs-Merrill, Indianapolis: 1963, pp. 690-702. Reprinted also in Commitment Vol. 1, 4 (Nov. 22, 1966) , pp. 1-7. ·"Moral Society and Immoral Man," in Church-State Relations in Ec1imenical Prospective. Ed. by Elwyn A. Smith, Duquesne University Press, Pittsburgh: 1966, pp. 92-109. ·"The New Nuns," (abridged version) in The New Nuns, ed. by Sister �SLOVAKIA 157 M. Charles Borromeo, C.S.C., New American Library, New York : 1967, pp. 13-30. "The Christian and the Atheist,"· in The Meaning of the Death of GOlt , ed. by Berna rd Murchland, Random House, New York: 1937. MONOGRAPHS Editor of series of booklets Men Who Make the Council (portra its of Vatican II leaders), University of Notre Dame Press, 1964. A Lay View of the World We L ive I n; Reflections on the I nstitutional Church; The Gospels and the World. Chicago: Mundelein College, Sisters of the BVM, 1966, 67 pages. Vi etnam: Crisis of Conscience. New York : Association Press, Behrman House, and Herder & Herder; in collaboration with Robert McAfce Brown and Abraham Heschcl, 1967. Th e Secdar Saint, DeYoung lectures given at the Illinois State Univer- sity March 29 -31, 1967; to appear. " Toward a Positive Sexual Morality," in What Catholics Thi;ik About Birth Control, ed. by William Birmingham, Signet, 1964, pp. 109-128. "The Ever-Changi ng, Fallible Church" in Generation of the Third Eye, ed. by Daniel Callahan, Sheed and Ward : 1965, pp. 162-172. "Diversity of Structures and Freedom Within Structures of th e Church," in Concilium Dogma Vol. 1 The Church and Mankind, ed. by Edward Schi!lebeecky, O.P., Paulist Press: 1964, pp. 103-113. "The Break wit h Platonic Religion," The Church in the World , ed . by J ohn Deedey, 1965. Prof. Eugene Lobl (also Loe bl), who teaches economics at Vassar College, has an interesting career behind him in Government service of Czecho-Slovakia which ended in his five years solitary confinement by the Communist regime . After the Soviet invasion he left Slovakia and lectured in Germany, and in the United States at Princeton and som e twenty American universities before he settled at Vassar College, where he teaches "Critique of Theory and Practic~ of Marxist Thought," "Man and Society" and "Humanistic Economics." Among his writings published in exile are the following : In 1967, Dr. Lobl's manuscript, prepared while in soli tary confinement, was published under the title, M ental Worlc as the Re .1! Source of Wealth in: Czecho-Slovakia by the Academy of Sci ence. In Germany, by Econ Verlag, Dilsseldorf under the title Geistige Arbeit die wahre Quelle des Reichtums. He also published an analysis of the Soviet trials. In Czecho-Slovakia, the book was published shortly before the Soviet inva ::ion and became a bestseller. It has been translated and published in: AUSTRIA by Europa Verlag under the title: Die Revolution Rehabilitiert ihre Kinder (The Revolution Reh abilitates its Children). �158 SLOVAKIA BRAZIL, by Editora Laudes, Rio de Janeiro. FRANCE, by Editions Stock under the title: Proces ii Prague. GREAT BRITAIN, by Elek Publishing Company under the title: Sentenced and Tried. ITALY, by Vallecchi Editore under the titI,e, Testimonianza sui processo al centoro do conspirazione antistate capeggiatto da Rudolf Slansky. JAPAN, by Tuttle. UNITED STATES, by Grove Press under the title, Stalinism in Prague, The Loebl Story. Further, an analysis of the background of the Prague spring has been published in : Austria ·a nd Germany by Europa Verlag under the title : Die Intellectualle Revolution. It was also published in Izrael. Dr. Lobl's book, dealing with the problems of the student movement in the United States in the sixties, and exposing their philosophical shortcoming as the roots of the problems of contemporary society, has been published in: AUSTRIA and GERMANY by Econ Verlag, Diisseldorf under the title: Gesprache mit den Ratlosen. GREAT BRITAIN, by Allen and Unwin under the title: Conversations with the Bewildered. UNITED STATES, by Schenkman in Bo3ton und er the same title. An analysis and confrontation of theory and practice of applied Marxism has been published in: GERMANY, by Econ Verlag under the title : Marxismus Wegweiser und Irrweg (Marxism the Signpost and Dead End ). His manuscript on "A Few Blades of Grass," a recollection is being edited for publishing in 1974. Economics and Our Future, a critique of contemporary economics and an outline for a humanistic orientation of the economy, is in print in Germany. The English manuscript is being edited. Prof. Msgr. Jozef Tomko, who alternatively taught at the International University of Social Sciences, tlB Pontificia Universitas Gregoriana and Diplomatic Academy in Rome, is foremost Slovak scholar in Rome. His works in Latin and German were reviewed in several European countries. He also published in Slovak. Among his foreign language works we should mention the following: BOOKS De inhabitatione Spiritus Sancti ir anima iusti secundum B. Petrum de Tarantasia, Roma, 1951. Il rapporto di larnro in Cecoslovacchia negii anni 1945-1954, Roma, 1956. Die Errichtung der Diozesen Zips, Neusohl und Rosenau (1776) und da s konigliche Patronatsrecht in Ungarn, Wien, Herder, 1968. It w.1s �SLOVAKIA 159 reviewed in Archiv fur katholisches Kirchenrecht, Zeitschrift fur katholische Theologie, Theol.-prakt. Quartalschrift Linz, Archiv fur Kirchenrecht, Sudostdeutsches Archiv, Bollettino bibliografico internazionale, Bibliographica de Salamanca. De Litteris Apostolicis "Matrimonia mixta," Napoli, D'Auria , 1970. Matrimoni misti, Napoli, Edizioni Dehoniane, 1971. The book was reviewed in La Civilta Cattolica, Apollinaris, La Famiglia, Rassegna di teologia, L'Osservatore Romano, A1;venire, La lib erte (Fribourg), Theologische Revue, Catholic Herald (London), etc. Svetlo narodov (The Light of Nations), Rome, 1972. Blazenstva, (Rome, 1973). Krest'an a svet (Christian and the World), Rome, 1974. CHAPTERS IN BOOKS EDITED IN COOPERATION WITH OTHER AUTHORS "Aspetti teologici della problematica dei matrimoni misti," in La collegialita episcopale per it futuro della Chiesa, Firenze, Valleccni, 1969, pp. 445-479. "II matrimonio dei battezzati non credenti," in Matrimonio famiglia e diverzio, Napoli, Edizioni Dehoniane, 1971 (Second edition 1973) , pp. 347-367. "De Sacra Congregatione pro Doctrina fidei," in Adnotationes Professorum, Pontificia Universitas Gregoriana, Cursus renovationis canonicae, Roma, 1971, pp. 411-426. "De causis circa fidei privilegium," in Adnotationes Professorum, Pontificia Universitas Gregoriana, Rome, 1972, pp. 379-406. ARTICLES "Celebrazioni rnmana in onore degli Apostoli degli Slavi," Rivista diocesana di Roma, 1963, pp. 634-637. "Historicko-pravna problematika a pramene k dejinam slovenskych diecez," Most 9 (1962), pp. 27-36. "Cirkevna pravomoc sv. Stefana, uhorskeho kral'a," Most 11 (1964), pp. 33-48. "La nuova disciplina dei matrimoni misti," L'Osservatore Romano, 1. maggio 1970. "S. Congregatio pro doctrina fidei, Agendi ratio in doctrinarum examine," Monitor Ecclesiasticus, 96 (1971). "La riforma del Sant' Uffizio," Rassegna di teologia 12 (1971) 4, pp. 209-215. "11 nuovo ve·golamento per l'esame delle dottrine," Vita consacrata 7 (1971) 5, pp. 404-409. Contributions in Lexikon fur Theologie and Kirche and Bibliographisches Lexikon zur Geschichte Sudosteuropas (Mtinchen, 1973: L. Bartholomaeides). � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1975, Vol. 25 Description An account of the resource Vol. 25 (No. 48), 1975. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1975 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document SLOVAKIA 151 Scientific Literature by Slovaks Abroad* J. M. Ki r s c h b au m In the three waves of emigres who left Slovakia since the end of the Second World War, there have been many more scientists and a greater number of books published from various scientific fields than is generally known. The Slovak press abroad, including almanacs and kalendars, paid attention mostly to books, essays and articles which deal with humanities and social sciences or, in other words, with history, political science, philology, philosophy, th::ology, and so on. The vast field of applied science usually escaped the attention of the Slovak press abroad, except for the names and works of some scientists whose participation in international congresses or the results of their research were recorded on the pages of Slovak newpapers. Sometimes, the Slovak press, including periodicals, ignored even works from the field of history and political science if they dealt with Slovakia only indirectly. For instance, a successful book by Dr. Stefan Osusky, The Way of the Free , (New York, 1951), which was published also in Italian and Japanese translations, was never reviewed in Slovak publications. Another interesting book, The United States and Central Eastern Europe, by Prof. V. Mamatey (Princeton University Press, 1957), and his essay on Woodrow Wilson's policy, did not receive the attention they deserved. A number of books by Prof. Eugen Lobl, published in German and English, also remained known only to a limited number of Slovak intellectuals abroad, even though they attracted the attention of scholarly publications and political circles in Europe and on the American Continent. Theological and historical writings by Msgr. Joseph Tomko, well received • A summary of a paper delivered at the General Meeting of th e Slovak World Congress on June 28, 1973 in Chicago, Ill. 152 SLOVAKIA by critics in Europe, are also much less known among Slovaks than they deserve. The responsibility for the fact that scientific literature by Slovaks abroad is unknown, quite often to Slovaks themselves, lies in the first place in the lack of any organization of Slovak scientists and cultural workers . The Association of Slovak Writers and Artists undoubtedly deserves recognition for keeping alive Slovak literature abroad in one of the most crucial periods of Slovak literary life. The members of the Association are, however, mostly poets, writers and authors of books from political and literary history. The Slovak Institute in Cleveland and Rome performs the meritorious function of a library, and publishes especially in the field of humanities or belles lettres. Since scientists from the vast field of applied sciences remained unorganized, they have no publication which would record the results of their research or publish reviews of their writings. Two bibliographies - Slovak Bibliography Abroad 1945-1965, compiled by Prof. M. Lacko, and Literdrny Almanach Slovdka v Amerike, edited and published by Dr. J. Pauco in 1967 and 1968, contain some basic information on Slovak scientists and their work abroad. They do not, however, give an exhaustive picture either of Slovaks active in various scientific disciplines or of their published writings. Besides, since 1967, when the Bibliography and Almanachs were published, the ranks of Slovak scientists were enlarged not only by those who left Slovakia in 1968 and became active in academic life or scientific research, but also by a new generation of graduates of American, European and South American universities who made science their field of professional activity. The largest number of books, essays and articles in foreign languages by Slovaks abroad, covers the disciplines which belong to the category of the humanities and the social sciences. It is especially history, political science, literary history and philology which were cultivated by Slovak intellectuals abroad and attracted the attention of the Slovak press in a greater degree that other disciplines. While in 1945 there was hardly a book in foreign languages on Slovakia and the Slovaks, today there are a number of SLOVAKIA 153 book, essays and articles in foreign language periodicals which have been accepted by critics in Europe as well as on the American Continent as "standard works ." The names of the authors in this field are better known, as I mentioned, than the names of scientists in other fields. In alphabetical order, we should mention at least those who published their writings in book form. In History : s. B. Bue, V. Bucko, J . Cieker, J . Cincik, K . c ulen, F. t:>urcansky, M. St. t:>urica, A. Grebert, s. Glejdura, F . Hrobak, F. Hrusovsky, J.M. Kirschbaum, M. Lacko, J . Lettrich, A. Macek, V. Mamatey, J. A. Mikus, s. Nahalka, J. Pauco, M. Stolarik, J. Tomko, F. Vnuk, G. Woytko and others. In Literary History and Linguistics: Prof. H . Bartek, J.M. Kirschbaum, J . Konus, I. Kruzliak, M. Lacko, J. Lihani, L. Luzbetak, s. Meciar, J. Mest'ancik, A. Pir, c. Potocek, J. Rekem, J. Vavrovic, F. Vnuk, J. E. Bor-Zat'ko. In Social Sciences : F. t:>urcansky, s. Glejdura, J. M. Kirschbaum, E . Lobl, J. Mikus, s. Polakovic, s. Osusky, J. Rudinsky, J. Stasko, James Zat'ko, T. G. Zubek. All these names, except for Luzbetak who published essays on the language of the residents of New Guinea, are generally known to the Slovak press. As far as Prof. M. Novak is concerned, we should perhaps mention that this author published a dozen books from the field of theology, philosophy and other social sciences, but he became well known to Slovaks a few years ago when he wrote about his Slovak origin in his successful book: The Rise of the Unmeltable Ethnics. There is no doubt that as time passes, we will have other similar cases among American Slovaks. The number of published books, essays and articles of the above-mentioned authors would amount to hundreds, the major part of which has been recorded in L9-cko 's Bibliography and in the two issues of the Literarny Almanach Slovaka v Amerike. Books and essays of some authors were recorded, however, also in bibliographies published in Germany, the United States and Canada.* Bibliographies * Daniel Dorotich, A Bibliography of Canadian Slavist s, University of Saskatchewan (1972) ; Sudosteuropa Bibliographie (Munich, 1934); A. Gregorowich, Canadian Ethnic Bibliography (Toronto, 1972). 154 SLOVAKIA published in Slovakia - and there is a considerable number of them - did not, of course, mention books by Slovaks abroad except for one or two authors. Scientific works from the field of philosophy, theology, and religion in the broad sense of the word follows in the number of published books and articles on history and the social sciences. The important center in this respect has been Rome where a great number of foreign language studies were published by professors of universities in tha eternal city. Among the best known are Prof. Daniel Foltin, M. Lacko, Felix Litva, s . Nahalka, V. Pavlovsky, s . Porubcan, F . skoda, s . Smrzik, J. Tomko, F. Zeman and others. Rome will be remembered also for the series of Slovak Studi es published by the Slovak Institute and edited by some of the above mentioned authors. On the American Continent we have to mention especially the writings by the well-known theologian, Prof. Jaroslav Pelikan, J. Dieska, I:. Gleiman, K. Murin who published some of his studies also in France, Prof. F. Zeman, A. Zan, T. G. Zubek and Prof. J . Papin who became known as the editor of two volumes of papers delivered by prominent theologians at a symposium organized at Villanova University. The least known among Slovak intellectuals abroad remained those active in applied science even though r, number of Slovak scientists excelled in this field. The Bibliography compiled by Prof. Lacko recorded about 300 items published before 1965 in book form or as contributions to scientific periodicals and symposia. The Bibliography gives the names only of twenty authors. There is no doubt that already before 1965 and since that time, many more Slave.ks made their nam~ in these disciplines, especially in the United States, Canada and Europe. An interesting example in this respect is the successful book: Reliability Theory and Practice by Igor Bazovsky, published in Prentice-Hall Spaca Technology series in 1962. The book was published the same year in Japan, in 1965 in the Soviet Union, in 1966 in France, and in 1969 in Italy. Translations into other languages are in course of preparation. Bazovsky also published a number of studies in scientific periodicals and delivered papers at international conferences and congresses. Since 1963, he has been lecturing on Reliability Engineering at the University of Arizona, Tuscon, Arizona. SLOVAKIA 155 Another example of a successful Slovak scientist hardly known among Slovaks is Prof. John P. Zubek (born in Slovakia in 1925), who made quite an impressive contribution in psychology as a professor, researcher and author of many academic papers. In cooperation with Peter A. Solberg, Prof. Zubek published two books : Doukhobors at War (1952) and Human Development (1954). His list of published scholarly articles and contributions to scientific periodicals and encyclopedias which he prepared alone or in cooperation with known scientists, contains 49 items. Together with T. J. Meyers, he has prepared a symposium: Censory Deprivation recently published in New York. He came to Canada at the age of 5 and was educated first at the University of British Columbia and later at the University of Toronto and at John Hopkins University . From 19G) he held academic positions at McGill University and the University of Manitoba as professor and chairman of the Department of Psychology. No doubt there are other similar cases. The number of Slovak scientists active in various disciplines from astronomy to nuclear physics who were not recorded by Slovak periodicals and newspapers would be surprising. Among those who are well-known through the Slovak press we have to mention Prof. A. Bugan, Prof. G. Bakos, Dr. J. Barboriak, Prof. J . Fabianek, G. Lazarcik, Prof. Julius Rudinsky, Prof. Otto , Anna Sirek, Prof. A. iitnak and others. The writings and names of many others remained unnoticed by the Slovak press even though they have been recognized by international scientific authorities. Writings by Slovak scientists active in applied science were mostly published in English, French, German and Swedish (Milan J. Simak) in scientific periodicals and occasionally also in book form. This survey does not aim, of course, at the evaluation of scientific works by Slovaks abroad. The fact that many of them were published in academic periodicals of wellknown universities, scientific institutions, or were delivered at international congresses and published in symposia, is perhaps sufficient proof that they satisfied scientific criteria. 156 SLOVAKIA Works by several Slovak authors were, however, reviewed and favorably evaluated also by foreign critics in the United States and Europe, and the list of books of some Slovak writers is impressive. Prof. Michael Novak, whom it he senior class at Stanford voted in 1967 one of the three most outstanding professors and in 1972 "distinguished lecturer" at the University of California, Santa Barbara, is the best known American Slovak author. He also taught at Harvard University epistemology and ethics. The list of his publications reads as follows: BOOKS .A New Generation: American and Catholic (Herder & Herder: February, 1964). A collection of essays on American Catholicism. The Open Church: Vatican II: Act II (Macmillan: May, 1964) . The Experience of Marriage (Macmillan: Oct., 1964). Editor. Belief and Unbelief (Macmillan: 1965). Paperback edition published by New American Library, 1967. There is also a German edition. The Rise of Unmeltable Ethnics (Macmillan, 1972). A Book of Elements, with Karen Laub-Novak (Herder & Herder, 1972) . A Time to Build (Macmillan, 1967). American Philosophy and the Future (editor.). To appear. (Scribner's, 1968). ASCENT OF THE MOUNTAIN, FLIGHT OF THE DOVE: An Invitation to Religious Studies (Harper and Row, 1971) . POLITICS: Realism and Imagination (Herder & Herder, 1971) . Mr. Novak's books have appeared in overseas editions since 1962: France, Germany, Holland, Italy, Spain and England. CHAPTERS IN BOOKS Spirit as Inquiry ed. Frederick E . Crowe; Studies in honor of Bernard Lonergan, S. J. "Lonergan's Starting Place; The Performance of Asking Questions," pp. 82-101. Also in Continuum, Winter, 1965. ·"God in the Colleges: The Dehumanization of the University," in The New Student Left: An Anthology, Ed. by Mitchell Cohen and Dennis Hale, Beacon Press, Boston: 1966, pp. 258-270. Also in American Colloquy, Ed. by Leonard Liek and David Hawke, Bobbs-Merrill, Indianapolis: 1963, pp. 690-702. Reprinted also in Commitment Vol. 1, 4 (Nov. 22, 1966) , pp. 1-7. ·"Moral Society and Immoral Man," in Church-State Relations in Ec1imenical Prospective. Ed. by Elwyn A. Smith, Duquesne University Press, Pittsburgh: 1966, pp. 92-109. ·"The New Nuns," (abridged version) in The New Nuns, ed. by Sister SLOVAKIA 157 M. Charles Borromeo, C.S.C., New American Library, New York : 1967, pp. 13-30. "The Christian and the Atheist,"· in The Meaning of the Death of GOlt , ed. by Berna rd Murchland, Random House, New York: 1937. MONOGRAPHS Editor of series of booklets Men Who Make the Council (portra its of Vatican II leaders), University of Notre Dame Press, 1964. A Lay View of the World We L ive I n; Reflections on the I nstitutional Church; The Gospels and the World. Chicago: Mundelein College, Sisters of the BVM, 1966, 67 pages. Vi etnam: Crisis of Conscience. New York : Association Press, Behrman House, and Herder & Herder; in collaboration with Robert McAfce Brown and Abraham Heschcl, 1967. Th e Secdar Saint, DeYoung lectures given at the Illinois State Univer- sity March 29 -31, 1967; to appear. " Toward a Positive Sexual Morality," in What Catholics Thi;ik About Birth Control, ed. by William Birmingham, Signet, 1964, pp. 109-128. "The Ever-Changi ng, Fallible Church" in Generation of the Third Eye, ed. by Daniel Callahan, Sheed and Ward : 1965, pp. 162-172. "Diversity of Structures and Freedom Within Structures of th e Church," in Concilium Dogma Vol. 1 The Church and Mankind, ed. by Edward Schi!lebeecky, O.P., Paulist Press: 1964, pp. 103-113. "The Break wit h Platonic Religion," The Church in the World , ed . by J ohn Deedey, 1965. Prof. Eugene Lobl (also Loe bl), who teaches economics at Vassar College, has an interesting career behind him in Government service of Czecho-Slovakia which ended in his five years solitary confinement by the Communist regime . After the Soviet invasion he left Slovakia and lectured in Germany, and in the United States at Princeton and som e twenty American universities before he settled at Vassar College, where he teaches "Critique of Theory and Practic~ of Marxist Thought," "Man and Society" and "Humanistic Economics." Among his writings published in exile are the following : In 1967, Dr. Lobl's manuscript, prepared while in soli tary confinement, was published under the title, M ental Worlc as the Re .1! Source of Wealth in: Czecho-Slovakia by the Academy of Sci ence. In Germany, by Econ Verlag, Dilsseldorf under the title Geistige Arbeit die wahre Quelle des Reichtums. He also published an analysis of the Soviet trials. In Czecho-Slovakia, the book was published shortly before the Soviet inva ::ion and became a bestseller. It has been translated and published in: AUSTRIA by Europa Verlag under the title: Die Revolution Rehabilitiert ihre Kinder (The Revolution Reh abilitates its Children). 158 SLOVAKIA BRAZIL, by Editora Laudes, Rio de Janeiro. FRANCE, by Editions Stock under the title: Proces ii Prague. GREAT BRITAIN, by Elek Publishing Company under the title: Sentenced and Tried. ITALY, by Vallecchi Editore under the titI,e, Testimonianza sui processo al centoro do conspirazione antistate capeggiatto da Rudolf Slansky. JAPAN, by Tuttle. UNITED STATES, by Grove Press under the title, Stalinism in Prague, The Loebl Story. Further, an analysis of the background of the Prague spring has been published in : Austria ·a nd Germany by Europa Verlag under the title : Die Intellectualle Revolution. It was also published in Izrael. Dr. Lobl's book, dealing with the problems of the student movement in the United States in the sixties, and exposing their philosophical shortcoming as the roots of the problems of contemporary society, has been published in: AUSTRIA and GERMANY by Econ Verlag, Diisseldorf under the title: Gesprache mit den Ratlosen. GREAT BRITAIN, by Allen and Unwin under the title: Conversations with the Bewildered. UNITED STATES, by Schenkman in Bo3ton und er the same title. An analysis and confrontation of theory and practice of applied Marxism has been published in: GERMANY, by Econ Verlag under the title : Marxismus Wegweiser und Irrweg (Marxism the Signpost and Dead End ). His manuscript on "A Few Blades of Grass," a recollection is being edited for publishing in 1974. Economics and Our Future, a critique of contemporary economics and an outline for a humanistic orientation of the economy, is in print in Germany. The English manuscript is being edited. Prof. Msgr. Jozef Tomko, who alternatively taught at the International University of Social Sciences, tlB Pontificia Universitas Gregoriana and Diplomatic Academy in Rome, is foremost Slovak scholar in Rome. His works in Latin and German were reviewed in several European countries. He also published in Slovak. Among his foreign language works we should mention the following: BOOKS De inhabitatione Spiritus Sancti ir anima iusti secundum B. Petrum de Tarantasia, Roma, 1951. Il rapporto di larnro in Cecoslovacchia negii anni 1945-1954, Roma, 1956. Die Errichtung der Diozesen Zips, Neusohl und Rosenau (1776) und da s konigliche Patronatsrecht in Ungarn, Wien, Herder, 1968. It w.1s SLOVAKIA 159 reviewed in Archiv fur katholisches Kirchenrecht, Zeitschrift fur katholische Theologie, Theol.-prakt. Quartalschrift Linz, Archiv fur Kirchenrecht, Sudostdeutsches Archiv, Bollettino bibliografico internazionale, Bibliographica de Salamanca. De Litteris Apostolicis "Matrimonia mixta," Napoli, D'Auria , 1970. Matrimoni misti, Napoli, Edizioni Dehoniane, 1971. The book was reviewed in La Civilta Cattolica, Apollinaris, La Famiglia, Rassegna di teologia, L'Osservatore Romano, A1;venire, La lib erte (Fribourg), Theologische Revue, Catholic Herald (London), etc. Svetlo narodov (The Light of Nations), Rome, 1972. Blazenstva, (Rome, 1973). Krest'an a svet (Christian and the World), Rome, 1974. CHAPTERS IN BOOKS EDITED IN COOPERATION WITH OTHER AUTHORS "Aspetti teologici della problematica dei matrimoni misti," in La collegialita episcopale per it futuro della Chiesa, Firenze, Valleccni, 1969, pp. 445-479. "II matrimonio dei battezzati non credenti," in Matrimonio famiglia e diverzio, Napoli, Edizioni Dehoniane, 1971 (Second edition 1973) , pp. 347-367. "De Sacra Congregatione pro Doctrina fidei," in Adnotationes Professorum, Pontificia Universitas Gregoriana, Cursus renovationis canonicae, Roma, 1971, pp. 411-426. "De causis circa fidei privilegium," in Adnotationes Professorum, Pontificia Universitas Gregoriana, Rome, 1972, pp. 379-406. ARTICLES "Celebrazioni rnmana in onore degli Apostoli degli Slavi," Rivista diocesana di Roma, 1963, pp. 634-637. "Historicko-pravna problematika a pramene k dejinam slovenskych diecez," Most 9 (1962), pp. 27-36. "Cirkevna pravomoc sv. Stefana, uhorskeho kral'a," Most 11 (1964), pp. 33-48. "La nuova disciplina dei matrimoni misti," L'Osservatore Romano, 1. maggio 1970. "S. Congregatio pro doctrina fidei, Agendi ratio in doctrinarum examine," Monitor Ecclesiasticus, 96 (1971). "La riforma del Sant' Uffizio," Rassegna di teologia 12 (1971) 4, pp. 209-215. "11 nuovo ve·golamento per l'esame delle dottrine," Vita consacrata 7 (1971) 5, pp. 404-409. Contributions in Lexikon fur Theologie and Kirche and Bibliographisches Lexikon zur Geschichte Sudosteuropas (Mtinchen, 1973: L. Bartholomaeides).  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Scientific Literature by Slovaks Abroad Description An account of the resource J. M. Kirschbaum Slovakia, Vol. 25 (No. 48), 1975 pp. 151-159 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Kirschbaum, Jozef M., 1913-2001 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1975 SNK https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/adf906e61f3a83e663e3fd6a469ac1eb.pdf 52d0cf32e36a3976846f12a2e8b270d9 PDF Text Text 160 SLOVAKIA WINNING ESSAYS Slovak League of America Scholarship Program I. HISTORY AND TRADITION OF WOODEN HOUSES OF SLOVAKIA Paul F i a l k O V i C Consciously or unconsciously, man looks with satisfaction upon that which is substantially and enduringly built. It is this sense of sheer structural value which makes us admire the Pyramids, the Temples of Greece, and the mighty Cathedrals of the thirteenth century. The same instinct communicates to every observer, even the most casual, the bluff and rugged strength of our old houses; and he who knows these ancient dwellings more intimately. Perhaps through having been fortunate enough to live in one of them, one is keenly and sensitively responsive ta the security and the abundance of strength which they embody . The houses are mighty frames of oaken timbers . These timbers, which measure 16 and even 18 inches, have stood unshaken for two centuries or more. By comparison, the frame house of today is built of 2 by 4 studs which must be sheathed with inch boards to impact to the framework the practicable modicum of rigidity. Today, architects are hired to design luxuriously constructed houses. Tradition carried down the knowledge of construction and building of their domain from father to son. The use of crude tools, knowledge, and materials of yesterday contribute to the Slovak pride given to us by our forefathers. Truth is the fundamental principle of Architecture . Of the many Architectural Styles, which have at one time or another achieved popularity, those memorable few which most creditably bear the test of time are precisely the ones which reflect, faithfully and without distortion, the eco - �SLOVAKIA 161 nomic and social conditions out of which they sprang. An Architectural Style, if it is to be true, vital, and enduring, must clearly and candidly exhibit the spirit of the time in which it flourished, the spirit which is implicit in all the characteristic transaction of the time, and which may almost be defined as the sum of its manners, customs, and mode of living. The early Architecture of Slovakia, judged by this criterion, was unmistakably pure and virile. The most superficial examination of the period is enough to prove that it was productive of a "true" style in Architecture. Its buildings are honest, straight forward, devoid of affectation and sham. It is wood that accompanies us from the cradle to the coffin in our daily life. Instruments, buildings, and boats are just a few things that can be manufactured from wood, especially where it predominates in nature and in mountainous regions covered mostly by forests. Well, Slovakia is such a country. Whole villages consisting of wooden cottages, halfmasoned and half log-made, were created by the highlanders in their settlements and on their sites surrounded by mountains. Such settlements primarily existed in the Orava region and in Central and Eastern Slovakia. If we were to go to these regions, we would still find these cottages standing, well preserved, in their own beauty of folk fancy carvings and decorative carvings. The ancient villages were formed by dense rows of streets characterized by having in the gable only two little windows one close to the other. Examples of such cottages could be found at Spisska Bela or in large miners' hous3s at Donovaly and at the spania Dolina. Lack of professional guidance and limited material (natural material) made it impossible for the owner to built a large house. The reason for this is that the wood lacked the strength needed to support weight at large spans. Just like a coin collector's are his coins, these people also had pride in the wood which they worked with. There was a warm relationship found between man and wood. The love they had working with this wood is shown by the folk carvings engraved in the wood by the owner. It �162 SLOVAKIA was an amazing accomplishment made by the owner to be able to carve this wood using such crude tools. The window frames were made out of wood because of the availability of trees; and sometimes plaster was also used. These windows found at the gabled end of the house brought a warm feeling of peace to match the scenic forest and mountains. Nature plays a very big role in the decision of how steep the pitch of the roof is. A typical roof slope is 40 to 50 degrees depending on its location. These houses which were located at the edge of the forest have low pitched roofs; but those located in the valley have a very steeply pitched roof because of the heavy snows which they are burdened with. The most significant aspect of these roofs is the handmade shingles which are cut and laid out by the owner. There were only two main areas in the house, the living room (first floor) and the attic. The attics were used for storage and sometimes a place for someone to bed down at night. The main floor was used for eating, sleeping, gatherings, and was also used for sheltering the livestock. In a house today, we would consider the living room, with the TV playing, as the focal point of the house. In the early houses of Slovakia, the stove served as the focal point . Besides being used for cooking food, the stove served as a place for gathering and exchanging of stories among family and friends. The stove was built from a mixture of clay, chaff, and straw, and smoothly finished to the desired shape by the owner. The floor along with the stove was made of this same mixture of clay. An interesting aspect of the interior is the number of times which they paint the interior walls in one year. This paint, being of lime mixture, served as a health factor to the family. They didn't have tile, or plaster, to cover the joists and rafters so they were always left exposed. There exposed joists served a very important role to the family. High above the floor the Bible was found nestled atop a joist with other valuable papers. Being tradition and also the safest place in the house, this is the reason for finding these articles in this place. Another reason for finding the Bible so high is as tradition says-the Bible should be set �SLOVAKIA 163 in the highest place of the household. Inside the Family Bible, there would be found an account of the family tree. Everything found in the interior of a house was made out of wood. Chairs, spoons, tables, and plates were made by the owner. Even the nails (pegs) which hold the beams were made out of wood. Why wood? Metal nails were too expensive and were only used by blacksmiths to repair the shoes on a horse . A wooden house asserts itself from the architectoral point of view expressively by its gabled front. In this way, aerial pictures of whole villages are thus presented. A beautiful example of this can be found in the upper Hron river district, primarily in Hel'pa and Pohorela. In such cases as the houses built at Hel'pa and Pohorela, the walls and partitions were constructed from rough wood beams interrupted only for window and door openings. The joints between the wooden beams were filled by moss and finished with a clay covering. After th9 finish coating of clay was applied, it was then painted with lime or left exposed. The combination of wood and clay material was a very healthy element because it balanced the humidity inside the house so it wasn't too wet or dry. The houses were made of wood only from the shelf which was made of stone. This shelf serving as a base to carry the loads of the house was approximately four feet deep. In Hron district a very characteristic element of the house was a wooden fence with a roof covering on top which reserved a private area. This area extended between the house and stable. This enclosure of public to private has an urbanistic importance. It creates a two house unit and space between them which is totally private. During the summer, these private spaces were used for social gatherings. The use of wood in the construction of houses was convenient but also dangerous-high flammability. In the past, there were many large fires which often destroyed the whole village. Once a large fire destroys a village, the houses are reconstructed the same way with the same style; but the name of the village is changed. An example of this is Pohorela which was destroyed by fire. �164 SLOVAKIA From time to time, the terrain in some places demands another solution, for instance gradated, corner-shaped or other configuration in space and form. These configurations of houses comparing whole settlements, facing streets, are types of exclusively Slovak settlements. Communities like Vysny Kubin, Jasenova, Fackov, Hubova, or Stankovany are today merely historical documents. Jasenova is different from other villages in the sense that the houses are oriented to the village square. The houses are enriched with additional covered open-space protected by rain. These covered open-spaces are porches. These porches are usually located on the second floor, which is the living area, while the first floor is used as a shelter for livestock. These porches are supported by two main cantilever beams, which are supported by two columns; and the columns in turn are supported by two more cantilevers. An important factor about these porches is the construction of the railing. It is a nice sight to sea how the railing is cut into folk carvings designed by the owner's own style. The owners then would actually compete against each other to see who had the best craftmanship. Today, we have faucets within the house with which we receive our source of water. In the Slovak villages, they had wells located outside the house from which they would draw up water in a bucket as their supply of water. A characteristic point of view about these wells is when they were constructed they took on similar features of the owner's house. The same wood, style, and pitched roof with shingles, shows the sense of pride the owner had for all his construction. The gable roof of these houses was also decorated with some sort of ornament. The houses used a cross or certain vertical siding as their decorative piece located at the gabled end of the roof. New York City has the Empire State Building - St. Louis has the Arch- and Slovak villages have a bell tower as their masterpiece. This bell tower wasn't only used for religious purposes but also for civil means of communication. Every village bell had a different tone so as not to get confused between two villages or more. This bell would sound in case of emergencies and also to notify the men �SLOVAKIA 165 and women working in the fields when it was lunch and supper time. Just like every other piece of construction the bell tower was also built out of wood. Various kinds of construction of the loghouses, their structure, their elevations of masonry at Liptov, roofing, roof corners, balconies, and filling between the timber can be seen enywhere in a great variety. Plastering of the timb3r is sometimes carried out for reasons of insulation. This is to preserve timber against the influence of rain, sometimes even cold or simply to veil poverty of the wooden house. The protection from rain is evidenced by plastering the log walls on the outside up to the height where the loghous2 is not protected by the overhanging gutter. For the s2me reasons, the timber and interstices are white-washed with lime especially in corner transverse sections of the logs . At cicmany, this ornamentics in lime culminate in rich spiral ornamentation and painting of the logs, reminding of embroidery stiches. Under this ornamentation, the buildings lose their wooden block-like character formed by the wooden block in which doors and windows are carved out. The beauty of these houses is such that cicmany is known as one of the most beautiful attractions of th3 world. Since nature is the survival of the Slovaks, the d2corated walls of the houses in this village represent the different symbols of nature. Flowers, trees, etc., are just a few of the decorative symbols found painted on the house walls. Every house is a magnificent figure of originality and beauty created by the owner . The decorated walls and carved wood are all reasons for competition among neighbors. The young women who live in cicmany today are employed by factories and offices outside their village. After they come home at night, they work decorating costumes with the same art work as on the houses so they may wear their costumes on weekends for the tourist entertainment. However, decorating the costumes for tourist entertainment is not the only reason for doing this. They decorated their costumes because of the love and pride they have for our forefathers tradition. On the log structure, there sit various regional roof peculiarities, primarily saddle roofs and more rarely curb roofs sloping down into four gutters. There are slightly �166 SLOVAKIA sloping roofs from the summit into the gable the construction of which was started at a later period especially in the environment of cadca. Changes of the latter roofs into gabled ones are very well discernible in the houses of cicmany. Roofs with the lower edge of the latter type are typical for the upper Hron river region. In all houses, the roofs considerably exceed the log structure so as to make possible to store them round the house fuelwood and let it dry for their winter use. Wooden houses are usually amply lined round the walls with wood for drying. Building logs are deposited outside the house to season in the sun, and branches are left in heaps in the back yard and used as fuel. Briefly, wood around the house smells of resin; and, for instance, at Liptovska Revuca, cierny Balog, Stankovany, but mainly in the villages of the Orava district, there is a considerable reserve of wood stored around the house. A rare peculiarity are the balconied and storied constructions in the Orava District at Jasenova, then at cicmany, in the vicinity of Kremnica and upper part of Turiec. In Slovakia, very ancient interiors with open fireplaces and ovens have been preserved. Many special studies have been written about their singularities and their Old Frankish and Slavonic origin. Greatest fullness and utilization of the esthetic taste could hardly have been exhausted by the building of dwellings. Feeling of beauty has mostly asserted itself in the building of sacral structures where it was necessary to erect for the Divine Power magnificent, decorated tabernaclesbuilding of wooden churches, belfries, steeples, and ceme tery crosses. The poor sculptors could not afford to erect churches from marble. They were unable to order cross-9s from polished basalt or granite. As everything else, these objects were constructed from wood. The art of building from wood can justly be considered the national and original expression of folk building and of building in general in Slovakia, since it developed directly from the natural conditions and from the oldest cultural folk strata. As far as wooden structures, cultural and sacral, in various religious rites (Catholic, Orthodox, Greek Catholic, �SLOVAKIA 167 and Protestant ), there have been preserved in Slovakia seventy of them. The most interesting are wooden churches in Eastern Slovakia. In the majority of cases, the Orthodox and Greek Catholic churches in Slovakia are the most numerous and can be divided into three types. The first type usually possesses a quadrangular high tower which is set in front of the main nave of the church and has its own belfry independent of the church. These churches are found in Slovakia at Hranicne and Matysova near Stara :Cubovna. Then, they continue westward of Bardejov with the church at Fricka and south of Bardejov at Venecia and Kozany. The second type of churches that have the same quadrangular tower, higher or lower, are connected with th2 main nave or directly set up on the roof of the main church but not directly built into the church. The third type is the most easterly one and is expressad by definite elements and character. There are the threa steeple-like terminations of the logrooms: The anteroom, the main nave and apsis which in its interior is separated from the main nave by iconostas. Each of these spaces culminates in a spire. The highest is the anterior part with a bulb-like cupola. The intermediate cupola is lower, quadrangular or octagonal with a log structure ceiling. Also, the smallest posterior part above the apsis terminates in a small spire. This type of church belongs to the most numerous ones. The densest networks of wooden churches is spread south below Dukla pass whether one approaches coming from Bardejov and Zborov to Svidnik or whether one i::; coming from Vranov to Svidnik and further to the east to Kruzlova, Ladomirova, Korejovce, Hunkovce, Nova Polianka (previously Mergeska), semetkovce, Mirol'a, Bodruzal, Vysny, and Nizny Komarnik, right to the pass. Finally, we have to mention the age of these wooden structures. On the territory of Slovakia, the oldest one is considered to be the wooden church at Trocany, 20 km. north of Presov, the origin of which is put in the 14th century. This is easy to explain since yew wood was used in its construction. Also, a building in Hervartov, and more �168 SLOVAKIA definitely so, originates in the end of the 15th century. Then follows the church at Zabrez. The Protestant churches generally come from the 17th and 18th centuries. Churches of the eastern rite are the youngest. They originated in the 18th and 19th centuries. Then, it has to be remembered that the tooth of tim2 and the woodworm enjoy with hearty appetite the wooden building memorials . It is the peak of time for us to preserve our eminent memorials in "scansens" beside museums or in other suitable sites in nature to save what still can be saved. (First place - College) REFERENCES Eugen Lazist'an and Jan Michalov, Drevene stavby na Slovensku, Frantisek Kalina, Bratislava, 1971. Emanuel Hruska, Stavba miest, Slovenska akademia vied, Bratislav.1, 1970. E. Lorad, Umelecko-historicke pamdtne kostoly na Slm; ens.1m, Spolo!( sv. Vojtecha, Trnava, 1957. Vladimir Wagner, Vyvin vytvarneho umenia na Slovensku, Slovenska akademia vied, Bratislava, 1948. Kalendar Jednota 1969, 1970, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1974, Prva K-atoLcka Slovenska Jednota v USA, Middletown Pa. Mag:i.zine and periodicals: Jednota, Slovak v Amerike, Katolicky Sokol. Consultations with experts of Slovak art and architecture. II. MILAN RASTISLA V STEFANIK AND THE TRAGEDY OF THE SLOVAK PEOPLE Robert P o j e r During the late part of the nineteenth century, the seeds of nationalism had already been sown throughout the great empires of Europe. It would take the trauma of a world war before these nationalistic aspirations could be realized. In 1867 the Austro-Hungarian Dual Monarchy made its appearance. Within this vast empire, there existed many peoples-the Austrians and the Magyars, of course; the Serbs, Croats, Ruthenes, Rumanians, Czechs, and Slovaks, to name just a few. Although on the surface, this Austro-Hungarian Empire � 160 SLOVAKIA WINNING ESSAYS Slovak League of America Scholarship Program I. HISTORY AND TRADITION OF WOODEN HOUSES OF SLOVAKIA Paul F i a l k O V i C Consciously or unconsciously, man looks with satisfaction upon that which is substantially and enduringly built. It is this sense of sheer structural value which makes us admire the Pyramids, the Temples of Greece, and the mighty Cathedrals of the thirteenth century. The same instinct communicates to every observer, even the most casual, the bluff and rugged strength of our old houses; and he who knows these ancient dwellings more intimately. Perhaps through having been fortunate enough to live in one of them, one is keenly and sensitively responsive ta the security and the abundance of strength which they embody . The houses are mighty frames of oaken timbers . These timbers, which measure 16 and even 18 inches, have stood unshaken for two centuries or more. By comparison, the frame house of today is built of 2 by 4 studs which must be sheathed with inch boards to impact to the framework the practicable modicum of rigidity. Today, architects are hired to design luxuriously constructed houses. Tradition carried down the knowledge of construction and building of their domain from father to son. The use of crude tools, knowledge, and materials of yesterday contribute to the Slovak pride given to us by our forefathers. Truth is the fundamental principle of Architecture . Of the many Architectural Styles, which have at one time or another achieved popularity, those memorable few which most creditably bear the test of time are precisely the ones which reflect, faithfully and without distortion, the eco - �SLOVAKIA 161 nomic and social conditions out of which they sprang. An Architectural Style, if it is to be true, vital, and enduring, must clearly and candidly exhibit the spirit of the time in which it flourished, the spirit which is implicit in all the characteristic transaction of the time, and which may almost be defined as the sum of its manners, customs, and mode of living. The early Architecture of Slovakia, judged by this criterion, was unmistakably pure and virile. The most superficial examination of the period is enough to prove that it was productive of a "true" style in Architecture. Its buildings are honest, straight forward, devoid of affectation and sham. It is wood that accompanies us from the cradle to the coffin in our daily life. Instruments, buildings, and boats are just a few things that can be manufactured from wood, especially where it predominates in nature and in mountainous regions covered mostly by forests. Well, Slovakia is such a country. Whole villages consisting of wooden cottages, halfmasoned and half log-made, were created by the highlanders in their settlements and on their sites surrounded by mountains. Such settlements primarily existed in the Orava region and in Central and Eastern Slovakia. If we were to go to these regions, we would still find these cottages standing, well preserved, in their own beauty of folk fancy carvings and decorative carvings. The ancient villages were formed by dense rows of streets characterized by having in the gable only two little windows one close to the other. Examples of such cottages could be found at Spisska Bela or in large miners' hous3s at Donovaly and at the spania Dolina. Lack of professional guidance and limited material (natural material) made it impossible for the owner to built a large house. The reason for this is that the wood lacked the strength needed to support weight at large spans. Just like a coin collector's are his coins, these people also had pride in the wood which they worked with. There was a warm relationship found between man and wood. The love they had working with this wood is shown by the folk carvings engraved in the wood by the owner. It �162 SLOVAKIA was an amazing accomplishment made by the owner to be able to carve this wood using such crude tools. The window frames were made out of wood because of the availability of trees; and sometimes plaster was also used. These windows found at the gabled end of the house brought a warm feeling of peace to match the scenic forest and mountains. Nature plays a very big role in the decision of how steep the pitch of the roof is. A typical roof slope is 40 to 50 degrees depending on its location. These houses which were located at the edge of the forest have low pitched roofs; but those located in the valley have a very steeply pitched roof because of the heavy snows which they are burdened with. The most significant aspect of these roofs is the handmade shingles which are cut and laid out by the owner. There were only two main areas in the house, the living room (first floor) and the attic. The attics were used for storage and sometimes a place for someone to bed down at night. The main floor was used for eating, sleeping, gatherings, and was also used for sheltering the livestock. In a house today, we would consider the living room, with the TV playing, as the focal point of the house. In the early houses of Slovakia, the stove served as the focal point . Besides being used for cooking food, the stove served as a place for gathering and exchanging of stories among family and friends. The stove was built from a mixture of clay, chaff, and straw, and smoothly finished to the desired shape by the owner. The floor along with the stove was made of this same mixture of clay. An interesting aspect of the interior is the number of times which they paint the interior walls in one year. This paint, being of lime mixture, served as a health factor to the family. They didn't have tile, or plaster, to cover the joists and rafters so they were always left exposed. There exposed joists served a very important role to the family. High above the floor the Bible was found nestled atop a joist with other valuable papers. Being tradition and also the safest place in the house, this is the reason for finding these articles in this place. Another reason for finding the Bible so high is as tradition says-the Bible should be set �SLOVAKIA 163 in the highest place of the household. Inside the Family Bible, there would be found an account of the family tree. Everything found in the interior of a house was made out of wood. Chairs, spoons, tables, and plates were made by the owner. Even the nails (pegs) which hold the beams were made out of wood. Why wood? Metal nails were too expensive and were only used by blacksmiths to repair the shoes on a horse . A wooden house asserts itself from the architectoral point of view expressively by its gabled front. In this way, aerial pictures of whole villages are thus presented. A beautiful example of this can be found in the upper Hron river district, primarily in Hel'pa and Pohorela. In such cases as the houses built at Hel'pa and Pohorela, the walls and partitions were constructed from rough wood beams interrupted only for window and door openings. The joints between the wooden beams were filled by moss and finished with a clay covering. After th9 finish coating of clay was applied, it was then painted with lime or left exposed. The combination of wood and clay material was a very healthy element because it balanced the humidity inside the house so it wasn't too wet or dry. The houses were made of wood only from the shelf which was made of stone. This shelf serving as a base to carry the loads of the house was approximately four feet deep. In Hron district a very characteristic element of the house was a wooden fence with a roof covering on top which reserved a private area. This area extended between the house and stable. This enclosure of public to private has an urbanistic importance. It creates a two house unit and space between them which is totally private. During the summer, these private spaces were used for social gatherings. The use of wood in the construction of houses was convenient but also dangerous-high flammability. In the past, there were many large fires which often destroyed the whole village. Once a large fire destroys a village, the houses are reconstructed the same way with the same style; but the name of the village is changed. An example of this is Pohorela which was destroyed by fire. �164 SLOVAKIA From time to time, the terrain in some places demands another solution, for instance gradated, corner-shaped or other configuration in space and form. These configurations of houses comparing whole settlements, facing streets, are types of exclusively Slovak settlements. Communities like Vysny Kubin, Jasenova, Fackov, Hubova, or Stankovany are today merely historical documents. Jasenova is different from other villages in the sense that the houses are oriented to the village square. The houses are enriched with additional covered open-space protected by rain. These covered open-spaces are porches. These porches are usually located on the second floor, which is the living area, while the first floor is used as a shelter for livestock. These porches are supported by two main cantilever beams, which are supported by two columns; and the columns in turn are supported by two more cantilevers. An important factor about these porches is the construction of the railing. It is a nice sight to sea how the railing is cut into folk carvings designed by the owner's own style. The owners then would actually compete against each other to see who had the best craftmanship. Today, we have faucets within the house with which we receive our source of water. In the Slovak villages, they had wells located outside the house from which they would draw up water in a bucket as their supply of water. A characteristic point of view about these wells is when they were constructed they took on similar features of the owner's house. The same wood, style, and pitched roof with shingles, shows the sense of pride the owner had for all his construction. The gable roof of these houses was also decorated with some sort of ornament. The houses used a cross or certain vertical siding as their decorative piece located at the gabled end of the roof. New York City has the Empire State Building - St. Louis has the Arch- and Slovak villages have a bell tower as their masterpiece. This bell tower wasn't only used for religious purposes but also for civil means of communication. Every village bell had a different tone so as not to get confused between two villages or more. This bell would sound in case of emergencies and also to notify the men �SLOVAKIA 165 and women working in the fields when it was lunch and supper time. Just like every other piece of construction the bell tower was also built out of wood. Various kinds of construction of the loghouses, their structure, their elevations of masonry at Liptov, roofing, roof corners, balconies, and filling between the timber can be seen enywhere in a great variety. Plastering of the timb3r is sometimes carried out for reasons of insulation. This is to preserve timber against the influence of rain, sometimes even cold or simply to veil poverty of the wooden house. The protection from rain is evidenced by plastering the log walls on the outside up to the height where the loghous2 is not protected by the overhanging gutter. For the s2me reasons, the timber and interstices are white-washed with lime especially in corner transverse sections of the logs . At cicmany, this ornamentics in lime culminate in rich spiral ornamentation and painting of the logs, reminding of embroidery stiches. Under this ornamentation, the buildings lose their wooden block-like character formed by the wooden block in which doors and windows are carved out. The beauty of these houses is such that cicmany is known as one of the most beautiful attractions of th3 world. Since nature is the survival of the Slovaks, the d2corated walls of the houses in this village represent the different symbols of nature. Flowers, trees, etc., are just a few of the decorative symbols found painted on the house walls. Every house is a magnificent figure of originality and beauty created by the owner . The decorated walls and carved wood are all reasons for competition among neighbors. The young women who live in cicmany today are employed by factories and offices outside their village. After they come home at night, they work decorating costumes with the same art work as on the houses so they may wear their costumes on weekends for the tourist entertainment. However, decorating the costumes for tourist entertainment is not the only reason for doing this. They decorated their costumes because of the love and pride they have for our forefathers tradition. On the log structure, there sit various regional roof peculiarities, primarily saddle roofs and more rarely curb roofs sloping down into four gutters. There are slightly �166 SLOVAKIA sloping roofs from the summit into the gable the construction of which was started at a later period especially in the environment of cadca. Changes of the latter roofs into gabled ones are very well discernible in the houses of cicmany. Roofs with the lower edge of the latter type are typical for the upper Hron river region. In all houses, the roofs considerably exceed the log structure so as to make possible to store them round the house fuelwood and let it dry for their winter use. Wooden houses are usually amply lined round the walls with wood for drying. Building logs are deposited outside the house to season in the sun, and branches are left in heaps in the back yard and used as fuel. Briefly, wood around the house smells of resin; and, for instance, at Liptovska Revuca, cierny Balog, Stankovany, but mainly in the villages of the Orava district, there is a considerable reserve of wood stored around the house. A rare peculiarity are the balconied and storied constructions in the Orava District at Jasenova, then at cicmany, in the vicinity of Kremnica and upper part of Turiec. In Slovakia, very ancient interiors with open fireplaces and ovens have been preserved. Many special studies have been written about their singularities and their Old Frankish and Slavonic origin. Greatest fullness and utilization of the esthetic taste could hardly have been exhausted by the building of dwellings. Feeling of beauty has mostly asserted itself in the building of sacral structures where it was necessary to erect for the Divine Power magnificent, decorated tabernaclesbuilding of wooden churches, belfries, steeples, and ceme tery crosses. The poor sculptors could not afford to erect churches from marble. They were unable to order cross-9s from polished basalt or granite. As everything else, these objects were constructed from wood. The art of building from wood can justly be considered the national and original expression of folk building and of building in general in Slovakia, since it developed directly from the natural conditions and from the oldest cultural folk strata. As far as wooden structures, cultural and sacral, in various religious rites (Catholic, Orthodox, Greek Catholic, �SLOVAKIA 167 and Protestant ), there have been preserved in Slovakia seventy of them. The most interesting are wooden churches in Eastern Slovakia. In the majority of cases, the Orthodox and Greek Catholic churches in Slovakia are the most numerous and can be divided into three types. The first type usually possesses a quadrangular high tower which is set in front of the main nave of the church and has its own belfry independent of the church. These churches are found in Slovakia at Hranicne and Matysova near Stara :Cubovna. Then, they continue westward of Bardejov with the church at Fricka and south of Bardejov at Venecia and Kozany. The second type of churches that have the same quadrangular tower, higher or lower, are connected with th2 main nave or directly set up on the roof of the main church but not directly built into the church. The third type is the most easterly one and is expressad by definite elements and character. There are the threa steeple-like terminations of the logrooms: The anteroom, the main nave and apsis which in its interior is separated from the main nave by iconostas. Each of these spaces culminates in a spire. The highest is the anterior part with a bulb-like cupola. The intermediate cupola is lower, quadrangular or octagonal with a log structure ceiling. Also, the smallest posterior part above the apsis terminates in a small spire. This type of church belongs to the most numerous ones. The densest networks of wooden churches is spread south below Dukla pass whether one approaches coming from Bardejov and Zborov to Svidnik or whether one i::; coming from Vranov to Svidnik and further to the east to Kruzlova, Ladomirova, Korejovce, Hunkovce, Nova Polianka (previously Mergeska), semetkovce, Mirol'a, Bodruzal, Vysny, and Nizny Komarnik, right to the pass. Finally, we have to mention the age of these wooden structures. On the territory of Slovakia, the oldest one is considered to be the wooden church at Trocany, 20 km. north of Presov, the origin of which is put in the 14th century. This is easy to explain since yew wood was used in its construction. Also, a building in Hervartov, and more �168 SLOVAKIA definitely so, originates in the end of the 15th century. Then follows the church at Zabrez. The Protestant churches generally come from the 17th and 18th centuries. Churches of the eastern rite are the youngest. They originated in the 18th and 19th centuries. Then, it has to be remembered that the tooth of tim2 and the woodworm enjoy with hearty appetite the wooden building memorials . It is the peak of time for us to preserve our eminent memorials in "scansens" beside museums or in other suitable sites in nature to save what still can be saved. (First place - College) REFERENCES Eugen Lazist'an and Jan Michalov, Drevene stavby na Slovensku, Frantisek Kalina, Bratislava, 1971. Emanuel Hruska, Stavba miest, Slovenska akademia vied, Bratislav.1, 1970. E. Lorad, Umelecko-historicke pamdtne kostoly na Slm; ens.1m, Spolo!( sv. Vojtecha, Trnava, 1957. Vladimir Wagner, Vyvin vytvarneho umenia na Slovensku, Slovenska akademia vied, Bratislava, 1948. Kalendar Jednota 1969, 1970, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1974, Prva K-atoLcka Slovenska Jednota v USA, Middletown Pa. Mag:i.zine and periodicals: Jednota, Slovak v Amerike, Katolicky Sokol. Consultations with experts of Slovak art and architecture. II. MILAN RASTISLA V STEFANIK AND THE TRAGEDY OF THE SLOVAK PEOPLE Robert P o j e r During the late part of the nineteenth century, the seeds of nationalism had already been sown throughout the great empires of Europe. It would take the trauma of a world war before these nationalistic aspirations could be realized. In 1867 the Austro-Hungarian Dual Monarchy made its appearance. Within this vast empire, there existed many peoples-the Austrians and the Magyars, of course; the Serbs, Croats, Ruthenes, Rumanians, Czechs, and Slovaks, to name just a few. Although on the surface, this Austro-Hungarian Empire � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1975, Vol. 25 Description An account of the resource Vol. 25 (No. 48), 1975. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1975 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document 160 SLOVAKIA WINNING ESSAYS Slovak League of America Scholarship Program I. HISTORY AND TRADITION OF WOODEN HOUSES OF SLOVAKIA Paul F i a l k O V i C Consciously or unconsciously, man looks with satisfaction upon that which is substantially and enduringly built. It is this sense of sheer structural value which makes us admire the Pyramids, the Temples of Greece, and the mighty Cathedrals of the thirteenth century. The same instinct communicates to every observer, even the most casual, the bluff and rugged strength of our old houses; and he who knows these ancient dwellings more intimately. Perhaps through having been fortunate enough to live in one of them, one is keenly and sensitively responsive ta the security and the abundance of strength which they embody . The houses are mighty frames of oaken timbers . These timbers, which measure 16 and even 18 inches, have stood unshaken for two centuries or more. By comparison, the frame house of today is built of 2 by 4 studs which must be sheathed with inch boards to impact to the framework the practicable modicum of rigidity. Today, architects are hired to design luxuriously constructed houses. Tradition carried down the knowledge of construction and building of their domain from father to son. The use of crude tools, knowledge, and materials of yesterday contribute to the Slovak pride given to us by our forefathers. Truth is the fundamental principle of Architecture . Of the many Architectural Styles, which have at one time or another achieved popularity, those memorable few which most creditably bear the test of time are precisely the ones which reflect, faithfully and without distortion, the eco - SLOVAKIA 161 nomic and social conditions out of which they sprang. An Architectural Style, if it is to be true, vital, and enduring, must clearly and candidly exhibit the spirit of the time in which it flourished, the spirit which is implicit in all the characteristic transaction of the time, and which may almost be defined as the sum of its manners, customs, and mode of living. The early Architecture of Slovakia, judged by this criterion, was unmistakably pure and virile. The most superficial examination of the period is enough to prove that it was productive of a "true" style in Architecture. Its buildings are honest, straight forward, devoid of affectation and sham. It is wood that accompanies us from the cradle to the coffin in our daily life. Instruments, buildings, and boats are just a few things that can be manufactured from wood, especially where it predominates in nature and in mountainous regions covered mostly by forests. Well, Slovakia is such a country. Whole villages consisting of wooden cottages, halfmasoned and half log-made, were created by the highlanders in their settlements and on their sites surrounded by mountains. Such settlements primarily existed in the Orava region and in Central and Eastern Slovakia. If we were to go to these regions, we would still find these cottages standing, well preserved, in their own beauty of folk fancy carvings and decorative carvings. The ancient villages were formed by dense rows of streets characterized by having in the gable only two little windows one close to the other. Examples of such cottages could be found at Spisska Bela or in large miners' hous3s at Donovaly and at the spania Dolina. Lack of professional guidance and limited material (natural material) made it impossible for the owner to built a large house. The reason for this is that the wood lacked the strength needed to support weight at large spans. Just like a coin collector's are his coins, these people also had pride in the wood which they worked with. There was a warm relationship found between man and wood. The love they had working with this wood is shown by the folk carvings engraved in the wood by the owner. It 162 SLOVAKIA was an amazing accomplishment made by the owner to be able to carve this wood using such crude tools. The window frames were made out of wood because of the availability of trees; and sometimes plaster was also used. These windows found at the gabled end of the house brought a warm feeling of peace to match the scenic forest and mountains. Nature plays a very big role in the decision of how steep the pitch of the roof is. A typical roof slope is 40 to 50 degrees depending on its location. These houses which were located at the edge of the forest have low pitched roofs; but those located in the valley have a very steeply pitched roof because of the heavy snows which they are burdened with. The most significant aspect of these roofs is the handmade shingles which are cut and laid out by the owner. There were only two main areas in the house, the living room (first floor) and the attic. The attics were used for storage and sometimes a place for someone to bed down at night. The main floor was used for eating, sleeping, gatherings, and was also used for sheltering the livestock. In a house today, we would consider the living room, with the TV playing, as the focal point of the house. In the early houses of Slovakia, the stove served as the focal point . Besides being used for cooking food, the stove served as a place for gathering and exchanging of stories among family and friends. The stove was built from a mixture of clay, chaff, and straw, and smoothly finished to the desired shape by the owner. The floor along with the stove was made of this same mixture of clay. An interesting aspect of the interior is the number of times which they paint the interior walls in one year. This paint, being of lime mixture, served as a health factor to the family. They didn't have tile, or plaster, to cover the joists and rafters so they were always left exposed. There exposed joists served a very important role to the family. High above the floor the Bible was found nestled atop a joist with other valuable papers. Being tradition and also the safest place in the house, this is the reason for finding these articles in this place. Another reason for finding the Bible so high is as tradition says-the Bible should be set SLOVAKIA 163 in the highest place of the household. Inside the Family Bible, there would be found an account of the family tree. Everything found in the interior of a house was made out of wood. Chairs, spoons, tables, and plates were made by the owner. Even the nails (pegs) which hold the beams were made out of wood. Why wood? Metal nails were too expensive and were only used by blacksmiths to repair the shoes on a horse . A wooden house asserts itself from the architectoral point of view expressively by its gabled front. In this way, aerial pictures of whole villages are thus presented. A beautiful example of this can be found in the upper Hron river district, primarily in Hel'pa and Pohorela. In such cases as the houses built at Hel'pa and Pohorela, the walls and partitions were constructed from rough wood beams interrupted only for window and door openings. The joints between the wooden beams were filled by moss and finished with a clay covering. After th9 finish coating of clay was applied, it was then painted with lime or left exposed. The combination of wood and clay material was a very healthy element because it balanced the humidity inside the house so it wasn't too wet or dry. The houses were made of wood only from the shelf which was made of stone. This shelf serving as a base to carry the loads of the house was approximately four feet deep. In Hron district a very characteristic element of the house was a wooden fence with a roof covering on top which reserved a private area. This area extended between the house and stable. This enclosure of public to private has an urbanistic importance. It creates a two house unit and space between them which is totally private. During the summer, these private spaces were used for social gatherings. The use of wood in the construction of houses was convenient but also dangerous-high flammability. In the past, there were many large fires which often destroyed the whole village. Once a large fire destroys a village, the houses are reconstructed the same way with the same style; but the name of the village is changed. An example of this is Pohorela which was destroyed by fire. 164 SLOVAKIA From time to time, the terrain in some places demands another solution, for instance gradated, corner-shaped or other configuration in space and form. These configurations of houses comparing whole settlements, facing streets, are types of exclusively Slovak settlements. Communities like Vysny Kubin, Jasenova, Fackov, Hubova, or Stankovany are today merely historical documents. Jasenova is different from other villages in the sense that the houses are oriented to the village square. The houses are enriched with additional covered open-space protected by rain. These covered open-spaces are porches. These porches are usually located on the second floor, which is the living area, while the first floor is used as a shelter for livestock. These porches are supported by two main cantilever beams, which are supported by two columns; and the columns in turn are supported by two more cantilevers. An important factor about these porches is the construction of the railing. It is a nice sight to sea how the railing is cut into folk carvings designed by the owner's own style. The owners then would actually compete against each other to see who had the best craftmanship. Today, we have faucets within the house with which we receive our source of water. In the Slovak villages, they had wells located outside the house from which they would draw up water in a bucket as their supply of water. A characteristic point of view about these wells is when they were constructed they took on similar features of the owner's house. The same wood, style, and pitched roof with shingles, shows the sense of pride the owner had for all his construction. The gable roof of these houses was also decorated with some sort of ornament. The houses used a cross or certain vertical siding as their decorative piece located at the gabled end of the roof. New York City has the Empire State Building - St. Louis has the Arch- and Slovak villages have a bell tower as their masterpiece. This bell tower wasn't only used for religious purposes but also for civil means of communication. Every village bell had a different tone so as not to get confused between two villages or more. This bell would sound in case of emergencies and also to notify the men SLOVAKIA 165 and women working in the fields when it was lunch and supper time. Just like every other piece of construction the bell tower was also built out of wood. Various kinds of construction of the loghouses, their structure, their elevations of masonry at Liptov, roofing, roof corners, balconies, and filling between the timber can be seen enywhere in a great variety. Plastering of the timb3r is sometimes carried out for reasons of insulation. This is to preserve timber against the influence of rain, sometimes even cold or simply to veil poverty of the wooden house. The protection from rain is evidenced by plastering the log walls on the outside up to the height where the loghous2 is not protected by the overhanging gutter. For the s2me reasons, the timber and interstices are white-washed with lime especially in corner transverse sections of the logs . At cicmany, this ornamentics in lime culminate in rich spiral ornamentation and painting of the logs, reminding of embroidery stiches. Under this ornamentation, the buildings lose their wooden block-like character formed by the wooden block in which doors and windows are carved out. The beauty of these houses is such that cicmany is known as one of the most beautiful attractions of th3 world. Since nature is the survival of the Slovaks, the d2corated walls of the houses in this village represent the different symbols of nature. Flowers, trees, etc., are just a few of the decorative symbols found painted on the house walls. Every house is a magnificent figure of originality and beauty created by the owner . The decorated walls and carved wood are all reasons for competition among neighbors. The young women who live in cicmany today are employed by factories and offices outside their village. After they come home at night, they work decorating costumes with the same art work as on the houses so they may wear their costumes on weekends for the tourist entertainment. However, decorating the costumes for tourist entertainment is not the only reason for doing this. They decorated their costumes because of the love and pride they have for our forefathers tradition. On the log structure, there sit various regional roof peculiarities, primarily saddle roofs and more rarely curb roofs sloping down into four gutters. There are slightly 166 SLOVAKIA sloping roofs from the summit into the gable the construction of which was started at a later period especially in the environment of cadca. Changes of the latter roofs into gabled ones are very well discernible in the houses of cicmany. Roofs with the lower edge of the latter type are typical for the upper Hron river region. In all houses, the roofs considerably exceed the log structure so as to make possible to store them round the house fuelwood and let it dry for their winter use. Wooden houses are usually amply lined round the walls with wood for drying. Building logs are deposited outside the house to season in the sun, and branches are left in heaps in the back yard and used as fuel. Briefly, wood around the house smells of resin; and, for instance, at Liptovska Revuca, cierny Balog, Stankovany, but mainly in the villages of the Orava district, there is a considerable reserve of wood stored around the house. A rare peculiarity are the balconied and storied constructions in the Orava District at Jasenova, then at cicmany, in the vicinity of Kremnica and upper part of Turiec. In Slovakia, very ancient interiors with open fireplaces and ovens have been preserved. Many special studies have been written about their singularities and their Old Frankish and Slavonic origin. Greatest fullness and utilization of the esthetic taste could hardly have been exhausted by the building of dwellings. Feeling of beauty has mostly asserted itself in the building of sacral structures where it was necessary to erect for the Divine Power magnificent, decorated tabernaclesbuilding of wooden churches, belfries, steeples, and ceme tery crosses. The poor sculptors could not afford to erect churches from marble. They were unable to order cross-9s from polished basalt or granite. As everything else, these objects were constructed from wood. The art of building from wood can justly be considered the national and original expression of folk building and of building in general in Slovakia, since it developed directly from the natural conditions and from the oldest cultural folk strata. As far as wooden structures, cultural and sacral, in various religious rites (Catholic, Orthodox, Greek Catholic, SLOVAKIA 167 and Protestant ), there have been preserved in Slovakia seventy of them. The most interesting are wooden churches in Eastern Slovakia. In the majority of cases, the Orthodox and Greek Catholic churches in Slovakia are the most numerous and can be divided into three types. The first type usually possesses a quadrangular high tower which is set in front of the main nave of the church and has its own belfry independent of the church. These churches are found in Slovakia at Hranicne and Matysova near Stara :Cubovna. Then, they continue westward of Bardejov with the church at Fricka and south of Bardejov at Venecia and Kozany. The second type of churches that have the same quadrangular tower, higher or lower, are connected with th2 main nave or directly set up on the roof of the main church but not directly built into the church. The third type is the most easterly one and is expressad by definite elements and character. There are the threa steeple-like terminations of the logrooms: The anteroom, the main nave and apsis which in its interior is separated from the main nave by iconostas. Each of these spaces culminates in a spire. The highest is the anterior part with a bulb-like cupola. The intermediate cupola is lower, quadrangular or octagonal with a log structure ceiling. Also, the smallest posterior part above the apsis terminates in a small spire. This type of church belongs to the most numerous ones. The densest networks of wooden churches is spread south below Dukla pass whether one approaches coming from Bardejov and Zborov to Svidnik or whether one i::; coming from Vranov to Svidnik and further to the east to Kruzlova, Ladomirova, Korejovce, Hunkovce, Nova Polianka (previously Mergeska), semetkovce, Mirol'a, Bodruzal, Vysny, and Nizny Komarnik, right to the pass. Finally, we have to mention the age of these wooden structures. On the territory of Slovakia, the oldest one is considered to be the wooden church at Trocany, 20 km. north of Presov, the origin of which is put in the 14th century. This is easy to explain since yew wood was used in its construction. Also, a building in Hervartov, and more 168 SLOVAKIA definitely so, originates in the end of the 15th century. Then follows the church at Zabrez. The Protestant churches generally come from the 17th and 18th centuries. Churches of the eastern rite are the youngest. They originated in the 18th and 19th centuries. Then, it has to be remembered that the tooth of tim2 and the woodworm enjoy with hearty appetite the wooden building memorials . It is the peak of time for us to preserve our eminent memorials in "scansens" beside museums or in other suitable sites in nature to save what still can be saved. (First place - College) REFERENCES Eugen Lazist'an and Jan Michalov, Drevene stavby na Slovensku, Frantisek Kalina, Bratislava, 1971. Emanuel Hruska, Stavba miest, Slovenska akademia vied, Bratislav.1, 1970. E. Lorad, Umelecko-historicke pamdtne kostoly na Slm; ens.1m, Spolo!( sv. Vojtecha, Trnava, 1957. Vladimir Wagner, Vyvin vytvarneho umenia na Slovensku, Slovenska akademia vied, Bratislava, 1948. Kalendar Jednota 1969, 1970, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1974, Prva K-atoLcka Slovenska Jednota v USA, Middletown Pa. Mag:i.zine and periodicals: Jednota, Slovak v Amerike, Katolicky Sokol. Consultations with experts of Slovak art and architecture. II. MILAN RASTISLA V STEFANIK AND THE TRAGEDY OF THE SLOVAK PEOPLE Robert P o j e r During the late part of the nineteenth century, the seeds of nationalism had already been sown throughout the great empires of Europe. It would take the trauma of a world war before these nationalistic aspirations could be realized. In 1867 the Austro-Hungarian Dual Monarchy made its appearance. Within this vast empire, there existed many peoples-the Austrians and the Magyars, of course; the Serbs, Croats, Ruthenes, Rumanians, Czechs, and Slovaks, to name just a few. Although on the surface, this Austro-Hungarian Empire  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource History and Tradition of Wooden Houses of Slovakia Description An account of the resource Paul Fialkovic Slovakia, Vol. 25 (No. 48), 1975 pp. 160-168 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Fialkovic, Paul Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1975 name https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/d214f3f80aa0b5c207d8842334f93e61.pdf 8460ac2e169a4f2a38037c997f11957e PDF Text Text 168 SLOVAKIA definitely so, originates in the end of the 15th century. Then follows the church at Zabrez. The Protestant churches generally come from the 17th and 18th centuries. Churches of the eastern rite are the youngest. They originated in the 18th and 19th centuries. Then, it has to be remembered that the tooth of tim2 and the woodworm enjoy with hearty appetite the wooden building memorials . It is the peak of time for us to preserve our eminent memorials in "scansens" beside museums or in other suitable sites in nature to save what still can be saved. (First place - College) REFERENCES Eugen Lazist'an and Jan Michalov, Drevene stavby na Slovensku, Frantisek Kalina, Bratislava, 1971. Emanuel Hruska, Stavba miest, Slovenska akademia vied, Bratislav.1, 1970. E. Lorad, Umelecko-historicke pamdtne kostoly na Slm; ens.1m, Spolo!( sv. Vojtecha, Trnava, 1957. Vladimir Wagner, Vyvin vytvarneho umenia na Slovensku, Slovenska akademia vied, Bratislava, 1948. Kalendar Jednota 1969, 1970, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1974, Prva K-atoLcka Slovenska Jednota v USA, Middletown Pa. Mag:i.zine and periodicals: Jednota, Slovak v Amerike, Katolicky Sokol. Consultations with experts of Slovak art and architecture. II. MILAN RASTISLA V STEFANIK AND THE TRAGEDY OF THE SLOVAK PEOPLE Robert P o j e r During the late part of the nineteenth century, the seeds of nationalism had already been sown throughout the great empires of Europe. It would take the trauma of a world war before these nationalistic aspirations could be realized. In 1867 the Austro-Hungarian Dual Monarchy made its appearance. Within this vast empire, there existed many peoples-the Austrians and the Magyars, of course; the Serbs, Croats, Ruthenes, Rumanians, Czechs, and Slovaks, to name just a few. Although on the surface, this Austro-Hungarian Empire �SLOVAKIA 169 appeared to be united, in actuality is became evident that both Austria and Hungary were really two separate states. Even though they shared a common ruler, a common foreign policy, a common army, and common finances 1 both parts of the Monarchy were totally independent. Slovakia and Slovak destiny was in the hands of the Hungarian or Magyar state. The new arrangement gave the Magyars absolute control over the 30 million Slavs and the other non-Magyar elements which constituted a majority of the Hungarian population. The Slovaks were one of those nationalities with unique cultural distinctions which would separate them from the Magyars. For a time the Magyars permitted the establishment of Slovak schools and cultural societies for the preservation of the Slovak heritage and history. On the surface at least, this seemed fairly liberal for the times. The crucial question of laws made to secure these schools and societies and their enforcement arose constantly and on this score the Slovaks couldn't be too hopeful. Indeed, Slovaks seemed to sense that the Austro-Hungarian settlement would bring nothing but new setbacks and humiliations. The long history of resisting domination from many different empires and peoples conditioned them for what was to come. The Magyars feared that if the Slovak people studied their history, language, and culture, they might eventually desire to become a free nation, separate from the Hungarian state. A half-hearted program of the Magyarization of the Slovak people had existed for some time but it was during the 1860's that this policy began to be strongly enforced. The Slovaks were denied the right of free speech and assembly. 2 Their literature and schools were suppressed and forbidden. They were forced to learn in a tongue-Magyar-which was completely alien to them. This "Magyarization" of the Slovaks was done primarily to quell any Slovak feelings of nationalism. Nonetheless, the Slovaks' inherent love of liberty, freedom, and justice was undaunted. Along with the many restrictions mentioned above, there was a constant struggle between the Slovaks (and other nationalities within the Empire) and the Hungarian government for representation in the Hungarian Diet. From time to time, a few Slovaks were elected but their national- �170 SLOVAKIA istic feelings brought them into constant conflict with the Magyars who at this time were striving to protect their state from rebellions from within. Any rumblings could eventually lead to the collapse of the Empire and this they would prevent at any cost. Therefore, Slovak political expression was weak and constantly suppressed. In the election of 1910, only three Slovak deputies 3 were chosen and these Slovaks combined spent twenty years of their lives between the Hungarian Diet and Magyar jails in defense of the Slovak people. The Slovaks continued to be divided into two differing groups; one favored Slovak autonomy, and the other advocated a federated republic of the Slovak and Czech peoples within the existing Hungarian Empire. The Magyars, of course, exploited these Slovak and Czech differences to serve their own ends. Out of this conflict (between the Slovak people and the Hungarian government just described) there arose a leader who would try to secure freedom for his people. This would eventually cost him his life. Such a man was General Milan Rastislav Stefanik, astronomer, mathematician, military leader, and political leader of the Slovak people and the focal point of this paper. Milan R. Stefanik was born in the Slovak village of Kosariska of Protestant parents in 1880. In Kosariska Stefanik acquired an interest in astronomy and mathematics, which he later pursued at the University of Prague. When war broke out in 1914 he was in his early thirties and in Morocco making astronomical observations.4 His patriotism for his country brought him away from his work as an astronomer and took him almost immediately to France where he joined the French army as a private. Stefanik was soon transferred to the young French air corps where he served as an observer in air tactics. He became convinced that the Slovak people would never be content fighting for the Monarchy. It was here that Stefanik began to make plans for the formation: of a Slovak foreign legion. Throughout the middle war years (1915-1916) Stefanik made it a point to travel wherever he could in Europe to recruit troops for the legion. He managed to recruit a total of 10,000 men made up of Slovaks, Serbs, Russians, and �SLOVAKIA 171 Rumanians for the allied cause. Many of these men that Stefanik recruited were prisoners of war taken with much resistance, and were fighting for a cause which was not their own. This was a very important contribution to the allied war effort and to his own people who looked to him as a true leader for now these POW's from the Austro-Hungarian armies would be fighting for a cause they believed in and for the eventual formation of free and independent countries for their own peoples. Because of his dynamic personality and military accomplishments, Stefanik quickly reached the rank of General and it became evident that being the only leader of the future Czecho-Slovakia with military experience, the task of providing the Czecho-Slovak divisions to fight with the allied armies fell to Stefanik. In 1917 Stefanik made a visit to the United States, a visit which can be understood as perhaps stefanik's most important contribution to the future of the Slovak people. There was also a strong nationalistic feeling in America among Slovak-Americans and Czech-Americans to actively promote the cause of a Czecho-Slovakia. stefanik's efforts in his 1917 United States visit may be best explained in his own words: I have come to America to set afoot among the Slovak people a movement toward a move perfect understanding of the fundamental conditions of independence, and to obtain permission from the government at Washington to form an independent Czech and Slovak army -in which every Czech and Slovak might take part-the final struggle for our freedom, and perform a cherished duty long deferred.5 At the time of stefanik's visit, General Vignal, who was also stationed in the United States, said of stefanik's work: I cannot praise sufficiently this great patriot, cool-headed and inspired by the highest ideals, full of tact and wisdom. He has won the sympathy of the officials of the American State Department, and organized with the greatest success, the recruiting of Czechs and Slovaks.6 The French government sent a special commission headed by Franklin-Bouillon to Washington to obtain approval from President Wilson for Stefanik to recruit Czechs and Slovaks with the idea of forming a Czecho-Slovak regiment within the allied forces. Stefanik greatly aided the success of this mission. He eventually recruited some 4,000 �172 SLOVAKIA able-bodied Czechs and Slovaks who were not subject to the Selective Service Laws in America due to the fact that many of these immigrants were not yet naturalized citizens. Recruitment of these troops was not easy. Stefanik had the difficult task of raising money for transportation and housing facilities for his "Legionnaires," as well as providing for funds to support the families of the recruited wage earners. But perhaps the most important single aspect of stefanik's visit to the United States was his relations with American Slovak and Czech leaders. He attempted to dispel Slovak doubts as to Slovakia's status in a proposed new state to be created from the Dual Monarchy after an allied victory. Stefanik had yet another important meeting on July 1, 1917, at the Congress Hall in Washington, D. C. Stefanik reported on the military situation on the Eastern front and also the condition of Slovak and Czech troops in Russia. The real purpose of this meeting, however, was two-fold. One was to arrange the organization of American Slovaks and Czechs into the legion and the most important point was to lay down the groundwork for Czecho-Slovak cooperation in the United States. Stefanik knew that without the continued financial support of the Americans and Slovak and Czech immigrants, the birth of their state would not be realized. For this reason Stefanik remained non-committed about the future state to the American Slovaks and Czechs. He stressed that the new state would not be "an ethnographically inseparable one." 7 By this he meant that the Czecho-Slovak state was to be a politically unified one, but as to whether he envisioned a separate Slovak assembly in Bratislava to handle Slovak domestic affairs is not all clear. Stefanik specifically stated to the American Slovaks that the Slovaks in the homeland must be set free to make their own decision on important issues and that no guarantee could be given to emigrant Slovaks in the United States. Even with this in mind the unselfish Slovak-Americans gave all of their cooperation to Stefanik and to the cause he fought for in the homeland of Czecho-Slovakia. One must remember that the recently emigrated Slovak-American �SLOVAKIA 173 was financially very poor for the most part, and, therefore, any financial support was a great sacrifice for him. stefanik's dedication to Slovak autonomy did not stop with the militaristic idea but he gave clear evidence of his dedication in regard to religious matters also. Slovak Catholics ( Catholicism being the majority religion in Slovakia), both in the homeland and in the United States, were suspicious that the leading Czechs associated with Masaryk, were clearly hostile to the Catholic Church. They feared that the Czechs' skepticism toward the existence of God would always be the dominant element in Czech political life. To rid the people of these fears, Masaryk had assured them that in the new Czecho-Slovakia, there would be complete religious freedom for all. Despite this assurance, the doubts still persisted. Therefore, it was up to Stefanik to assure the American Slovaks of religious freedom in the new state. It was at a meeting on September 20, 1917, that Stefanik sat down with a group of American Slovak Catholic clergymen to thrash out this problem. 8 There is no written record available of this very important meeting but, it is known that many fears were raised that Slovak Catholicism would suffer greatly at the hands of a completely Czechized nonCatholic or perhaps even an anti-Catholic government in Prague.9 Stefanik came to the conclusion that in order for the American Slovaks to support the revolution in Europe, the new state would have to guarantee religious freedom for Slovakia. "The meeting with the American Slovak clergymen," said Edward Benes, Masaryk's right-hand man, "was very important because here Stefanik dispelled all the suspicions and unwillingness of the priests as regards the movement for independence ... " 10 This statement made by Benes, dispelled any doubts that Stefanik would win the reassurance of the Catholic Slovak clergymen to continue the fight for a completely religious and culturally free state of Czecho-Slovakia. On September 16, 1917, Stefanik met with FranklinBouillon and John P. Mitchell, then mayor of New York City, at an important demonstration-meeting held at Carnegie Hall. This meeting, at which the representatives of the Allied armies were present, had a considerable propaganda �174 SLOVAKIA significance since it broke the ice of indifference of American journalists. At this meeting Stefanik told several thousand fellow patriots that "our fight against AustroHungary can end only when both our fraternal nations, the Czechs and the Slovaks, are united in an independent state free of Magyar-German domination." 11 Also speaking at the meeting was Franklin-Bouillon, who addressed the men of the "Czecho-Slovak" nation and appealed to them to join the Legion. He was the first influential statesman who publicly voiced a desire for the dismemberment of the Dual Mqnarchy. This statement of Franklin-Bouillon's caused a sensation in American political circles. For at no previous meeting was the dismemberment of Austria- Hungary publicly announced. For this reason one cannot but feel that the true stefanik came forth at the Carnegie Hall mass meeting. The success of stefanik's two-fold task of recruitment and securing Czech-Slovak solidarity in the United States seemed complete, and Stefanik sought permission to return to Paris. Vignal granted this permission for Stefanik to return to France on the first transport of Slovak and Czech troops. The General also added a few words of praise for the success of stefanik's mission. This mission contributed to the Slovak-Czech cause in another very tangible way. Urged by stefanik's great talent as an orator, his obvious patriotism, and tremendous personal magnitude, in the fall of 191 7, the American Slovaks organized their Million Dollar Drive to aid the cause for Slovak-Czech freedom abroad. The drive, headed by Father Joseph Murgas, sent well over $800,000 to Masaryk, Benes, theCzecho-Slovak National Council's office in Paris, Russia, and the United States. Stefanik won their respect and cooperation in his fight for Slovak autonomy. During stefanik's leave from the United States and his return to Paris, much was done behind his back toward the formation of the new Czecho-Slovak Republic. In May of 1918 Masaryk was in Pittsburgh meeting with American and Slovak and Czech leaders, explaining just how CzechoSlovakia would be administered and precisely what the status of Slovakia would be within the new state. He assured the Slovaks that Czecho-Slovakia would be an �SLOVAKIA 175 autonomous state. He also assured them that Slovakia would have its own schools, its own language, its own local administration, courts, and its own legislative assembly. And, to further appease Slovak sensibilities toward the new state, Masaryk drafted a document which has since been vehemently debated. The document came to be known as the Pittsburgh Pact. It contained all of the above legislation and it added that the Czecho-Slovak state shall be a republic, and its constitution shall be democratic. The irony surrounding the drafting of the Pittsburgh Pact was that Masaryk signed the Pact and did not abide by its stipulations. In his own book, The Making of a State, Masaryk skipped over the Pact as a mere scrap of paper noting that "it was concluded in order to appease a 'small Slovak faction' which was dreaming of God knows what sort of independent Slovakia ... the agreement was a local one ... among the Czechs and Slovaks of America." 12 Therefore, according to Masaryk, this Pact was not between the Slovak and Czech nations, but just an agreement "to satisfy a small Slovak faction:" Obviously, it was never meant to be considered in the planning of the foundation of the Czecho-Slovak state either by Masaryk or the Czechs themselves. Masaryk brushed aside the Slovaks rudely by this action, broke his word of honor and proclaimed his signature genuine but worthless, and in the same work (World Revolution, 1925, p. 105) he discounted the financial aid of the Slovaks as insignificant. 13 As can be seen, Masaryk treated the entire matter shabbily and deceitfully. More effective communications with Stefanik in Paris should certainly have been established, especially after stefanik's impressive visit to the United States. It should have been mandatory that Stefanik sign the Pact, thus binding the Czecho-Slovak National Council itself. Masaryk made very little effort at all to contact Stefanik and the other Slovak leaders. Masaryk then continued to make plans for the new state without stefanik's cognizance of the matter. I feel a moment must be taken here to mention the fact that there was an undertone of personality clashes, jealousy, and suspicion on the parts of Masaryk and especially the socialist Benes toward Stefanik. Mrs. Louise Weiss, editor of l' Europe Nouvelle in Paris and an intimate friend of �SLOVAKIA 176 stefanik's, wrote in her book Memoires d'une Europeenne (Memoirs of a European Woman): His (Stefanik's) differences with Benes were an obsession to him. Although he was overbusy, he found time to enlighten me within three minutes, about 'this first grade socialist, this paper revolutionary, this distorted diplomat.' As soon as he left, Benes settled down in my office, and for three hours expanded on this astronomer who thinks he is a soldier, this peasant who thinks he is an aristocrat, this politician who considers himself a genius, but who, in fact, is nothing but muddled up.14 Further she writes: When Stefanik returned from his expedition, he found Benes more and more firmly established with some Government Offices with whom he was negotiating (in the absence of Stefanik) and, in view of the circumstances, without informing Stefanik about it. Benes could not witness without envy the aura surrounding Milan (Stefanik) as a legendary hero.15 Benes and Masaryk, as well, I feel, were jealous and afraid of stefanik's overwhelming popularity. As opposed to them, Stefanik was a more "colorful" character with his ear attuned to the pulse of the Slovak people both in Slovakia and in the United States. The aim of Masaryk and Benes was to establish a predominantly Czech bureaucracy throughout the newly formed nation to fill the vacuum left by the Magyars with no real concern for the welfare and wishes of the Slovak people. As long as Stefanik, however, could serve their purpose in uniting the Slovaks with the Czechs (for pragmatic reasons only) to show the Allies a unified peoples so that they would grant independence, then Masaryk and Benes "tolerated" but ignored Stefanik whenever possible. When he finally realized their true intentions, he was no longer useful and, therefore, would have to be eliminated. On October 28, 1918, T. G. Masaryk proclaimed the Czecho-Slovak Republic while he was in Washington. Masaryk wrote the Declaration of Independence and presented it to Secretary of State Lansing to get his approval. Masaryk wrote in the declaration "that the rights of Bohemia might be united to those of the Slovak brethren in Slovakia, once a part of our (Czech) state ... " 16 This proclamation made Stefanik furious. He was perturbed that the proclamation was issued in Washington instead of Paris. He also added that the proclamation was �SLOVAKIA 177 issued without his previous knowledge and that Masaryk forged his signature to it without prior consultation. Stefanik then sent a telegram to Masaryk in Washington and Benes in Paris to voice his objections to the declaration. He sent the telegram on October 28, the same day that the declaration was released to the public. In stefanik's view, the Republic surely had gotten off on the wrong foot. 17 His misgivings were realized soon after his death when c-:echoSlovak policy, domestic and foreign, became strictly Czech policy. "The lure of might showed itself more powerful for the Czech majority than the ideals of nationalism, equality, and rights." 18 In the early part of 1919 Stefanik began his journey home where he was to be crowned with the appointment to the office of the Minister of National Defense in the new Republic. stefanik's love for his native Slovakia and the people dominated every interest he had in life, even that of attaining high personal fame. Stefanik once wrote to a friend: "I am a Slovak, body and soul; I know no divided affection." 19 After stefanik's inspection of his army in Italy he planned to make the trip home by plane. On May 4, 1919, General Milan Rastislav Stefanik, the war hero of all Slovakia, was killed under circumstances which have been suspect ever since. He was returning to Bratislava where a huge crowd had gathered to welcome him, where he was to take up duties as first Minister of Defense in the CzechoSlovak Republic he had helped create in Paris. A little after 11 a.m. on that fateful day, the Italian plane-Caproni No. 11,495-carrying Stefanik and an Italian pilot and co-pilot, circled the Vajnory Airport near Bratislava for a landing. All of a sudden the plane burst into flames and crashed to the ground below. s tefanik had been a victim of an anti-aircraft barrage of the Czecho-Slovak garrison whose orders were given to them by a Czech commanding officer. Prague tried to hush up the tragedy but it couldn't be suppressed. "It was all a mistake," said the commanding officer_, "I thought it was an enemy plane; the garrison didn't know Stefanik was· arriving in an Italian-made plane!" 20 Despite Czech propaganda, eye witnesses still alive today, as well as certain members of the military �178 SLOV A KIA garrison, insist that the shooting was willful, that Stefanik was deliberately murdered. There are even letters and sworn statements that exist to coincide with the charges. It was found that before an investigation board, a soldier named Joseph Mesko, confessed to shooting at stefanik's plane and stated that he had not known of such orders and had opened fire with the belief that the plane was a Magyar one. 21 One eyewitness, Rudolph Ruzicka stated: I was at my canon when I saw the arrival of the plane about which we had been pre,viously advised. I don't swear that we knew for sure it was Stefanik's plane; never theless, I do maintain, and still today, even if it could have been an enemy plane, that they shouldn't have fired so fearfully and heavily upon it.22 The death of Stefanik is still very unclear in the minds of all Slovaks. Stefanik knew that throughout history Czechs and Slovaks had formed distinct national and cultural differences and that, therefore, Pan-Czech references to "one Czechoslovak nation" were pure myth. Stefanik was a fierce Slovak patriot who would not stand still for the completion of a "Czechized" new state.23 Stefanik was an inconvenience to the Czechs and their plans to colonize Slovakia within the "great Czechoslovakia" that the National Council in Paris had dreamed of. Many Slovaks even today will tell you that Stefanik had to die, because he would never consent to Slovakia being a colony of the imperialistic Czechs led by T. G. Masaryk and Edward Benes. The shooting down of Caproni No. 11,495 served Prague well. In today's Slovakia, controlled by the Communists, Milan Rastislav Stefanik is remembered and looked to as an inspiration to all Slovak people.24 From the time of his death to the present day, Slovakia has suffered again and again from forces beyond her control. Stefanik had always been wary of Czech promises and his misgivings came to pass. The Czechs only used the Slovaks and their nationalistic aspirations as pawns at Paris to be appeased so that the allies would create a state for them out of the carved-up Austro-Hungarian Empire if they saw some semblance of unity between the two groups. The Czechs knew that once this was achieved, and they were independent from Allied control, they would then be the dominant force in the new state and not equal partners with the Slovak people. �SLOVAKIA 179 Even though Slovakia still is not free, Milan Rastislav titefanik and his dreams live on and serve as hope for a future Slovakia, free and self-governing someday. ( Second place - College) FOOTNOTES 1) Special committees elected from both the Austrian and Hungarian Diets were entrusted with the administration of these common departments-in all other matters, and what were left were called purely "domestic affairs." 2) Gilbert L. Oddo, Slovakia and Its People (New York : Robert Speller and Sons, Publishers, 1960) , p. 135. 3) These were Francis Skycak, Dr. Paul Blaho, and Ferdinand Juriga. 4) Milan S. !>urica, "Milan R. Stefanik and His Tragic Death in the Light of Italian Documents," Slovak Studies, Volume X, 1970, p. 148. 5) Peter P. Yurchak, The Slovaks (Indiana: Obrana Press, Inc., 1946), p . 196. 6) Yurchak, p. 196 plus. 7) Oddo, p. 167. 8) Oddo, p. 168. 9) Oddo, p. 169. 10 ) Oddo, p. 167. 11) Oddo, p. 167. 12) Joseph Pauco, Sixty Years of the Slovak League of America (Middletown, Pa.: Jednota Press, 1967), p. 53. 13) Pauco, p. 53. 14) Joseph M. Kirschbaum (ed.), Slovakia in the 19th and 20th Centuries (Toronto: Slovak World Congress, 1973), p. 84 plus. 15) Kirschbaum, p. 84 plus. 16) Oddo, p. 183. 17) Oddo, p. 183. 18) Reverend B. S. Bue, Slovak Nationalism (Middletown, Pa.: Jednota Press, 1960) , p. 38. 19) Yurchak, p. 202. 20) !>urica, p. 164. 21) !>urica, p. 165. 22) !>urica, p. 165. 23) Yurchak, p. 203. 24) A national monument has been erected' to the memory of Stefanik in Slovakia at Bradlo, near his native village, to which Slovaks make a yearly pilgrimage. A life-size statue has also been erected in the U.S. in Wade Park, Cleveland, Ohio. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bue, Reverend B. S., Slovak Nationalism, Middletown, Penna.: Slovak League of America, 1960. !>urica, Milan S., "Milan R. Stefanik and His Tragic Death in the Light of Italian Military Documents." Slovak Studies (Volume 10), 1970, pp. 147-182. �180 SLOVAKIA Rusek, Stephanie 0., ''Milan Rastislav Stefanik." Slovakia, March, 1954, pp. 33-47. Kirschbaum, Joseph M., Slovakia in the 19th and 20th Centuries. Toronto: Slovak World Congress 1973. Mikus, Joseph A. , Slovakia: A Political History, 1918-1950. Milwaukee: The Marquette University Press, 1963. Oddo, G. L. , Slovakia and Its People . New York: Robert Speller and Sons, Publishers, 1960. Paufo, Joseph , Six ty Years of the Slovak League of America. Middletown, Pa.: Slovak League of Ame-r ica, 1967. Woytko, Sister Mary Gabrielle, Sl-o vakia's Road to Statehood. Michigan : John J . Lach, Publisher, 1957. Yurchak, P., The Slovaks. Scranton, Pa.: Obrana Press, Inc., 1946. III. SLOVAKIA BEFORE THE CZECHS John Bert a The Slovaks are a Slavic people who settled in the land between the Danube River and the Carpathian Mountains some 1500 years ago. The area had formerly been held by the Marcommani, a Celtic people, who fled the land after several disastrous wars with the armies of the Roman Empire. The Slovaks were hunters turned farmers. Their main enterprises were blacksmithing and potterymaking, while business transactions were done by bartering. They lived in simple mud and wooden huts, and lived in family groupings called clans, of which the oldest was its head. The Slovak gods were as numerous and varied as those of the Greeks and Romans. When a Slovak died, if cremated, the ashes were placed in urns and buried in a mound. If the body was to be buried, food, wine, weapons and jewelry were placed in the grave. The size of the burial site determined the importance of the dead person. The first attempt of the Slavonic peoples, living along the Danube, to unite into a viable force, came after the Avars, a nomadic Asian people, conquered part of their land. In 624, Samo, a Frankish merchant, united the people and led them to victory against the Avars. This victory encouraged them to face the Germanic Franks, who were � 168 SLOVAKIA definitely so, originates in the end of the 15th century. Then follows the church at Zabrez. The Protestant churches generally come from the 17th and 18th centuries. Churches of the eastern rite are the youngest. They originated in the 18th and 19th centuries. Then, it has to be remembered that the tooth of tim2 and the woodworm enjoy with hearty appetite the wooden building memorials . It is the peak of time for us to preserve our eminent memorials in "scansens" beside museums or in other suitable sites in nature to save what still can be saved. (First place - College) REFERENCES Eugen Lazist'an and Jan Michalov, Drevene stavby na Slovensku, Frantisek Kalina, Bratislava, 1971. Emanuel Hruska, Stavba miest, Slovenska akademia vied, Bratislav.1, 1970. E. Lorad, Umelecko-historicke pamdtne kostoly na Slm; ens.1m, Spolo!( sv. Vojtecha, Trnava, 1957. Vladimir Wagner, Vyvin vytvarneho umenia na Slovensku, Slovenska akademia vied, Bratislava, 1948. Kalendar Jednota 1969, 1970, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1974, Prva K-atoLcka Slovenska Jednota v USA, Middletown Pa. Mag:i.zine and periodicals: Jednota, Slovak v Amerike, Katolicky Sokol. Consultations with experts of Slovak art and architecture. II. MILAN RASTISLA V STEFANIK AND THE TRAGEDY OF THE SLOVAK PEOPLE Robert P o j e r During the late part of the nineteenth century, the seeds of nationalism had already been sown throughout the great empires of Europe. It would take the trauma of a world war before these nationalistic aspirations could be realized. In 1867 the Austro-Hungarian Dual Monarchy made its appearance. Within this vast empire, there existed many peoples-the Austrians and the Magyars, of course; the Serbs, Croats, Ruthenes, Rumanians, Czechs, and Slovaks, to name just a few. Although on the surface, this Austro-Hungarian Empire �SLOVAKIA 169 appeared to be united, in actuality is became evident that both Austria and Hungary were really two separate states. Even though they shared a common ruler, a common foreign policy, a common army, and common finances 1 both parts of the Monarchy were totally independent. Slovakia and Slovak destiny was in the hands of the Hungarian or Magyar state. The new arrangement gave the Magyars absolute control over the 30 million Slavs and the other non-Magyar elements which constituted a majority of the Hungarian population. The Slovaks were one of those nationalities with unique cultural distinctions which would separate them from the Magyars. For a time the Magyars permitted the establishment of Slovak schools and cultural societies for the preservation of the Slovak heritage and history. On the surface at least, this seemed fairly liberal for the times. The crucial question of laws made to secure these schools and societies and their enforcement arose constantly and on this score the Slovaks couldn't be too hopeful. Indeed, Slovaks seemed to sense that the Austro-Hungarian settlement would bring nothing but new setbacks and humiliations. The long history of resisting domination from many different empires and peoples conditioned them for what was to come. The Magyars feared that if the Slovak people studied their history, language, and culture, they might eventually desire to become a free nation, separate from the Hungarian state. A half-hearted program of the Magyarization of the Slovak people had existed for some time but it was during the 1860's that this policy began to be strongly enforced. The Slovaks were denied the right of free speech and assembly. 2 Their literature and schools were suppressed and forbidden. They were forced to learn in a tongue-Magyar-which was completely alien to them. This "Magyarization" of the Slovaks was done primarily to quell any Slovak feelings of nationalism. Nonetheless, the Slovaks' inherent love of liberty, freedom, and justice was undaunted. Along with the many restrictions mentioned above, there was a constant struggle between the Slovaks (and other nationalities within the Empire) and the Hungarian government for representation in the Hungarian Diet. From time to time, a few Slovaks were elected but their national- �170 SLOVAKIA istic feelings brought them into constant conflict with the Magyars who at this time were striving to protect their state from rebellions from within. Any rumblings could eventually lead to the collapse of the Empire and this they would prevent at any cost. Therefore, Slovak political expression was weak and constantly suppressed. In the election of 1910, only three Slovak deputies 3 were chosen and these Slovaks combined spent twenty years of their lives between the Hungarian Diet and Magyar jails in defense of the Slovak people. The Slovaks continued to be divided into two differing groups; one favored Slovak autonomy, and the other advocated a federated republic of the Slovak and Czech peoples within the existing Hungarian Empire. The Magyars, of course, exploited these Slovak and Czech differences to serve their own ends. Out of this conflict (between the Slovak people and the Hungarian government just described) there arose a leader who would try to secure freedom for his people. This would eventually cost him his life. Such a man was General Milan Rastislav Stefanik, astronomer, mathematician, military leader, and political leader of the Slovak people and the focal point of this paper. Milan R. Stefanik was born in the Slovak village of Kosariska of Protestant parents in 1880. In Kosariska Stefanik acquired an interest in astronomy and mathematics, which he later pursued at the University of Prague. When war broke out in 1914 he was in his early thirties and in Morocco making astronomical observations.4 His patriotism for his country brought him away from his work as an astronomer and took him almost immediately to France where he joined the French army as a private. Stefanik was soon transferred to the young French air corps where he served as an observer in air tactics. He became convinced that the Slovak people would never be content fighting for the Monarchy. It was here that Stefanik began to make plans for the formation: of a Slovak foreign legion. Throughout the middle war years (1915-1916) Stefanik made it a point to travel wherever he could in Europe to recruit troops for the legion. He managed to recruit a total of 10,000 men made up of Slovaks, Serbs, Russians, and �SLOVAKIA 171 Rumanians for the allied cause. Many of these men that Stefanik recruited were prisoners of war taken with much resistance, and were fighting for a cause which was not their own. This was a very important contribution to the allied war effort and to his own people who looked to him as a true leader for now these POW's from the Austro-Hungarian armies would be fighting for a cause they believed in and for the eventual formation of free and independent countries for their own peoples. Because of his dynamic personality and military accomplishments, Stefanik quickly reached the rank of General and it became evident that being the only leader of the future Czecho-Slovakia with military experience, the task of providing the Czecho-Slovak divisions to fight with the allied armies fell to Stefanik. In 1917 Stefanik made a visit to the United States, a visit which can be understood as perhaps stefanik's most important contribution to the future of the Slovak people. There was also a strong nationalistic feeling in America among Slovak-Americans and Czech-Americans to actively promote the cause of a Czecho-Slovakia. stefanik's efforts in his 1917 United States visit may be best explained in his own words: I have come to America to set afoot among the Slovak people a movement toward a move perfect understanding of the fundamental conditions of independence, and to obtain permission from the government at Washington to form an independent Czech and Slovak army -in which every Czech and Slovak might take part-the final struggle for our freedom, and perform a cherished duty long deferred.5 At the time of stefanik's visit, General Vignal, who was also stationed in the United States, said of stefanik's work: I cannot praise sufficiently this great patriot, cool-headed and inspired by the highest ideals, full of tact and wisdom. He has won the sympathy of the officials of the American State Department, and organized with the greatest success, the recruiting of Czechs and Slovaks.6 The French government sent a special commission headed by Franklin-Bouillon to Washington to obtain approval from President Wilson for Stefanik to recruit Czechs and Slovaks with the idea of forming a Czecho-Slovak regiment within the allied forces. Stefanik greatly aided the success of this mission. He eventually recruited some 4,000 �172 SLOVAKIA able-bodied Czechs and Slovaks who were not subject to the Selective Service Laws in America due to the fact that many of these immigrants were not yet naturalized citizens. Recruitment of these troops was not easy. Stefanik had the difficult task of raising money for transportation and housing facilities for his "Legionnaires," as well as providing for funds to support the families of the recruited wage earners. But perhaps the most important single aspect of stefanik's visit to the United States was his relations with American Slovak and Czech leaders. He attempted to dispel Slovak doubts as to Slovakia's status in a proposed new state to be created from the Dual Monarchy after an allied victory. Stefanik had yet another important meeting on July 1, 1917, at the Congress Hall in Washington, D. C. Stefanik reported on the military situation on the Eastern front and also the condition of Slovak and Czech troops in Russia. The real purpose of this meeting, however, was two-fold. One was to arrange the organization of American Slovaks and Czechs into the legion and the most important point was to lay down the groundwork for Czecho-Slovak cooperation in the United States. Stefanik knew that without the continued financial support of the Americans and Slovak and Czech immigrants, the birth of their state would not be realized. For this reason Stefanik remained non-committed about the future state to the American Slovaks and Czechs. He stressed that the new state would not be "an ethnographically inseparable one." 7 By this he meant that the Czecho-Slovak state was to be a politically unified one, but as to whether he envisioned a separate Slovak assembly in Bratislava to handle Slovak domestic affairs is not all clear. Stefanik specifically stated to the American Slovaks that the Slovaks in the homeland must be set free to make their own decision on important issues and that no guarantee could be given to emigrant Slovaks in the United States. Even with this in mind the unselfish Slovak-Americans gave all of their cooperation to Stefanik and to the cause he fought for in the homeland of Czecho-Slovakia. One must remember that the recently emigrated Slovak-American �SLOVAKIA 173 was financially very poor for the most part, and, therefore, any financial support was a great sacrifice for him. stefanik's dedication to Slovak autonomy did not stop with the militaristic idea but he gave clear evidence of his dedication in regard to religious matters also. Slovak Catholics ( Catholicism being the majority religion in Slovakia), both in the homeland and in the United States, were suspicious that the leading Czechs associated with Masaryk, were clearly hostile to the Catholic Church. They feared that the Czechs' skepticism toward the existence of God would always be the dominant element in Czech political life. To rid the people of these fears, Masaryk had assured them that in the new Czecho-Slovakia, there would be complete religious freedom for all. Despite this assurance, the doubts still persisted. Therefore, it was up to Stefanik to assure the American Slovaks of religious freedom in the new state. It was at a meeting on September 20, 1917, that Stefanik sat down with a group of American Slovak Catholic clergymen to thrash out this problem. 8 There is no written record available of this very important meeting but, it is known that many fears were raised that Slovak Catholicism would suffer greatly at the hands of a completely Czechized nonCatholic or perhaps even an anti-Catholic government in Prague.9 Stefanik came to the conclusion that in order for the American Slovaks to support the revolution in Europe, the new state would have to guarantee religious freedom for Slovakia. "The meeting with the American Slovak clergymen," said Edward Benes, Masaryk's right-hand man, "was very important because here Stefanik dispelled all the suspicions and unwillingness of the priests as regards the movement for independence ... " 10 This statement made by Benes, dispelled any doubts that Stefanik would win the reassurance of the Catholic Slovak clergymen to continue the fight for a completely religious and culturally free state of Czecho-Slovakia. On September 16, 1917, Stefanik met with FranklinBouillon and John P. Mitchell, then mayor of New York City, at an important demonstration-meeting held at Carnegie Hall. This meeting, at which the representatives of the Allied armies were present, had a considerable propaganda �174 SLOVAKIA significance since it broke the ice of indifference of American journalists. At this meeting Stefanik told several thousand fellow patriots that "our fight against AustroHungary can end only when both our fraternal nations, the Czechs and the Slovaks, are united in an independent state free of Magyar-German domination." 11 Also speaking at the meeting was Franklin-Bouillon, who addressed the men of the "Czecho-Slovak" nation and appealed to them to join the Legion. He was the first influential statesman who publicly voiced a desire for the dismemberment of the Dual Mqnarchy. This statement of Franklin-Bouillon's caused a sensation in American political circles. For at no previous meeting was the dismemberment of Austria- Hungary publicly announced. For this reason one cannot but feel that the true stefanik came forth at the Carnegie Hall mass meeting. The success of stefanik's two-fold task of recruitment and securing Czech-Slovak solidarity in the United States seemed complete, and Stefanik sought permission to return to Paris. Vignal granted this permission for Stefanik to return to France on the first transport of Slovak and Czech troops. The General also added a few words of praise for the success of stefanik's mission. This mission contributed to the Slovak-Czech cause in another very tangible way. Urged by stefanik's great talent as an orator, his obvious patriotism, and tremendous personal magnitude, in the fall of 191 7, the American Slovaks organized their Million Dollar Drive to aid the cause for Slovak-Czech freedom abroad. The drive, headed by Father Joseph Murgas, sent well over $800,000 to Masaryk, Benes, theCzecho-Slovak National Council's office in Paris, Russia, and the United States. Stefanik won their respect and cooperation in his fight for Slovak autonomy. During stefanik's leave from the United States and his return to Paris, much was done behind his back toward the formation of the new Czecho-Slovak Republic. In May of 1918 Masaryk was in Pittsburgh meeting with American and Slovak and Czech leaders, explaining just how CzechoSlovakia would be administered and precisely what the status of Slovakia would be within the new state. He assured the Slovaks that Czecho-Slovakia would be an �SLOVAKIA 175 autonomous state. He also assured them that Slovakia would have its own schools, its own language, its own local administration, courts, and its own legislative assembly. And, to further appease Slovak sensibilities toward the new state, Masaryk drafted a document which has since been vehemently debated. The document came to be known as the Pittsburgh Pact. It contained all of the above legislation and it added that the Czecho-Slovak state shall be a republic, and its constitution shall be democratic. The irony surrounding the drafting of the Pittsburgh Pact was that Masaryk signed the Pact and did not abide by its stipulations. In his own book, The Making of a State, Masaryk skipped over the Pact as a mere scrap of paper noting that "it was concluded in order to appease a 'small Slovak faction' which was dreaming of God knows what sort of independent Slovakia ... the agreement was a local one ... among the Czechs and Slovaks of America." 12 Therefore, according to Masaryk, this Pact was not between the Slovak and Czech nations, but just an agreement "to satisfy a small Slovak faction:" Obviously, it was never meant to be considered in the planning of the foundation of the Czecho-Slovak state either by Masaryk or the Czechs themselves. Masaryk brushed aside the Slovaks rudely by this action, broke his word of honor and proclaimed his signature genuine but worthless, and in the same work (World Revolution, 1925, p. 105) he discounted the financial aid of the Slovaks as insignificant. 13 As can be seen, Masaryk treated the entire matter shabbily and deceitfully. More effective communications with Stefanik in Paris should certainly have been established, especially after stefanik's impressive visit to the United States. It should have been mandatory that Stefanik sign the Pact, thus binding the Czecho-Slovak National Council itself. Masaryk made very little effort at all to contact Stefanik and the other Slovak leaders. Masaryk then continued to make plans for the new state without stefanik's cognizance of the matter. I feel a moment must be taken here to mention the fact that there was an undertone of personality clashes, jealousy, and suspicion on the parts of Masaryk and especially the socialist Benes toward Stefanik. Mrs. Louise Weiss, editor of l' Europe Nouvelle in Paris and an intimate friend of �SLOVAKIA 176 stefanik's, wrote in her book Memoires d'une Europeenne (Memoirs of a European Woman): His (Stefanik's) differences with Benes were an obsession to him. Although he was overbusy, he found time to enlighten me within three minutes, about 'this first grade socialist, this paper revolutionary, this distorted diplomat.' As soon as he left, Benes settled down in my office, and for three hours expanded on this astronomer who thinks he is a soldier, this peasant who thinks he is an aristocrat, this politician who considers himself a genius, but who, in fact, is nothing but muddled up.14 Further she writes: When Stefanik returned from his expedition, he found Benes more and more firmly established with some Government Offices with whom he was negotiating (in the absence of Stefanik) and, in view of the circumstances, without informing Stefanik about it. Benes could not witness without envy the aura surrounding Milan (Stefanik) as a legendary hero.15 Benes and Masaryk, as well, I feel, were jealous and afraid of stefanik's overwhelming popularity. As opposed to them, Stefanik was a more "colorful" character with his ear attuned to the pulse of the Slovak people both in Slovakia and in the United States. The aim of Masaryk and Benes was to establish a predominantly Czech bureaucracy throughout the newly formed nation to fill the vacuum left by the Magyars with no real concern for the welfare and wishes of the Slovak people. As long as Stefanik, however, could serve their purpose in uniting the Slovaks with the Czechs (for pragmatic reasons only) to show the Allies a unified peoples so that they would grant independence, then Masaryk and Benes "tolerated" but ignored Stefanik whenever possible. When he finally realized their true intentions, he was no longer useful and, therefore, would have to be eliminated. On October 28, 1918, T. G. Masaryk proclaimed the Czecho-Slovak Republic while he was in Washington. Masaryk wrote the Declaration of Independence and presented it to Secretary of State Lansing to get his approval. Masaryk wrote in the declaration "that the rights of Bohemia might be united to those of the Slovak brethren in Slovakia, once a part of our (Czech) state ... " 16 This proclamation made Stefanik furious. He was perturbed that the proclamation was issued in Washington instead of Paris. He also added that the proclamation was �SLOVAKIA 177 issued without his previous knowledge and that Masaryk forged his signature to it without prior consultation. Stefanik then sent a telegram to Masaryk in Washington and Benes in Paris to voice his objections to the declaration. He sent the telegram on October 28, the same day that the declaration was released to the public. In stefanik's view, the Republic surely had gotten off on the wrong foot. 17 His misgivings were realized soon after his death when c-:echoSlovak policy, domestic and foreign, became strictly Czech policy. "The lure of might showed itself more powerful for the Czech majority than the ideals of nationalism, equality, and rights." 18 In the early part of 1919 Stefanik began his journey home where he was to be crowned with the appointment to the office of the Minister of National Defense in the new Republic. stefanik's love for his native Slovakia and the people dominated every interest he had in life, even that of attaining high personal fame. Stefanik once wrote to a friend: "I am a Slovak, body and soul; I know no divided affection." 19 After stefanik's inspection of his army in Italy he planned to make the trip home by plane. On May 4, 1919, General Milan Rastislav Stefanik, the war hero of all Slovakia, was killed under circumstances which have been suspect ever since. He was returning to Bratislava where a huge crowd had gathered to welcome him, where he was to take up duties as first Minister of Defense in the CzechoSlovak Republic he had helped create in Paris. A little after 11 a.m. on that fateful day, the Italian plane-Caproni No. 11,495-carrying Stefanik and an Italian pilot and co-pilot, circled the Vajnory Airport near Bratislava for a landing. All of a sudden the plane burst into flames and crashed to the ground below. s tefanik had been a victim of an anti-aircraft barrage of the Czecho-Slovak garrison whose orders were given to them by a Czech commanding officer. Prague tried to hush up the tragedy but it couldn't be suppressed. "It was all a mistake," said the commanding officer_, "I thought it was an enemy plane; the garrison didn't know Stefanik was· arriving in an Italian-made plane!" 20 Despite Czech propaganda, eye witnesses still alive today, as well as certain members of the military �178 SLOV A KIA garrison, insist that the shooting was willful, that Stefanik was deliberately murdered. There are even letters and sworn statements that exist to coincide with the charges. It was found that before an investigation board, a soldier named Joseph Mesko, confessed to shooting at stefanik's plane and stated that he had not known of such orders and had opened fire with the belief that the plane was a Magyar one. 21 One eyewitness, Rudolph Ruzicka stated: I was at my canon when I saw the arrival of the plane about which we had been pre,viously advised. I don't swear that we knew for sure it was Stefanik's plane; never theless, I do maintain, and still today, even if it could have been an enemy plane, that they shouldn't have fired so fearfully and heavily upon it.22 The death of Stefanik is still very unclear in the minds of all Slovaks. Stefanik knew that throughout history Czechs and Slovaks had formed distinct national and cultural differences and that, therefore, Pan-Czech references to "one Czechoslovak nation" were pure myth. Stefanik was a fierce Slovak patriot who would not stand still for the completion of a "Czechized" new state.23 Stefanik was an inconvenience to the Czechs and their plans to colonize Slovakia within the "great Czechoslovakia" that the National Council in Paris had dreamed of. Many Slovaks even today will tell you that Stefanik had to die, because he would never consent to Slovakia being a colony of the imperialistic Czechs led by T. G. Masaryk and Edward Benes. The shooting down of Caproni No. 11,495 served Prague well. In today's Slovakia, controlled by the Communists, Milan Rastislav Stefanik is remembered and looked to as an inspiration to all Slovak people.24 From the time of his death to the present day, Slovakia has suffered again and again from forces beyond her control. Stefanik had always been wary of Czech promises and his misgivings came to pass. The Czechs only used the Slovaks and their nationalistic aspirations as pawns at Paris to be appeased so that the allies would create a state for them out of the carved-up Austro-Hungarian Empire if they saw some semblance of unity between the two groups. The Czechs knew that once this was achieved, and they were independent from Allied control, they would then be the dominant force in the new state and not equal partners with the Slovak people. �SLOVAKIA 179 Even though Slovakia still is not free, Milan Rastislav titefanik and his dreams live on and serve as hope for a future Slovakia, free and self-governing someday. ( Second place - College) FOOTNOTES 1) Special committees elected from both the Austrian and Hungarian Diets were entrusted with the administration of these common departments-in all other matters, and what were left were called purely "domestic affairs." 2) Gilbert L. Oddo, Slovakia and Its People (New York : Robert Speller and Sons, Publishers, 1960) , p. 135. 3) These were Francis Skycak, Dr. Paul Blaho, and Ferdinand Juriga. 4) Milan S. !>urica, "Milan R. Stefanik and His Tragic Death in the Light of Italian Documents," Slovak Studies, Volume X, 1970, p. 148. 5) Peter P. Yurchak, The Slovaks (Indiana: Obrana Press, Inc., 1946), p . 196. 6) Yurchak, p. 196 plus. 7) Oddo, p. 167. 8) Oddo, p. 168. 9) Oddo, p. 169. 10 ) Oddo, p. 167. 11) Oddo, p. 167. 12) Joseph Pauco, Sixty Years of the Slovak League of America (Middletown, Pa.: Jednota Press, 1967), p. 53. 13) Pauco, p. 53. 14) Joseph M. Kirschbaum (ed.), Slovakia in the 19th and 20th Centuries (Toronto: Slovak World Congress, 1973), p. 84 plus. 15) Kirschbaum, p. 84 plus. 16) Oddo, p. 183. 17) Oddo, p. 183. 18) Reverend B. S. Bue, Slovak Nationalism (Middletown, Pa.: Jednota Press, 1960) , p. 38. 19) Yurchak, p. 202. 20) !>urica, p. 164. 21) !>urica, p. 165. 22) !>urica, p. 165. 23) Yurchak, p. 203. 24) A national monument has been erected' to the memory of Stefanik in Slovakia at Bradlo, near his native village, to which Slovaks make a yearly pilgrimage. A life-size statue has also been erected in the U.S. in Wade Park, Cleveland, Ohio. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bue, Reverend B. S., Slovak Nationalism, Middletown, Penna.: Slovak League of America, 1960. !>urica, Milan S., "Milan R. Stefanik and His Tragic Death in the Light of Italian Military Documents." Slovak Studies (Volume 10), 1970, pp. 147-182. �180 SLOVAKIA Rusek, Stephanie 0., ''Milan Rastislav Stefanik." Slovakia, March, 1954, pp. 33-47. Kirschbaum, Joseph M., Slovakia in the 19th and 20th Centuries. Toronto: Slovak World Congress 1973. Mikus, Joseph A. , Slovakia: A Political History, 1918-1950. Milwaukee: The Marquette University Press, 1963. Oddo, G. L. , Slovakia and Its People . New York: Robert Speller and Sons, Publishers, 1960. Paufo, Joseph , Six ty Years of the Slovak League of America. Middletown, Pa.: Slovak League of Ame-r ica, 1967. Woytko, Sister Mary Gabrielle, Sl-o vakia's Road to Statehood. Michigan : John J . Lach, Publisher, 1957. Yurchak, P., The Slovaks. Scranton, Pa.: Obrana Press, Inc., 1946. III. SLOVAKIA BEFORE THE CZECHS John Bert a The Slovaks are a Slavic people who settled in the land between the Danube River and the Carpathian Mountains some 1500 years ago. The area had formerly been held by the Marcommani, a Celtic people, who fled the land after several disastrous wars with the armies of the Roman Empire. The Slovaks were hunters turned farmers. Their main enterprises were blacksmithing and potterymaking, while business transactions were done by bartering. They lived in simple mud and wooden huts, and lived in family groupings called clans, of which the oldest was its head. The Slovak gods were as numerous and varied as those of the Greeks and Romans. When a Slovak died, if cremated, the ashes were placed in urns and buried in a mound. If the body was to be buried, food, wine, weapons and jewelry were placed in the grave. The size of the burial site determined the importance of the dead person. The first attempt of the Slavonic peoples, living along the Danube, to unite into a viable force, came after the Avars, a nomadic Asian people, conquered part of their land. In 624, Samo, a Frankish merchant, united the people and led them to victory against the Avars. This victory encouraged them to face the Germanic Franks, who were � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1975, Vol. 25 Description An account of the resource Vol. 25 (No. 48), 1975. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1975 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document 168 SLOVAKIA definitely so, originates in the end of the 15th century. Then follows the church at Zabrez. The Protestant churches generally come from the 17th and 18th centuries. Churches of the eastern rite are the youngest. They originated in the 18th and 19th centuries. Then, it has to be remembered that the tooth of tim2 and the woodworm enjoy with hearty appetite the wooden building memorials . It is the peak of time for us to preserve our eminent memorials in "scansens" beside museums or in other suitable sites in nature to save what still can be saved. (First place - College) REFERENCES Eugen Lazist'an and Jan Michalov, Drevene stavby na Slovensku, Frantisek Kalina, Bratislava, 1971. Emanuel Hruska, Stavba miest, Slovenska akademia vied, Bratislav.1, 1970. E. Lorad, Umelecko-historicke pamdtne kostoly na Slm; ens.1m, Spolo!( sv. Vojtecha, Trnava, 1957. Vladimir Wagner, Vyvin vytvarneho umenia na Slovensku, Slovenska akademia vied, Bratislava, 1948. Kalendar Jednota 1969, 1970, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1974, Prva K-atoLcka Slovenska Jednota v USA, Middletown Pa. Mag:i.zine and periodicals: Jednota, Slovak v Amerike, Katolicky Sokol. Consultations with experts of Slovak art and architecture. II. MILAN RASTISLA V STEFANIK AND THE TRAGEDY OF THE SLOVAK PEOPLE Robert P o j e r During the late part of the nineteenth century, the seeds of nationalism had already been sown throughout the great empires of Europe. It would take the trauma of a world war before these nationalistic aspirations could be realized. In 1867 the Austro-Hungarian Dual Monarchy made its appearance. Within this vast empire, there existed many peoples-the Austrians and the Magyars, of course; the Serbs, Croats, Ruthenes, Rumanians, Czechs, and Slovaks, to name just a few. Although on the surface, this Austro-Hungarian Empire SLOVAKIA 169 appeared to be united, in actuality is became evident that both Austria and Hungary were really two separate states. Even though they shared a common ruler, a common foreign policy, a common army, and common finances 1 both parts of the Monarchy were totally independent. Slovakia and Slovak destiny was in the hands of the Hungarian or Magyar state. The new arrangement gave the Magyars absolute control over the 30 million Slavs and the other non-Magyar elements which constituted a majority of the Hungarian population. The Slovaks were one of those nationalities with unique cultural distinctions which would separate them from the Magyars. For a time the Magyars permitted the establishment of Slovak schools and cultural societies for the preservation of the Slovak heritage and history. On the surface at least, this seemed fairly liberal for the times. The crucial question of laws made to secure these schools and societies and their enforcement arose constantly and on this score the Slovaks couldn't be too hopeful. Indeed, Slovaks seemed to sense that the Austro-Hungarian settlement would bring nothing but new setbacks and humiliations. The long history of resisting domination from many different empires and peoples conditioned them for what was to come. The Magyars feared that if the Slovak people studied their history, language, and culture, they might eventually desire to become a free nation, separate from the Hungarian state. A half-hearted program of the Magyarization of the Slovak people had existed for some time but it was during the 1860's that this policy began to be strongly enforced. The Slovaks were denied the right of free speech and assembly. 2 Their literature and schools were suppressed and forbidden. They were forced to learn in a tongue-Magyar-which was completely alien to them. This "Magyarization" of the Slovaks was done primarily to quell any Slovak feelings of nationalism. Nonetheless, the Slovaks' inherent love of liberty, freedom, and justice was undaunted. Along with the many restrictions mentioned above, there was a constant struggle between the Slovaks (and other nationalities within the Empire) and the Hungarian government for representation in the Hungarian Diet. From time to time, a few Slovaks were elected but their national- 170 SLOVAKIA istic feelings brought them into constant conflict with the Magyars who at this time were striving to protect their state from rebellions from within. Any rumblings could eventually lead to the collapse of the Empire and this they would prevent at any cost. Therefore, Slovak political expression was weak and constantly suppressed. In the election of 1910, only three Slovak deputies 3 were chosen and these Slovaks combined spent twenty years of their lives between the Hungarian Diet and Magyar jails in defense of the Slovak people. The Slovaks continued to be divided into two differing groups; one favored Slovak autonomy, and the other advocated a federated republic of the Slovak and Czech peoples within the existing Hungarian Empire. The Magyars, of course, exploited these Slovak and Czech differences to serve their own ends. Out of this conflict (between the Slovak people and the Hungarian government just described) there arose a leader who would try to secure freedom for his people. This would eventually cost him his life. Such a man was General Milan Rastislav Stefanik, astronomer, mathematician, military leader, and political leader of the Slovak people and the focal point of this paper. Milan R. Stefanik was born in the Slovak village of Kosariska of Protestant parents in 1880. In Kosariska Stefanik acquired an interest in astronomy and mathematics, which he later pursued at the University of Prague. When war broke out in 1914 he was in his early thirties and in Morocco making astronomical observations.4 His patriotism for his country brought him away from his work as an astronomer and took him almost immediately to France where he joined the French army as a private. Stefanik was soon transferred to the young French air corps where he served as an observer in air tactics. He became convinced that the Slovak people would never be content fighting for the Monarchy. It was here that Stefanik began to make plans for the formation: of a Slovak foreign legion. Throughout the middle war years (1915-1916) Stefanik made it a point to travel wherever he could in Europe to recruit troops for the legion. He managed to recruit a total of 10,000 men made up of Slovaks, Serbs, Russians, and SLOVAKIA 171 Rumanians for the allied cause. Many of these men that Stefanik recruited were prisoners of war taken with much resistance, and were fighting for a cause which was not their own. This was a very important contribution to the allied war effort and to his own people who looked to him as a true leader for now these POW's from the Austro-Hungarian armies would be fighting for a cause they believed in and for the eventual formation of free and independent countries for their own peoples. Because of his dynamic personality and military accomplishments, Stefanik quickly reached the rank of General and it became evident that being the only leader of the future Czecho-Slovakia with military experience, the task of providing the Czecho-Slovak divisions to fight with the allied armies fell to Stefanik. In 1917 Stefanik made a visit to the United States, a visit which can be understood as perhaps stefanik's most important contribution to the future of the Slovak people. There was also a strong nationalistic feeling in America among Slovak-Americans and Czech-Americans to actively promote the cause of a Czecho-Slovakia. stefanik's efforts in his 1917 United States visit may be best explained in his own words: I have come to America to set afoot among the Slovak people a movement toward a move perfect understanding of the fundamental conditions of independence, and to obtain permission from the government at Washington to form an independent Czech and Slovak army -in which every Czech and Slovak might take part-the final struggle for our freedom, and perform a cherished duty long deferred.5 At the time of stefanik's visit, General Vignal, who was also stationed in the United States, said of stefanik's work: I cannot praise sufficiently this great patriot, cool-headed and inspired by the highest ideals, full of tact and wisdom. He has won the sympathy of the officials of the American State Department, and organized with the greatest success, the recruiting of Czechs and Slovaks.6 The French government sent a special commission headed by Franklin-Bouillon to Washington to obtain approval from President Wilson for Stefanik to recruit Czechs and Slovaks with the idea of forming a Czecho-Slovak regiment within the allied forces. Stefanik greatly aided the success of this mission. He eventually recruited some 4,000 172 SLOVAKIA able-bodied Czechs and Slovaks who were not subject to the Selective Service Laws in America due to the fact that many of these immigrants were not yet naturalized citizens. Recruitment of these troops was not easy. Stefanik had the difficult task of raising money for transportation and housing facilities for his "Legionnaires," as well as providing for funds to support the families of the recruited wage earners. But perhaps the most important single aspect of stefanik's visit to the United States was his relations with American Slovak and Czech leaders. He attempted to dispel Slovak doubts as to Slovakia's status in a proposed new state to be created from the Dual Monarchy after an allied victory. Stefanik had yet another important meeting on July 1, 1917, at the Congress Hall in Washington, D. C. Stefanik reported on the military situation on the Eastern front and also the condition of Slovak and Czech troops in Russia. The real purpose of this meeting, however, was two-fold. One was to arrange the organization of American Slovaks and Czechs into the legion and the most important point was to lay down the groundwork for Czecho-Slovak cooperation in the United States. Stefanik knew that without the continued financial support of the Americans and Slovak and Czech immigrants, the birth of their state would not be realized. For this reason Stefanik remained non-committed about the future state to the American Slovaks and Czechs. He stressed that the new state would not be "an ethnographically inseparable one." 7 By this he meant that the Czecho-Slovak state was to be a politically unified one, but as to whether he envisioned a separate Slovak assembly in Bratislava to handle Slovak domestic affairs is not all clear. Stefanik specifically stated to the American Slovaks that the Slovaks in the homeland must be set free to make their own decision on important issues and that no guarantee could be given to emigrant Slovaks in the United States. Even with this in mind the unselfish Slovak-Americans gave all of their cooperation to Stefanik and to the cause he fought for in the homeland of Czecho-Slovakia. One must remember that the recently emigrated Slovak-American SLOVAKIA 173 was financially very poor for the most part, and, therefore, any financial support was a great sacrifice for him. stefanik's dedication to Slovak autonomy did not stop with the militaristic idea but he gave clear evidence of his dedication in regard to religious matters also. Slovak Catholics ( Catholicism being the majority religion in Slovakia), both in the homeland and in the United States, were suspicious that the leading Czechs associated with Masaryk, were clearly hostile to the Catholic Church. They feared that the Czechs' skepticism toward the existence of God would always be the dominant element in Czech political life. To rid the people of these fears, Masaryk had assured them that in the new Czecho-Slovakia, there would be complete religious freedom for all. Despite this assurance, the doubts still persisted. Therefore, it was up to Stefanik to assure the American Slovaks of religious freedom in the new state. It was at a meeting on September 20, 1917, that Stefanik sat down with a group of American Slovak Catholic clergymen to thrash out this problem. 8 There is no written record available of this very important meeting but, it is known that many fears were raised that Slovak Catholicism would suffer greatly at the hands of a completely Czechized nonCatholic or perhaps even an anti-Catholic government in Prague.9 Stefanik came to the conclusion that in order for the American Slovaks to support the revolution in Europe, the new state would have to guarantee religious freedom for Slovakia. "The meeting with the American Slovak clergymen," said Edward Benes, Masaryk's right-hand man, "was very important because here Stefanik dispelled all the suspicions and unwillingness of the priests as regards the movement for independence ... " 10 This statement made by Benes, dispelled any doubts that Stefanik would win the reassurance of the Catholic Slovak clergymen to continue the fight for a completely religious and culturally free state of Czecho-Slovakia. On September 16, 1917, Stefanik met with FranklinBouillon and John P. Mitchell, then mayor of New York City, at an important demonstration-meeting held at Carnegie Hall. This meeting, at which the representatives of the Allied armies were present, had a considerable propaganda 174 SLOVAKIA significance since it broke the ice of indifference of American journalists. At this meeting Stefanik told several thousand fellow patriots that "our fight against AustroHungary can end only when both our fraternal nations, the Czechs and the Slovaks, are united in an independent state free of Magyar-German domination." 11 Also speaking at the meeting was Franklin-Bouillon, who addressed the men of the "Czecho-Slovak" nation and appealed to them to join the Legion. He was the first influential statesman who publicly voiced a desire for the dismemberment of the Dual Mqnarchy. This statement of Franklin-Bouillon's caused a sensation in American political circles. For at no previous meeting was the dismemberment of Austria- Hungary publicly announced. For this reason one cannot but feel that the true stefanik came forth at the Carnegie Hall mass meeting. The success of stefanik's two-fold task of recruitment and securing Czech-Slovak solidarity in the United States seemed complete, and Stefanik sought permission to return to Paris. Vignal granted this permission for Stefanik to return to France on the first transport of Slovak and Czech troops. The General also added a few words of praise for the success of stefanik's mission. This mission contributed to the Slovak-Czech cause in another very tangible way. Urged by stefanik's great talent as an orator, his obvious patriotism, and tremendous personal magnitude, in the fall of 191 7, the American Slovaks organized their Million Dollar Drive to aid the cause for Slovak-Czech freedom abroad. The drive, headed by Father Joseph Murgas, sent well over $800,000 to Masaryk, Benes, theCzecho-Slovak National Council's office in Paris, Russia, and the United States. Stefanik won their respect and cooperation in his fight for Slovak autonomy. During stefanik's leave from the United States and his return to Paris, much was done behind his back toward the formation of the new Czecho-Slovak Republic. In May of 1918 Masaryk was in Pittsburgh meeting with American and Slovak and Czech leaders, explaining just how CzechoSlovakia would be administered and precisely what the status of Slovakia would be within the new state. He assured the Slovaks that Czecho-Slovakia would be an SLOVAKIA 175 autonomous state. He also assured them that Slovakia would have its own schools, its own language, its own local administration, courts, and its own legislative assembly. And, to further appease Slovak sensibilities toward the new state, Masaryk drafted a document which has since been vehemently debated. The document came to be known as the Pittsburgh Pact. It contained all of the above legislation and it added that the Czecho-Slovak state shall be a republic, and its constitution shall be democratic. The irony surrounding the drafting of the Pittsburgh Pact was that Masaryk signed the Pact and did not abide by its stipulations. In his own book, The Making of a State, Masaryk skipped over the Pact as a mere scrap of paper noting that "it was concluded in order to appease a 'small Slovak faction' which was dreaming of God knows what sort of independent Slovakia ... the agreement was a local one ... among the Czechs and Slovaks of America." 12 Therefore, according to Masaryk, this Pact was not between the Slovak and Czech nations, but just an agreement "to satisfy a small Slovak faction:" Obviously, it was never meant to be considered in the planning of the foundation of the Czecho-Slovak state either by Masaryk or the Czechs themselves. Masaryk brushed aside the Slovaks rudely by this action, broke his word of honor and proclaimed his signature genuine but worthless, and in the same work (World Revolution, 1925, p. 105) he discounted the financial aid of the Slovaks as insignificant. 13 As can be seen, Masaryk treated the entire matter shabbily and deceitfully. More effective communications with Stefanik in Paris should certainly have been established, especially after stefanik's impressive visit to the United States. It should have been mandatory that Stefanik sign the Pact, thus binding the Czecho-Slovak National Council itself. Masaryk made very little effort at all to contact Stefanik and the other Slovak leaders. Masaryk then continued to make plans for the new state without stefanik's cognizance of the matter. I feel a moment must be taken here to mention the fact that there was an undertone of personality clashes, jealousy, and suspicion on the parts of Masaryk and especially the socialist Benes toward Stefanik. Mrs. Louise Weiss, editor of l' Europe Nouvelle in Paris and an intimate friend of SLOVAKIA 176 stefanik's, wrote in her book Memoires d'une Europeenne (Memoirs of a European Woman): His (Stefanik's) differences with Benes were an obsession to him. Although he was overbusy, he found time to enlighten me within three minutes, about 'this first grade socialist, this paper revolutionary, this distorted diplomat.' As soon as he left, Benes settled down in my office, and for three hours expanded on this astronomer who thinks he is a soldier, this peasant who thinks he is an aristocrat, this politician who considers himself a genius, but who, in fact, is nothing but muddled up.14 Further she writes: When Stefanik returned from his expedition, he found Benes more and more firmly established with some Government Offices with whom he was negotiating (in the absence of Stefanik) and, in view of the circumstances, without informing Stefanik about it. Benes could not witness without envy the aura surrounding Milan (Stefanik) as a legendary hero.15 Benes and Masaryk, as well, I feel, were jealous and afraid of stefanik's overwhelming popularity. As opposed to them, Stefanik was a more "colorful" character with his ear attuned to the pulse of the Slovak people both in Slovakia and in the United States. The aim of Masaryk and Benes was to establish a predominantly Czech bureaucracy throughout the newly formed nation to fill the vacuum left by the Magyars with no real concern for the welfare and wishes of the Slovak people. As long as Stefanik, however, could serve their purpose in uniting the Slovaks with the Czechs (for pragmatic reasons only) to show the Allies a unified peoples so that they would grant independence, then Masaryk and Benes "tolerated" but ignored Stefanik whenever possible. When he finally realized their true intentions, he was no longer useful and, therefore, would have to be eliminated. On October 28, 1918, T. G. Masaryk proclaimed the Czecho-Slovak Republic while he was in Washington. Masaryk wrote the Declaration of Independence and presented it to Secretary of State Lansing to get his approval. Masaryk wrote in the declaration "that the rights of Bohemia might be united to those of the Slovak brethren in Slovakia, once a part of our (Czech) state ... " 16 This proclamation made Stefanik furious. He was perturbed that the proclamation was issued in Washington instead of Paris. He also added that the proclamation was SLOVAKIA 177 issued without his previous knowledge and that Masaryk forged his signature to it without prior consultation. Stefanik then sent a telegram to Masaryk in Washington and Benes in Paris to voice his objections to the declaration. He sent the telegram on October 28, the same day that the declaration was released to the public. In stefanik's view, the Republic surely had gotten off on the wrong foot. 17 His misgivings were realized soon after his death when c-:echoSlovak policy, domestic and foreign, became strictly Czech policy. "The lure of might showed itself more powerful for the Czech majority than the ideals of nationalism, equality, and rights." 18 In the early part of 1919 Stefanik began his journey home where he was to be crowned with the appointment to the office of the Minister of National Defense in the new Republic. stefanik's love for his native Slovakia and the people dominated every interest he had in life, even that of attaining high personal fame. Stefanik once wrote to a friend: "I am a Slovak, body and soul; I know no divided affection." 19 After stefanik's inspection of his army in Italy he planned to make the trip home by plane. On May 4, 1919, General Milan Rastislav Stefanik, the war hero of all Slovakia, was killed under circumstances which have been suspect ever since. He was returning to Bratislava where a huge crowd had gathered to welcome him, where he was to take up duties as first Minister of Defense in the CzechoSlovak Republic he had helped create in Paris. A little after 11 a.m. on that fateful day, the Italian plane-Caproni No. 11,495-carrying Stefanik and an Italian pilot and co-pilot, circled the Vajnory Airport near Bratislava for a landing. All of a sudden the plane burst into flames and crashed to the ground below. s tefanik had been a victim of an anti-aircraft barrage of the Czecho-Slovak garrison whose orders were given to them by a Czech commanding officer. Prague tried to hush up the tragedy but it couldn't be suppressed. "It was all a mistake," said the commanding officer_, "I thought it was an enemy plane; the garrison didn't know Stefanik was· arriving in an Italian-made plane!" 20 Despite Czech propaganda, eye witnesses still alive today, as well as certain members of the military 178 SLOV A KIA garrison, insist that the shooting was willful, that Stefanik was deliberately murdered. There are even letters and sworn statements that exist to coincide with the charges. It was found that before an investigation board, a soldier named Joseph Mesko, confessed to shooting at stefanik's plane and stated that he had not known of such orders and had opened fire with the belief that the plane was a Magyar one. 21 One eyewitness, Rudolph Ruzicka stated: I was at my canon when I saw the arrival of the plane about which we had been pre,viously advised. I don't swear that we knew for sure it was Stefanik's plane; never theless, I do maintain, and still today, even if it could have been an enemy plane, that they shouldn't have fired so fearfully and heavily upon it.22 The death of Stefanik is still very unclear in the minds of all Slovaks. Stefanik knew that throughout history Czechs and Slovaks had formed distinct national and cultural differences and that, therefore, Pan-Czech references to "one Czechoslovak nation" were pure myth. Stefanik was a fierce Slovak patriot who would not stand still for the completion of a "Czechized" new state.23 Stefanik was an inconvenience to the Czechs and their plans to colonize Slovakia within the "great Czechoslovakia" that the National Council in Paris had dreamed of. Many Slovaks even today will tell you that Stefanik had to die, because he would never consent to Slovakia being a colony of the imperialistic Czechs led by T. G. Masaryk and Edward Benes. The shooting down of Caproni No. 11,495 served Prague well. In today's Slovakia, controlled by the Communists, Milan Rastislav Stefanik is remembered and looked to as an inspiration to all Slovak people.24 From the time of his death to the present day, Slovakia has suffered again and again from forces beyond her control. Stefanik had always been wary of Czech promises and his misgivings came to pass. The Czechs only used the Slovaks and their nationalistic aspirations as pawns at Paris to be appeased so that the allies would create a state for them out of the carved-up Austro-Hungarian Empire if they saw some semblance of unity between the two groups. The Czechs knew that once this was achieved, and they were independent from Allied control, they would then be the dominant force in the new state and not equal partners with the Slovak people. SLOVAKIA 179 Even though Slovakia still is not free, Milan Rastislav titefanik and his dreams live on and serve as hope for a future Slovakia, free and self-governing someday. ( Second place - College) FOOTNOTES 1) Special committees elected from both the Austrian and Hungarian Diets were entrusted with the administration of these common departments-in all other matters, and what were left were called purely "domestic affairs." 2) Gilbert L. Oddo, Slovakia and Its People (New York : Robert Speller and Sons, Publishers, 1960) , p. 135. 3) These were Francis Skycak, Dr. Paul Blaho, and Ferdinand Juriga. 4) Milan S. !>urica, "Milan R. Stefanik and His Tragic Death in the Light of Italian Documents," Slovak Studies, Volume X, 1970, p. 148. 5) Peter P. Yurchak, The Slovaks (Indiana: Obrana Press, Inc., 1946), p . 196. 6) Yurchak, p. 196 plus. 7) Oddo, p. 167. 8) Oddo, p. 168. 9) Oddo, p. 169. 10 ) Oddo, p. 167. 11) Oddo, p. 167. 12) Joseph Pauco, Sixty Years of the Slovak League of America (Middletown, Pa.: Jednota Press, 1967), p. 53. 13) Pauco, p. 53. 14) Joseph M. Kirschbaum (ed.), Slovakia in the 19th and 20th Centuries (Toronto: Slovak World Congress, 1973), p. 84 plus. 15) Kirschbaum, p. 84 plus. 16) Oddo, p. 183. 17) Oddo, p. 183. 18) Reverend B. S. Bue, Slovak Nationalism (Middletown, Pa.: Jednota Press, 1960) , p. 38. 19) Yurchak, p. 202. 20) !>urica, p. 164. 21) !>urica, p. 165. 22) !>urica, p. 165. 23) Yurchak, p. 203. 24) A national monument has been erected' to the memory of Stefanik in Slovakia at Bradlo, near his native village, to which Slovaks make a yearly pilgrimage. A life-size statue has also been erected in the U.S. in Wade Park, Cleveland, Ohio. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bue, Reverend B. S., Slovak Nationalism, Middletown, Penna.: Slovak League of America, 1960. !>urica, Milan S., "Milan R. Stefanik and His Tragic Death in the Light of Italian Military Documents." Slovak Studies (Volume 10), 1970, pp. 147-182. 180 SLOVAKIA Rusek, Stephanie 0., ''Milan Rastislav Stefanik." Slovakia, March, 1954, pp. 33-47. Kirschbaum, Joseph M., Slovakia in the 19th and 20th Centuries. Toronto: Slovak World Congress 1973. Mikus, Joseph A. , Slovakia: A Political History, 1918-1950. Milwaukee: The Marquette University Press, 1963. Oddo, G. L. , Slovakia and Its People . New York: Robert Speller and Sons, Publishers, 1960. Paufo, Joseph , Six ty Years of the Slovak League of America. Middletown, Pa.: Slovak League of Ame-r ica, 1967. Woytko, Sister Mary Gabrielle, Sl-o vakia's Road to Statehood. Michigan : John J . Lach, Publisher, 1957. Yurchak, P., The Slovaks. Scranton, Pa.: Obrana Press, Inc., 1946. III. SLOVAKIA BEFORE THE CZECHS John Bert a The Slovaks are a Slavic people who settled in the land between the Danube River and the Carpathian Mountains some 1500 years ago. The area had formerly been held by the Marcommani, a Celtic people, who fled the land after several disastrous wars with the armies of the Roman Empire. The Slovaks were hunters turned farmers. Their main enterprises were blacksmithing and potterymaking, while business transactions were done by bartering. They lived in simple mud and wooden huts, and lived in family groupings called clans, of which the oldest was its head. The Slovak gods were as numerous and varied as those of the Greeks and Romans. When a Slovak died, if cremated, the ashes were placed in urns and buried in a mound. If the body was to be buried, food, wine, weapons and jewelry were placed in the grave. The size of the burial site determined the importance of the dead person. The first attempt of the Slavonic peoples, living along the Danube, to unite into a viable force, came after the Avars, a nomadic Asian people, conquered part of their land. In 624, Samo, a Frankish merchant, united the people and led them to victory against the Avars. This victory encouraged them to face the Germanic Franks, who were  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Milan Rastislav Štefánik and the Tragedy of the Slovak People Description An account of the resource Robert Pojer Slovakia, Vol. 25 (No. 48), 1975 pp. 168-180 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Pojer, Robert Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1975 name https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/305dce55d13e4aa1b6553450a99194e0.pdf 5b91ef527b37cd3d177c530223d24c5c PDF Text Text 180 SLOVAKIA Rusek, Stephanie 0., ''Milan Rastislav Stefanik." Slovakia, March, 1954, pp. 33-47. Kirschbaum, Joseph M., Slovakia in the 19th and 20th Centuries. Toronto: Slovak World Congress 1973. Mikus, Joseph A. , Slovakia: A Political History, 1918-1950. Milwaukee: The Marquette University Press, 1963. Oddo, G. L. , Slovakia and Its People . New York: Robert Speller and Sons, Publishers, 1960. Paufo, Joseph , Six ty Years of the Slovak League of America. Middletown, Pa.: Slovak League of Ame-r ica, 1967. Woytko, Sister Mary Gabrielle, Sl-o vakia's Road to Statehood. Michigan : John J . Lach, Publisher, 1957. Yurchak, P., The Slovaks. Scranton, Pa.: Obrana Press, Inc., 1946. III. SLOVAKIA BEFORE THE CZECHS John Bert a The Slovaks are a Slavic people who settled in the land between the Danube River and the Carpathian Mountains some 1500 years ago. The area had formerly been held by the Marcommani, a Celtic people, who fled the land after several disastrous wars with the armies of the Roman Empire. The Slovaks were hunters turned farmers. Their main enterprises were blacksmithing and potterymaking, while business transactions were done by bartering. They lived in simple mud and wooden huts, and lived in family groupings called clans, of which the oldest was its head. The Slovak gods were as numerous and varied as those of the Greeks and Romans. When a Slovak died, if cremated, the ashes were placed in urns and buried in a mound. If the body was to be buried, food, wine, weapons and jewelry were placed in the grave. The size of the burial site determined the importance of the dead person. The first attempt of the Slavonic peoples, living along the Danube, to unite into a viable force, came after the Avars, a nomadic Asian people, conquered part of their land. In 624, Samo, a Frankish merchant, united the people and led them to victory against the Avars. This victory encouraged them to face the Germanic Franks, who were �SLOVAKIA 181 also encroaching on their territory. In 631, the Franks, under Dagobert, were defeated in a three-day battle near Vogaste Castle. The Empire prospered now in peace. In 658, Samo died and his empire soon fell apart. For the next two hundred years the Slovaks were leaderless until in 830, Pribina, ruler of the Slovak city of Nitra, took charge, and created what was to become the Great Moravian Empire. He was a wise ruler. Though not a Christian himself, he allowed the Christians to proselytize in his land. In 836, Mojmir I drove Pribina from his throne . Pribina fled to the Germans from whom he received Pannonia to rule as his own until his death in 861. Mojmir enlarged Pribina's former domain, and tried to maintain friendly relations with the neighboring Germans . He was a Christian and allowed unhampered German missionary activity in his realm. He ruled until 846, when he in turn was unseated by the German king, Louis, and replaced by Rastislav. Rastislav maintained an uneasy truce with the Germans and Bulgarians. In 860, fearing German interference in Slovak affairs, Rastislav requested from Pope Nicholas I, priests with a knowledge of the Slavonic tongue to come among his people. The Pope had no such priests and Rastislav turned to the Byzantine Emperor, Michael III. Michael sent two priests, the brothers Cyril and Methodius. They arrived in 863, and began to convert the Great Moravian Empire to Christianity. They translated the :a:oly Scripture into the Slavonic tongue and formed an alphabet, now known as the Cyrillic alphabet. In 869, the German king, Louis, attacked the Empire. His armies devastated the land, but Rastislav managed to hold out at Devin, and kept the state's independence. That same year, Mojmir's nephew, Svatopluk of Nitra, overthrew Rastislav with German help. In 871, Svatopluk was taken prisoner by the Germans, and Slavomir united the Empire's forces . War soon followed. Svatopluk had managed to escape, and together with Slavomir, destroyed the German army at Devin. Svatopluk regained his throne, and began to enlarge his empire. The German clergy came into conflict with the �182 SLOVAKIA Slovak clergy over control of Church affairs. The Germans held a great amount of influence over Svatopluk, and the Slovaks were often per secuted in their own lands. It is said, that before his death in 894, Svatopluk had retired to a monastery, not revealing his identity until shortly before his death. Svatopluk's oldest son, Mojmir II, assumed his father's throne, while the younger son, Svatopluk II, received a p rincipality to rule, but under his elder brother's domination . In 895, with the secession of the Czech lands and Pannonia, Mojmir's domain shrank to that of Rastislav's. In 901, the Germans and Czechs invaded the Empire. After many fierce battles, Mojmir was forced to sue for peace, again losing territory to his enemies. In 902, the Magyars, an Asiatic people, invaded the Empire. Mojmir's forces suffered heavily. They had managed to rally their forces for a short while, but they could not stem the invading tide. In 906, Mojmir's resistance finally collapsed, and the Great Moravian Empire ceased to exist. The first Slovak state became a part of the Hungarian kingdom. From the tenth through the end of the thirteenth centuries, Slovakia formed an administrative unit known as Upper Hungary. During the Tartar invasions of the thirteenth century, Slovakia suffered as heavily as did the other eastern European peoples. In 1296, Duke Matus cak of Trencin, owing to the dynastic struggle then taking place in Hungary, used the occasion to organize almost the whole Slovakia under his personal rule. For approximately twenty-five years ( 12961321) cak ruled over what was in reality an independent Slovak state. cak formed his own domestic and foreign policies. He maintained his own army, laws, and minted his own currency. The Slovak peasantry suffered greatly at the hands of the great landowners. The Slovak nobility was non-existent. It had either been absorbed by the Magyars or decimated on the battlefield. Peasant revolts were common from the sixteenth century and thereafter, due to the institution of a Hungarian public law codified as the Tripartitum Opus Juris Consuetudinarii Regni Hungariae. It was drawn up �SLOVAKIA 183 by Stefan Verboczi, in 1514. It designated the roles in society the different classes would represent. The peasantry (servitus), became a large landless group, tied to the land, and owned by the local noble. The nobility (natio), were to be the only ones allowed citizenship. This document only served to perpetuate serfdom causing class struggles and the struggle for individual rights. It affected all peasants in Hungary-Croat, Serb, Slovak, Rumanian, and Magyar alike. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, universities were established by various religious orders at Bratislava, Nitra, Trencfn, Kosice, zilina, and other Slovak cities. For many years Slovakia served as a refuge for German, Czech, and other nationalities' academicians, who found it necessary, for various reasons, to leave their native lands. During the Protestant Reformation, the Slovaks remained loyal to the Roman Catholic Church, while the Czech Hussites were able to make a considerable number of conversions. During the Hussite wars, the Czech armies under Jiskra made frequent strikes onto Slovak territory, -::ausing considerab e damage to lives and property. After Lhe Hussites were finally beaten, many of their number fled Bohemia to settle in Slovakia. There, they later came to exert a great amount of influence in Slovak and Czech affairs throughout the twentieth century. Hungary proved itself incapable of withstanding the Ottoman onslaught from the Balkans. In 1526, at the Battle of Mohacs, King Louis and his Magyar army were destroyed by the Ottomans. The Ottomans took control of most of Hungary, while leaving a rump Magyar kingdom. It was nothing but a thin strip of territory that divided the Ottoman Empire from the Austrian lands. Most of Slovakia came under Ottoman rule, but it was only temporary. The Hungarian crown was given to Charles V of Austria. It wa3 hoped that he would be able to free the Hungarian lands. After 160 years and two Ottoman attempts to capture Vienna, the Austrians went on the offensive. The Battle of Zenta (1697), found the Ottomans crushed by the Austrians and forced out of Hungary. By the Treaty of Karlowitz (1699) the Ottomans were forced to cede all of Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia, and Slovenia to Austria. Thus, Slo- �184 SLOVAKIA vakia was freed from Ottoman rule, but now found herself under Austrian domination. Though the Habsburgs were now the rulers of Slovakia, the Magyar nobility was able to maintain their power over the Slovaks and the other nationalities within Hungary. Many gifted Slovak children, found educational opportunities available to them, but had to become Magyarized if worldly success was to be achieved. A great number of Magyarized Slovaks found success in the political and clerical fields. However, a number of educated Slovaks, seeing the plight of their fellow Slovaks, made attempts to maintain and develop Slovak culture and nationalism. It was the Slovak Protestants who made the first attempts at developing a Slovak identity. The Catholic Church eventually took over this role and maintained this position of dominance until the end of World War II. Anton Bernolak (1762-1813) first codified the Slovak language. He also fashioned a Slovak dictionary and grammar book to be used in translating the works of other tongues into the Slovak tongue, and vice versa. Many young Slovaks who were able to, went to be educated in Bohemia, feeling that there they would at least be among their fellow Slavs. Many of the leading political writers in Bohemia in the 1830's, such as Kollar and ~afarik, turned out to be Slovaks. In their writings they stressed not Czech nationalism, but the Slavic background of both the Czechs and Slovaks in the Austrian Empire. Some young Slovaks however, turned to and accepted the Magyar nationalism over their own Slovak ancestry. Two of the best known Magyar nationalists were Lajos Kossuth and Gaj Petofi, a nationalist Magyar poet and vehement antiCroat, was half Serb and half Slovak. Lajos Kossuth led the Magyar revolution of 1848-1849. When defeated, Kossuth fled to Paris, London and New York, always looking for an opportunity to restore an independent Hungary. Kossuth had been born of poor Slovak nobility, and was sent to be reared in a Magyar home. It was the Magyar custom to take the most promising children of all the subject nationalities and try to raise them as fervent Magyar nationalists. In May 1848, the Declaration of Liptovsky Sv. Mikulas set forth a program which set the tone of Slovak political �SLOVAKIA 185 desires for the next ninety years. Under the leadership of ~udovit stur, the first real Slovak spokesman, the program called for a federative monarchy, a Diet formed by a national council, equality of all nationalities, opening of Slovak primary and secondary schools, a national university and polytechnical school, formation of a national guard with its own command, recognition of the Slovak tongue as the language of administration, universal suffrage, freedom of the press, full legal ownership of lands which peasants owned only by a precarious title, and the right to possess a flag as a symbol of the Slovak Fatherland. When in 1848 Kossuth attempted to set up an independent Hungary, free of Vienna's rule, the Slovak people also rose to revolt, against Budapest. The uprising, led by stur, Jozef Hurban a Michal Hod.fa, was not in support of Viennese centralism, but a hope of a federative monarchy following the war. When at Myjava, September 1848, stur proclaimed Slovak independence from Hungary, he kept in mind the federation proposed. at Liptovsky Sv. Mikulas. While the Slovak regiments were being raised and fielded against the Magyars, two petitions were given to Austrian authorities pledging Slovak support of the Monarchy, in return for recognition of Slovak political desires following the Magyar defea u. The first petition was presented to the Emperor, Franz-Jozef, by°Fr. Jozef Kozacek in March 1849. The Emperor had been visiting in Olomouc at the time. The second petition was presented. in April 1849, to the government in Vienna by stur, Hurban and Hod.fa. Actions were promised. by the Austrian authorities, but after the Austrian victory, more time was spent in placating the Magyars, who had attempted. to destroy the Empire, than to the Slovaks and other nationalities who tried to keep the Empire intact. In February 1861, Hurban presented. to the Viennese government a document which covered the principal demands the Slovaks had sought in 1849. More importance must be given to the Memorandum of the Slovak Nation. It was drawn up in June 1861, by Slovak political leaders in Turciansky Sv. Martin led by Stefan Marko Daxner. This document was presented. to the Hungarian Parliament in the hope of their recognizing the uniqueness of the Slovak region and allowing them autono- �186 SLO V AKIA mous control over its own administration, courts, schools and cultural institutions. The Slovaks realized the dangers of Magyar statism which continued to try and assimilate all non-Magyar nationalities. The Slovaks also felt that only the combined actions of all the Hungarian nationalities could overcome Magyar domination. Slovak political leaders were few and far between. The most promising leaders had been either Magyarized or forced into exile from the homeland. The few who remained found themselves facing great odds. In 1863, the Matica slovenska (Slovak Academy) was established. It afforded the Slovak people the opportunity to rediscover their national heritage. Newpapers, books, schools, cultural and political groups were formed to give new life to the cause of Slovak nationalism and helped to educate future Slovak political leaders. In 1864, the Hun arian Parliament passed the L aw of Nationalities. All the inhabitants of the Hungarian lands were to be considered citizens of Hungary. In this way, Hungary formed itself into one political unit. Also, the law specified that all citizens had equal rights, and could express their own nationalist feelings, but within the law, and within reason. The Hungarian government under Ferenc Deak did its best to enforce the law so that it would appear to Vienna that Budapest was quite capable of dealing with its own minority problems on its own, without resorting to force. Thus in 1867, Franz-Jozef, feeling that the only way to ease his fears of another Magyar revolution, granted the Ausgleich. This Ausgleich (compromise) put the Magyars on an even platform with the Germans. The realm was divided into the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary. Franz-Jozef remained head-of-state. There was to be a common army and foreign policy. Hungary was responsible for the internal affairs of the lands of St. Stephen. Slovakia remained under Magyar domination. Beginning in 1871, the Magyars began their policy of Magyarization. At first the moves were subtle. Town council meetings could only be held in Magyar. Any dealings with the railroad service had to be in Magyar. By 1875 the Magyarization policies became more pronounced. The judi- �SL OVAKIA 187 ciary and administration fell to Magyarization. Church documents had to be in Magyar if they were to be considered legal. Eventually all non-Magyar schools were closed, both public and parochial alike. The Matica slovenska was forced to close its doors in 1874. In 1875, the last three Slovak Gymnasia ( high schools) were closed in Klas tor pod Znievom, Revuca and Turciansky Sv. Martin. Only Magyar schools were now to be found in Slovakia and the other non-Magyar areas. The local intelligentsia were advised, in their own best interests, to Magyarize if they wished to keep their position. Professional advancement depended on the amount of support one gave to the Magyar leadership. In all the political elections from 1865 to 1881, the Slovaks ran candidates for parliamentary office. Few, if any, were ever elected. When there were no Slovak representatives, the Croats, Serbs and Rumanians voiced the Slovak appeals inasmuch as the Slovaks and the others shared the same Magyar domination. After 1881, the Slovaks ran no candidates for political office. It was not until 1901 that the Slovaks again ran a list of candidates for parliamentary office. In August 1895, a Congress of Nationalities was held in Budapest, consisting of Slovaks, Serbs and Rumanians. It vigorously denounced the government's Magyarization policies. It demanded that as the Magyars represented less than half of Hungary's population, the other nationalities were entitled to their fair share of representation. ThP. Congress also demanded universal suffrage. Hlas, a monthly Slovak periodical, appeared in 1898. It was published by a group of Slovak Protestants, intellectuals and free-thinkers. They felt that the dangers of Magyarization were so great, that it constituted the necessity of Slovakia's fusion with the Czechs. In the First CzechoSlovak Republic, it would be these same Hlasists who would control the political power in Slovakia. It can be easily seen here that even as early as the 1890's, the Czechs were already planning for a union of the Czech lands and Slovakia. The Slovak Protestants were to be the main tools of Czech imperialism. In 1905, the Slovaks presented a list of t.hirteen parliamentary candidates. Only two were elected, Milan Hodza �188 SLOVAKIA and Ferko Skycak became disenchanted with the Hungarian People's Party, on whose list he was elected, and together with Fr. Andrej Hlinka, formed the Slovak People's Party. In the 1906 elections, the Slovak People's Party managed to elect six of eighteen candidates. In 1907, an incident occurred which united the Slovaks more than ever before to stand firm in the face of Magyar domination and intimidation. In his home village of cernova, Fr. Hlinka was to have consecrated the new church. As he had been called away to Moravia, the Magyar bishop of Spis chose a priest loyal to the regime to consecrate the new church. The Sunday the priest arrived, joined by the subprefect and a group of gendarmes, the populace of cernova attempted to block his way. The gendarmes were ordered to open fire on the people. Fourteen persons were killed and sixty wounded. Others were arrested on trumped up charges and imprisoned. No actions were taken on the gendarmes who were the real perpetrators of this crime. After the massacre of cernova, Hlinka became more determined than ever to obtain some form of independence for his people. By 1910, the Slovak position seemed to deteriorate. The Slovak population reached two million in that year's census. They were entitled by law, to forty representatives in the Hungarian Parliament. However, only three of fifty candidates were elected. Skycak had been reelected, but later resigned his seat. The pro_spects of at least an autonomous Slovak state seemed dim. Hlinka had by now joined forces with Hodza. Together, under the banner of the Slovak People's Party, they formed the first cohesive Slovak nationalist movement. Prior to this, there had been loose national groupings, but they had proved to be ineffective against the Magyars. At least now there was a single, unified movement to press for Slovak demands. In this new organization, Hodza was to develop the political programs of the movement, while Hlinka was to organize the support of the Slovak people. The Slovak political base was built on a coalition of Catholic solidarity, agrarian and workers' movements, and also a Czechophile element, composed mostly of the Hlasists, under T. G. Masaryk's indirect leadership. The loss of �SLOVAKIA 189 one of these elements could possibly bring down the whole Slovak nationalist movement. For without the support of the whole Slovak society, little could be accomplished, and the dreams of Slovak independence and freedom never realized. Between the years 1860 and 1914, 500,000 Slovaks left their ancestral homes to find hope and freedom in the New World. Here they would be able to express the nationalist sentiment which had so long been denied them by the Magyars. They did not forget their homeland. These American Slovaks were to form a base of political and economic support which was vital to Masaryk in order to establish a union of the Slovak and Czech lands following World War I. ( Third place - College) BIBLIOGRAPHY Capek, Tomas, The siovaks ,of Hungary. New York: F. H. Revell Co., 1906. Crankshaw, Edward, The FaU of the House of Hapsburg . New York: Viking Press, 1963. Jaszi, Oscar, Dissoiution of the Hapsburg Monarchy. The University of Chicago Press, 1929. Jelavich, Barbara, The Hapsburg Empire in European Affairs, 1814-1918. Chicago: Rand McNally and Co., 1969. Kirschbaum, Joseph, siovakia. New York: R. Speller and Sons, 1960. siovakia's Struggie for Independence. Canadian Slovak League, 1959. Lutzow, Count, The Hussite Wars. London: Dent, 1914. Mikus, Joseph, siovakia - A Poiiticai History, 1918-1950. Milwaukee: The Marquette University Press, 1963. Oddo, Gilbert, siovakia and Its Peopk New York: R. Speller and Sons, 1960. Palmer, Alan, A History of East-Centrai Europe since the Congress of Vienna. New York: The Macmillan Co., 1970. Seton-Watson, R. W., siovakia - Then and Now. London: G. Allen and Unwin, Ltd., 1931. Taylor, A. J. P., The Hapsburg Monarchy, 1809-1918. New York: Harper and Row, 1965. Thomson, S. Harrison, Czechosiovakia in European History. Princeton University Press, 1953. Yurchak, Peter, The siovaks. Scranton, Pa., 1957. Zinner, Paul E., Czechosiovakia. University of Notre Dame Press, 1956. � 180 SLOVAKIA Rusek, Stephanie 0., ''Milan Rastislav Stefanik." Slovakia, March, 1954, pp. 33-47. Kirschbaum, Joseph M., Slovakia in the 19th and 20th Centuries. Toronto: Slovak World Congress 1973. Mikus, Joseph A. , Slovakia: A Political History, 1918-1950. Milwaukee: The Marquette University Press, 1963. Oddo, G. L. , Slovakia and Its People . New York: Robert Speller and Sons, Publishers, 1960. Paufo, Joseph , Six ty Years of the Slovak League of America. Middletown, Pa.: Slovak League of Ame-r ica, 1967. Woytko, Sister Mary Gabrielle, Sl-o vakia's Road to Statehood. Michigan : John J . Lach, Publisher, 1957. Yurchak, P., The Slovaks. Scranton, Pa.: Obrana Press, Inc., 1946. III. SLOVAKIA BEFORE THE CZECHS John Bert a The Slovaks are a Slavic people who settled in the land between the Danube River and the Carpathian Mountains some 1500 years ago. The area had formerly been held by the Marcommani, a Celtic people, who fled the land after several disastrous wars with the armies of the Roman Empire. The Slovaks were hunters turned farmers. Their main enterprises were blacksmithing and potterymaking, while business transactions were done by bartering. They lived in simple mud and wooden huts, and lived in family groupings called clans, of which the oldest was its head. The Slovak gods were as numerous and varied as those of the Greeks and Romans. When a Slovak died, if cremated, the ashes were placed in urns and buried in a mound. If the body was to be buried, food, wine, weapons and jewelry were placed in the grave. The size of the burial site determined the importance of the dead person. The first attempt of the Slavonic peoples, living along the Danube, to unite into a viable force, came after the Avars, a nomadic Asian people, conquered part of their land. In 624, Samo, a Frankish merchant, united the people and led them to victory against the Avars. This victory encouraged them to face the Germanic Franks, who were �SLOVAKIA 181 also encroaching on their territory. In 631, the Franks, under Dagobert, were defeated in a three-day battle near Vogaste Castle. The Empire prospered now in peace. In 658, Samo died and his empire soon fell apart. For the next two hundred years the Slovaks were leaderless until in 830, Pribina, ruler of the Slovak city of Nitra, took charge, and created what was to become the Great Moravian Empire. He was a wise ruler. Though not a Christian himself, he allowed the Christians to proselytize in his land. In 836, Mojmir I drove Pribina from his throne . Pribina fled to the Germans from whom he received Pannonia to rule as his own until his death in 861. Mojmir enlarged Pribina's former domain, and tried to maintain friendly relations with the neighboring Germans . He was a Christian and allowed unhampered German missionary activity in his realm. He ruled until 846, when he in turn was unseated by the German king, Louis, and replaced by Rastislav. Rastislav maintained an uneasy truce with the Germans and Bulgarians. In 860, fearing German interference in Slovak affairs, Rastislav requested from Pope Nicholas I, priests with a knowledge of the Slavonic tongue to come among his people. The Pope had no such priests and Rastislav turned to the Byzantine Emperor, Michael III. Michael sent two priests, the brothers Cyril and Methodius. They arrived in 863, and began to convert the Great Moravian Empire to Christianity. They translated the :a:oly Scripture into the Slavonic tongue and formed an alphabet, now known as the Cyrillic alphabet. In 869, the German king, Louis, attacked the Empire. His armies devastated the land, but Rastislav managed to hold out at Devin, and kept the state's independence. That same year, Mojmir's nephew, Svatopluk of Nitra, overthrew Rastislav with German help. In 871, Svatopluk was taken prisoner by the Germans, and Slavomir united the Empire's forces . War soon followed. Svatopluk had managed to escape, and together with Slavomir, destroyed the German army at Devin. Svatopluk regained his throne, and began to enlarge his empire. The German clergy came into conflict with the �182 SLOVAKIA Slovak clergy over control of Church affairs. The Germans held a great amount of influence over Svatopluk, and the Slovaks were often per secuted in their own lands. It is said, that before his death in 894, Svatopluk had retired to a monastery, not revealing his identity until shortly before his death. Svatopluk's oldest son, Mojmir II, assumed his father's throne, while the younger son, Svatopluk II, received a p rincipality to rule, but under his elder brother's domination . In 895, with the secession of the Czech lands and Pannonia, Mojmir's domain shrank to that of Rastislav's. In 901, the Germans and Czechs invaded the Empire. After many fierce battles, Mojmir was forced to sue for peace, again losing territory to his enemies. In 902, the Magyars, an Asiatic people, invaded the Empire. Mojmir's forces suffered heavily. They had managed to rally their forces for a short while, but they could not stem the invading tide. In 906, Mojmir's resistance finally collapsed, and the Great Moravian Empire ceased to exist. The first Slovak state became a part of the Hungarian kingdom. From the tenth through the end of the thirteenth centuries, Slovakia formed an administrative unit known as Upper Hungary. During the Tartar invasions of the thirteenth century, Slovakia suffered as heavily as did the other eastern European peoples. In 1296, Duke Matus cak of Trencin, owing to the dynastic struggle then taking place in Hungary, used the occasion to organize almost the whole Slovakia under his personal rule. For approximately twenty-five years ( 12961321) cak ruled over what was in reality an independent Slovak state. cak formed his own domestic and foreign policies. He maintained his own army, laws, and minted his own currency. The Slovak peasantry suffered greatly at the hands of the great landowners. The Slovak nobility was non-existent. It had either been absorbed by the Magyars or decimated on the battlefield. Peasant revolts were common from the sixteenth century and thereafter, due to the institution of a Hungarian public law codified as the Tripartitum Opus Juris Consuetudinarii Regni Hungariae. It was drawn up �SLOVAKIA 183 by Stefan Verboczi, in 1514. It designated the roles in society the different classes would represent. The peasantry (servitus), became a large landless group, tied to the land, and owned by the local noble. The nobility (natio), were to be the only ones allowed citizenship. This document only served to perpetuate serfdom causing class struggles and the struggle for individual rights. It affected all peasants in Hungary-Croat, Serb, Slovak, Rumanian, and Magyar alike. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, universities were established by various religious orders at Bratislava, Nitra, Trencfn, Kosice, zilina, and other Slovak cities. For many years Slovakia served as a refuge for German, Czech, and other nationalities' academicians, who found it necessary, for various reasons, to leave their native lands. During the Protestant Reformation, the Slovaks remained loyal to the Roman Catholic Church, while the Czech Hussites were able to make a considerable number of conversions. During the Hussite wars, the Czech armies under Jiskra made frequent strikes onto Slovak territory, -::ausing considerab e damage to lives and property. After Lhe Hussites were finally beaten, many of their number fled Bohemia to settle in Slovakia. There, they later came to exert a great amount of influence in Slovak and Czech affairs throughout the twentieth century. Hungary proved itself incapable of withstanding the Ottoman onslaught from the Balkans. In 1526, at the Battle of Mohacs, King Louis and his Magyar army were destroyed by the Ottomans. The Ottomans took control of most of Hungary, while leaving a rump Magyar kingdom. It was nothing but a thin strip of territory that divided the Ottoman Empire from the Austrian lands. Most of Slovakia came under Ottoman rule, but it was only temporary. The Hungarian crown was given to Charles V of Austria. It wa3 hoped that he would be able to free the Hungarian lands. After 160 years and two Ottoman attempts to capture Vienna, the Austrians went on the offensive. The Battle of Zenta (1697), found the Ottomans crushed by the Austrians and forced out of Hungary. By the Treaty of Karlowitz (1699) the Ottomans were forced to cede all of Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia, and Slovenia to Austria. Thus, Slo- �184 SLOVAKIA vakia was freed from Ottoman rule, but now found herself under Austrian domination. Though the Habsburgs were now the rulers of Slovakia, the Magyar nobility was able to maintain their power over the Slovaks and the other nationalities within Hungary. Many gifted Slovak children, found educational opportunities available to them, but had to become Magyarized if worldly success was to be achieved. A great number of Magyarized Slovaks found success in the political and clerical fields. However, a number of educated Slovaks, seeing the plight of their fellow Slovaks, made attempts to maintain and develop Slovak culture and nationalism. It was the Slovak Protestants who made the first attempts at developing a Slovak identity. The Catholic Church eventually took over this role and maintained this position of dominance until the end of World War II. Anton Bernolak (1762-1813) first codified the Slovak language. He also fashioned a Slovak dictionary and grammar book to be used in translating the works of other tongues into the Slovak tongue, and vice versa. Many young Slovaks who were able to, went to be educated in Bohemia, feeling that there they would at least be among their fellow Slavs. Many of the leading political writers in Bohemia in the 1830's, such as Kollar and ~afarik, turned out to be Slovaks. In their writings they stressed not Czech nationalism, but the Slavic background of both the Czechs and Slovaks in the Austrian Empire. Some young Slovaks however, turned to and accepted the Magyar nationalism over their own Slovak ancestry. Two of the best known Magyar nationalists were Lajos Kossuth and Gaj Petofi, a nationalist Magyar poet and vehement antiCroat, was half Serb and half Slovak. Lajos Kossuth led the Magyar revolution of 1848-1849. When defeated, Kossuth fled to Paris, London and New York, always looking for an opportunity to restore an independent Hungary. Kossuth had been born of poor Slovak nobility, and was sent to be reared in a Magyar home. It was the Magyar custom to take the most promising children of all the subject nationalities and try to raise them as fervent Magyar nationalists. In May 1848, the Declaration of Liptovsky Sv. Mikulas set forth a program which set the tone of Slovak political �SLOVAKIA 185 desires for the next ninety years. Under the leadership of ~udovit stur, the first real Slovak spokesman, the program called for a federative monarchy, a Diet formed by a national council, equality of all nationalities, opening of Slovak primary and secondary schools, a national university and polytechnical school, formation of a national guard with its own command, recognition of the Slovak tongue as the language of administration, universal suffrage, freedom of the press, full legal ownership of lands which peasants owned only by a precarious title, and the right to possess a flag as a symbol of the Slovak Fatherland. When in 1848 Kossuth attempted to set up an independent Hungary, free of Vienna's rule, the Slovak people also rose to revolt, against Budapest. The uprising, led by stur, Jozef Hurban a Michal Hod.fa, was not in support of Viennese centralism, but a hope of a federative monarchy following the war. When at Myjava, September 1848, stur proclaimed Slovak independence from Hungary, he kept in mind the federation proposed. at Liptovsky Sv. Mikulas. While the Slovak regiments were being raised and fielded against the Magyars, two petitions were given to Austrian authorities pledging Slovak support of the Monarchy, in return for recognition of Slovak political desires following the Magyar defea u. The first petition was presented to the Emperor, Franz-Jozef, by°Fr. Jozef Kozacek in March 1849. The Emperor had been visiting in Olomouc at the time. The second petition was presented. in April 1849, to the government in Vienna by stur, Hurban and Hod.fa. Actions were promised. by the Austrian authorities, but after the Austrian victory, more time was spent in placating the Magyars, who had attempted. to destroy the Empire, than to the Slovaks and other nationalities who tried to keep the Empire intact. In February 1861, Hurban presented. to the Viennese government a document which covered the principal demands the Slovaks had sought in 1849. More importance must be given to the Memorandum of the Slovak Nation. It was drawn up in June 1861, by Slovak political leaders in Turciansky Sv. Martin led by Stefan Marko Daxner. This document was presented. to the Hungarian Parliament in the hope of their recognizing the uniqueness of the Slovak region and allowing them autono- �186 SLO V AKIA mous control over its own administration, courts, schools and cultural institutions. The Slovaks realized the dangers of Magyar statism which continued to try and assimilate all non-Magyar nationalities. The Slovaks also felt that only the combined actions of all the Hungarian nationalities could overcome Magyar domination. Slovak political leaders were few and far between. The most promising leaders had been either Magyarized or forced into exile from the homeland. The few who remained found themselves facing great odds. In 1863, the Matica slovenska (Slovak Academy) was established. It afforded the Slovak people the opportunity to rediscover their national heritage. Newpapers, books, schools, cultural and political groups were formed to give new life to the cause of Slovak nationalism and helped to educate future Slovak political leaders. In 1864, the Hun arian Parliament passed the L aw of Nationalities. All the inhabitants of the Hungarian lands were to be considered citizens of Hungary. In this way, Hungary formed itself into one political unit. Also, the law specified that all citizens had equal rights, and could express their own nationalist feelings, but within the law, and within reason. The Hungarian government under Ferenc Deak did its best to enforce the law so that it would appear to Vienna that Budapest was quite capable of dealing with its own minority problems on its own, without resorting to force. Thus in 1867, Franz-Jozef, feeling that the only way to ease his fears of another Magyar revolution, granted the Ausgleich. This Ausgleich (compromise) put the Magyars on an even platform with the Germans. The realm was divided into the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary. Franz-Jozef remained head-of-state. There was to be a common army and foreign policy. Hungary was responsible for the internal affairs of the lands of St. Stephen. Slovakia remained under Magyar domination. Beginning in 1871, the Magyars began their policy of Magyarization. At first the moves were subtle. Town council meetings could only be held in Magyar. Any dealings with the railroad service had to be in Magyar. By 1875 the Magyarization policies became more pronounced. The judi- �SL OVAKIA 187 ciary and administration fell to Magyarization. Church documents had to be in Magyar if they were to be considered legal. Eventually all non-Magyar schools were closed, both public and parochial alike. The Matica slovenska was forced to close its doors in 1874. In 1875, the last three Slovak Gymnasia ( high schools) were closed in Klas tor pod Znievom, Revuca and Turciansky Sv. Martin. Only Magyar schools were now to be found in Slovakia and the other non-Magyar areas. The local intelligentsia were advised, in their own best interests, to Magyarize if they wished to keep their position. Professional advancement depended on the amount of support one gave to the Magyar leadership. In all the political elections from 1865 to 1881, the Slovaks ran candidates for parliamentary office. Few, if any, were ever elected. When there were no Slovak representatives, the Croats, Serbs and Rumanians voiced the Slovak appeals inasmuch as the Slovaks and the others shared the same Magyar domination. After 1881, the Slovaks ran no candidates for political office. It was not until 1901 that the Slovaks again ran a list of candidates for parliamentary office. In August 1895, a Congress of Nationalities was held in Budapest, consisting of Slovaks, Serbs and Rumanians. It vigorously denounced the government's Magyarization policies. It demanded that as the Magyars represented less than half of Hungary's population, the other nationalities were entitled to their fair share of representation. ThP. Congress also demanded universal suffrage. Hlas, a monthly Slovak periodical, appeared in 1898. It was published by a group of Slovak Protestants, intellectuals and free-thinkers. They felt that the dangers of Magyarization were so great, that it constituted the necessity of Slovakia's fusion with the Czechs. In the First CzechoSlovak Republic, it would be these same Hlasists who would control the political power in Slovakia. It can be easily seen here that even as early as the 1890's, the Czechs were already planning for a union of the Czech lands and Slovakia. The Slovak Protestants were to be the main tools of Czech imperialism. In 1905, the Slovaks presented a list of t.hirteen parliamentary candidates. Only two were elected, Milan Hodza �188 SLOVAKIA and Ferko Skycak became disenchanted with the Hungarian People's Party, on whose list he was elected, and together with Fr. Andrej Hlinka, formed the Slovak People's Party. In the 1906 elections, the Slovak People's Party managed to elect six of eighteen candidates. In 1907, an incident occurred which united the Slovaks more than ever before to stand firm in the face of Magyar domination and intimidation. In his home village of cernova, Fr. Hlinka was to have consecrated the new church. As he had been called away to Moravia, the Magyar bishop of Spis chose a priest loyal to the regime to consecrate the new church. The Sunday the priest arrived, joined by the subprefect and a group of gendarmes, the populace of cernova attempted to block his way. The gendarmes were ordered to open fire on the people. Fourteen persons were killed and sixty wounded. Others were arrested on trumped up charges and imprisoned. No actions were taken on the gendarmes who were the real perpetrators of this crime. After the massacre of cernova, Hlinka became more determined than ever to obtain some form of independence for his people. By 1910, the Slovak position seemed to deteriorate. The Slovak population reached two million in that year's census. They were entitled by law, to forty representatives in the Hungarian Parliament. However, only three of fifty candidates were elected. Skycak had been reelected, but later resigned his seat. The pro_spects of at least an autonomous Slovak state seemed dim. Hlinka had by now joined forces with Hodza. Together, under the banner of the Slovak People's Party, they formed the first cohesive Slovak nationalist movement. Prior to this, there had been loose national groupings, but they had proved to be ineffective against the Magyars. At least now there was a single, unified movement to press for Slovak demands. In this new organization, Hodza was to develop the political programs of the movement, while Hlinka was to organize the support of the Slovak people. The Slovak political base was built on a coalition of Catholic solidarity, agrarian and workers' movements, and also a Czechophile element, composed mostly of the Hlasists, under T. G. Masaryk's indirect leadership. The loss of �SLOVAKIA 189 one of these elements could possibly bring down the whole Slovak nationalist movement. For without the support of the whole Slovak society, little could be accomplished, and the dreams of Slovak independence and freedom never realized. Between the years 1860 and 1914, 500,000 Slovaks left their ancestral homes to find hope and freedom in the New World. Here they would be able to express the nationalist sentiment which had so long been denied them by the Magyars. They did not forget their homeland. These American Slovaks were to form a base of political and economic support which was vital to Masaryk in order to establish a union of the Slovak and Czech lands following World War I. ( Third place - College) BIBLIOGRAPHY Capek, Tomas, The siovaks ,of Hungary. New York: F. H. Revell Co., 1906. Crankshaw, Edward, The FaU of the House of Hapsburg . New York: Viking Press, 1963. Jaszi, Oscar, Dissoiution of the Hapsburg Monarchy. The University of Chicago Press, 1929. Jelavich, Barbara, The Hapsburg Empire in European Affairs, 1814-1918. Chicago: Rand McNally and Co., 1969. Kirschbaum, Joseph, siovakia. New York: R. Speller and Sons, 1960. siovakia's Struggie for Independence. Canadian Slovak League, 1959. Lutzow, Count, The Hussite Wars. London: Dent, 1914. Mikus, Joseph, siovakia - A Poiiticai History, 1918-1950. Milwaukee: The Marquette University Press, 1963. Oddo, Gilbert, siovakia and Its Peopk New York: R. Speller and Sons, 1960. Palmer, Alan, A History of East-Centrai Europe since the Congress of Vienna. New York: The Macmillan Co., 1970. Seton-Watson, R. W., siovakia - Then and Now. London: G. Allen and Unwin, Ltd., 1931. Taylor, A. J. P., The Hapsburg Monarchy, 1809-1918. New York: Harper and Row, 1965. Thomson, S. Harrison, Czechosiovakia in European History. Princeton University Press, 1953. Yurchak, Peter, The siovaks. Scranton, Pa., 1957. Zinner, Paul E., Czechosiovakia. University of Notre Dame Press, 1956. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1975, Vol. 25 Description An account of the resource Vol. 25 (No. 48), 1975. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1975 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document 180 SLOVAKIA Rusek, Stephanie 0., ''Milan Rastislav Stefanik." Slovakia, March, 1954, pp. 33-47. Kirschbaum, Joseph M., Slovakia in the 19th and 20th Centuries. Toronto: Slovak World Congress 1973. Mikus, Joseph A. , Slovakia: A Political History, 1918-1950. Milwaukee: The Marquette University Press, 1963. Oddo, G. L. , Slovakia and Its People . New York: Robert Speller and Sons, Publishers, 1960. Paufo, Joseph , Six ty Years of the Slovak League of America. Middletown, Pa.: Slovak League of Ame-r ica, 1967. Woytko, Sister Mary Gabrielle, Sl-o vakia's Road to Statehood. Michigan : John J . Lach, Publisher, 1957. Yurchak, P., The Slovaks. Scranton, Pa.: Obrana Press, Inc., 1946. III. SLOVAKIA BEFORE THE CZECHS John Bert a The Slovaks are a Slavic people who settled in the land between the Danube River and the Carpathian Mountains some 1500 years ago. The area had formerly been held by the Marcommani, a Celtic people, who fled the land after several disastrous wars with the armies of the Roman Empire. The Slovaks were hunters turned farmers. Their main enterprises were blacksmithing and potterymaking, while business transactions were done by bartering. They lived in simple mud and wooden huts, and lived in family groupings called clans, of which the oldest was its head. The Slovak gods were as numerous and varied as those of the Greeks and Romans. When a Slovak died, if cremated, the ashes were placed in urns and buried in a mound. If the body was to be buried, food, wine, weapons and jewelry were placed in the grave. The size of the burial site determined the importance of the dead person. The first attempt of the Slavonic peoples, living along the Danube, to unite into a viable force, came after the Avars, a nomadic Asian people, conquered part of their land. In 624, Samo, a Frankish merchant, united the people and led them to victory against the Avars. This victory encouraged them to face the Germanic Franks, who were SLOVAKIA 181 also encroaching on their territory. In 631, the Franks, under Dagobert, were defeated in a three-day battle near Vogaste Castle. The Empire prospered now in peace. In 658, Samo died and his empire soon fell apart. For the next two hundred years the Slovaks were leaderless until in 830, Pribina, ruler of the Slovak city of Nitra, took charge, and created what was to become the Great Moravian Empire. He was a wise ruler. Though not a Christian himself, he allowed the Christians to proselytize in his land. In 836, Mojmir I drove Pribina from his throne . Pribina fled to the Germans from whom he received Pannonia to rule as his own until his death in 861. Mojmir enlarged Pribina's former domain, and tried to maintain friendly relations with the neighboring Germans . He was a Christian and allowed unhampered German missionary activity in his realm. He ruled until 846, when he in turn was unseated by the German king, Louis, and replaced by Rastislav. Rastislav maintained an uneasy truce with the Germans and Bulgarians. In 860, fearing German interference in Slovak affairs, Rastislav requested from Pope Nicholas I, priests with a knowledge of the Slavonic tongue to come among his people. The Pope had no such priests and Rastislav turned to the Byzantine Emperor, Michael III. Michael sent two priests, the brothers Cyril and Methodius. They arrived in 863, and began to convert the Great Moravian Empire to Christianity. They translated the :a:oly Scripture into the Slavonic tongue and formed an alphabet, now known as the Cyrillic alphabet. In 869, the German king, Louis, attacked the Empire. His armies devastated the land, but Rastislav managed to hold out at Devin, and kept the state's independence. That same year, Mojmir's nephew, Svatopluk of Nitra, overthrew Rastislav with German help. In 871, Svatopluk was taken prisoner by the Germans, and Slavomir united the Empire's forces . War soon followed. Svatopluk had managed to escape, and together with Slavomir, destroyed the German army at Devin. Svatopluk regained his throne, and began to enlarge his empire. The German clergy came into conflict with the 182 SLOVAKIA Slovak clergy over control of Church affairs. The Germans held a great amount of influence over Svatopluk, and the Slovaks were often per secuted in their own lands. It is said, that before his death in 894, Svatopluk had retired to a monastery, not revealing his identity until shortly before his death. Svatopluk's oldest son, Mojmir II, assumed his father's throne, while the younger son, Svatopluk II, received a p rincipality to rule, but under his elder brother's domination . In 895, with the secession of the Czech lands and Pannonia, Mojmir's domain shrank to that of Rastislav's. In 901, the Germans and Czechs invaded the Empire. After many fierce battles, Mojmir was forced to sue for peace, again losing territory to his enemies. In 902, the Magyars, an Asiatic people, invaded the Empire. Mojmir's forces suffered heavily. They had managed to rally their forces for a short while, but they could not stem the invading tide. In 906, Mojmir's resistance finally collapsed, and the Great Moravian Empire ceased to exist. The first Slovak state became a part of the Hungarian kingdom. From the tenth through the end of the thirteenth centuries, Slovakia formed an administrative unit known as Upper Hungary. During the Tartar invasions of the thirteenth century, Slovakia suffered as heavily as did the other eastern European peoples. In 1296, Duke Matus cak of Trencin, owing to the dynastic struggle then taking place in Hungary, used the occasion to organize almost the whole Slovakia under his personal rule. For approximately twenty-five years ( 12961321) cak ruled over what was in reality an independent Slovak state. cak formed his own domestic and foreign policies. He maintained his own army, laws, and minted his own currency. The Slovak peasantry suffered greatly at the hands of the great landowners. The Slovak nobility was non-existent. It had either been absorbed by the Magyars or decimated on the battlefield. Peasant revolts were common from the sixteenth century and thereafter, due to the institution of a Hungarian public law codified as the Tripartitum Opus Juris Consuetudinarii Regni Hungariae. It was drawn up SLOVAKIA 183 by Stefan Verboczi, in 1514. It designated the roles in society the different classes would represent. The peasantry (servitus), became a large landless group, tied to the land, and owned by the local noble. The nobility (natio), were to be the only ones allowed citizenship. This document only served to perpetuate serfdom causing class struggles and the struggle for individual rights. It affected all peasants in Hungary-Croat, Serb, Slovak, Rumanian, and Magyar alike. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, universities were established by various religious orders at Bratislava, Nitra, Trencfn, Kosice, zilina, and other Slovak cities. For many years Slovakia served as a refuge for German, Czech, and other nationalities' academicians, who found it necessary, for various reasons, to leave their native lands. During the Protestant Reformation, the Slovaks remained loyal to the Roman Catholic Church, while the Czech Hussites were able to make a considerable number of conversions. During the Hussite wars, the Czech armies under Jiskra made frequent strikes onto Slovak territory, -::ausing considerab e damage to lives and property. After Lhe Hussites were finally beaten, many of their number fled Bohemia to settle in Slovakia. There, they later came to exert a great amount of influence in Slovak and Czech affairs throughout the twentieth century. Hungary proved itself incapable of withstanding the Ottoman onslaught from the Balkans. In 1526, at the Battle of Mohacs, King Louis and his Magyar army were destroyed by the Ottomans. The Ottomans took control of most of Hungary, while leaving a rump Magyar kingdom. It was nothing but a thin strip of territory that divided the Ottoman Empire from the Austrian lands. Most of Slovakia came under Ottoman rule, but it was only temporary. The Hungarian crown was given to Charles V of Austria. It wa3 hoped that he would be able to free the Hungarian lands. After 160 years and two Ottoman attempts to capture Vienna, the Austrians went on the offensive. The Battle of Zenta (1697), found the Ottomans crushed by the Austrians and forced out of Hungary. By the Treaty of Karlowitz (1699) the Ottomans were forced to cede all of Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia, and Slovenia to Austria. Thus, Slo- 184 SLOVAKIA vakia was freed from Ottoman rule, but now found herself under Austrian domination. Though the Habsburgs were now the rulers of Slovakia, the Magyar nobility was able to maintain their power over the Slovaks and the other nationalities within Hungary. Many gifted Slovak children, found educational opportunities available to them, but had to become Magyarized if worldly success was to be achieved. A great number of Magyarized Slovaks found success in the political and clerical fields. However, a number of educated Slovaks, seeing the plight of their fellow Slovaks, made attempts to maintain and develop Slovak culture and nationalism. It was the Slovak Protestants who made the first attempts at developing a Slovak identity. The Catholic Church eventually took over this role and maintained this position of dominance until the end of World War II. Anton Bernolak (1762-1813) first codified the Slovak language. He also fashioned a Slovak dictionary and grammar book to be used in translating the works of other tongues into the Slovak tongue, and vice versa. Many young Slovaks who were able to, went to be educated in Bohemia, feeling that there they would at least be among their fellow Slavs. Many of the leading political writers in Bohemia in the 1830's, such as Kollar and ~afarik, turned out to be Slovaks. In their writings they stressed not Czech nationalism, but the Slavic background of both the Czechs and Slovaks in the Austrian Empire. Some young Slovaks however, turned to and accepted the Magyar nationalism over their own Slovak ancestry. Two of the best known Magyar nationalists were Lajos Kossuth and Gaj Petofi, a nationalist Magyar poet and vehement antiCroat, was half Serb and half Slovak. Lajos Kossuth led the Magyar revolution of 1848-1849. When defeated, Kossuth fled to Paris, London and New York, always looking for an opportunity to restore an independent Hungary. Kossuth had been born of poor Slovak nobility, and was sent to be reared in a Magyar home. It was the Magyar custom to take the most promising children of all the subject nationalities and try to raise them as fervent Magyar nationalists. In May 1848, the Declaration of Liptovsky Sv. Mikulas set forth a program which set the tone of Slovak political SLOVAKIA 185 desires for the next ninety years. Under the leadership of ~udovit stur, the first real Slovak spokesman, the program called for a federative monarchy, a Diet formed by a national council, equality of all nationalities, opening of Slovak primary and secondary schools, a national university and polytechnical school, formation of a national guard with its own command, recognition of the Slovak tongue as the language of administration, universal suffrage, freedom of the press, full legal ownership of lands which peasants owned only by a precarious title, and the right to possess a flag as a symbol of the Slovak Fatherland. When in 1848 Kossuth attempted to set up an independent Hungary, free of Vienna's rule, the Slovak people also rose to revolt, against Budapest. The uprising, led by stur, Jozef Hurban a Michal Hod.fa, was not in support of Viennese centralism, but a hope of a federative monarchy following the war. When at Myjava, September 1848, stur proclaimed Slovak independence from Hungary, he kept in mind the federation proposed. at Liptovsky Sv. Mikulas. While the Slovak regiments were being raised and fielded against the Magyars, two petitions were given to Austrian authorities pledging Slovak support of the Monarchy, in return for recognition of Slovak political desires following the Magyar defea u. The first petition was presented to the Emperor, Franz-Jozef, by°Fr. Jozef Kozacek in March 1849. The Emperor had been visiting in Olomouc at the time. The second petition was presented. in April 1849, to the government in Vienna by stur, Hurban and Hod.fa. Actions were promised. by the Austrian authorities, but after the Austrian victory, more time was spent in placating the Magyars, who had attempted. to destroy the Empire, than to the Slovaks and other nationalities who tried to keep the Empire intact. In February 1861, Hurban presented. to the Viennese government a document which covered the principal demands the Slovaks had sought in 1849. More importance must be given to the Memorandum of the Slovak Nation. It was drawn up in June 1861, by Slovak political leaders in Turciansky Sv. Martin led by Stefan Marko Daxner. This document was presented. to the Hungarian Parliament in the hope of their recognizing the uniqueness of the Slovak region and allowing them autono- 186 SLO V AKIA mous control over its own administration, courts, schools and cultural institutions. The Slovaks realized the dangers of Magyar statism which continued to try and assimilate all non-Magyar nationalities. The Slovaks also felt that only the combined actions of all the Hungarian nationalities could overcome Magyar domination. Slovak political leaders were few and far between. The most promising leaders had been either Magyarized or forced into exile from the homeland. The few who remained found themselves facing great odds. In 1863, the Matica slovenska (Slovak Academy) was established. It afforded the Slovak people the opportunity to rediscover their national heritage. Newpapers, books, schools, cultural and political groups were formed to give new life to the cause of Slovak nationalism and helped to educate future Slovak political leaders. In 1864, the Hun arian Parliament passed the L aw of Nationalities. All the inhabitants of the Hungarian lands were to be considered citizens of Hungary. In this way, Hungary formed itself into one political unit. Also, the law specified that all citizens had equal rights, and could express their own nationalist feelings, but within the law, and within reason. The Hungarian government under Ferenc Deak did its best to enforce the law so that it would appear to Vienna that Budapest was quite capable of dealing with its own minority problems on its own, without resorting to force. Thus in 1867, Franz-Jozef, feeling that the only way to ease his fears of another Magyar revolution, granted the Ausgleich. This Ausgleich (compromise) put the Magyars on an even platform with the Germans. The realm was divided into the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary. Franz-Jozef remained head-of-state. There was to be a common army and foreign policy. Hungary was responsible for the internal affairs of the lands of St. Stephen. Slovakia remained under Magyar domination. Beginning in 1871, the Magyars began their policy of Magyarization. At first the moves were subtle. Town council meetings could only be held in Magyar. Any dealings with the railroad service had to be in Magyar. By 1875 the Magyarization policies became more pronounced. The judi- SL OVAKIA 187 ciary and administration fell to Magyarization. Church documents had to be in Magyar if they were to be considered legal. Eventually all non-Magyar schools were closed, both public and parochial alike. The Matica slovenska was forced to close its doors in 1874. In 1875, the last three Slovak Gymnasia ( high schools) were closed in Klas tor pod Znievom, Revuca and Turciansky Sv. Martin. Only Magyar schools were now to be found in Slovakia and the other non-Magyar areas. The local intelligentsia were advised, in their own best interests, to Magyarize if they wished to keep their position. Professional advancement depended on the amount of support one gave to the Magyar leadership. In all the political elections from 1865 to 1881, the Slovaks ran candidates for parliamentary office. Few, if any, were ever elected. When there were no Slovak representatives, the Croats, Serbs and Rumanians voiced the Slovak appeals inasmuch as the Slovaks and the others shared the same Magyar domination. After 1881, the Slovaks ran no candidates for political office. It was not until 1901 that the Slovaks again ran a list of candidates for parliamentary office. In August 1895, a Congress of Nationalities was held in Budapest, consisting of Slovaks, Serbs and Rumanians. It vigorously denounced the government's Magyarization policies. It demanded that as the Magyars represented less than half of Hungary's population, the other nationalities were entitled to their fair share of representation. ThP. Congress also demanded universal suffrage. Hlas, a monthly Slovak periodical, appeared in 1898. It was published by a group of Slovak Protestants, intellectuals and free-thinkers. They felt that the dangers of Magyarization were so great, that it constituted the necessity of Slovakia's fusion with the Czechs. In the First CzechoSlovak Republic, it would be these same Hlasists who would control the political power in Slovakia. It can be easily seen here that even as early as the 1890's, the Czechs were already planning for a union of the Czech lands and Slovakia. The Slovak Protestants were to be the main tools of Czech imperialism. In 1905, the Slovaks presented a list of t.hirteen parliamentary candidates. Only two were elected, Milan Hodza 188 SLOVAKIA and Ferko Skycak became disenchanted with the Hungarian People's Party, on whose list he was elected, and together with Fr. Andrej Hlinka, formed the Slovak People's Party. In the 1906 elections, the Slovak People's Party managed to elect six of eighteen candidates. In 1907, an incident occurred which united the Slovaks more than ever before to stand firm in the face of Magyar domination and intimidation. In his home village of cernova, Fr. Hlinka was to have consecrated the new church. As he had been called away to Moravia, the Magyar bishop of Spis chose a priest loyal to the regime to consecrate the new church. The Sunday the priest arrived, joined by the subprefect and a group of gendarmes, the populace of cernova attempted to block his way. The gendarmes were ordered to open fire on the people. Fourteen persons were killed and sixty wounded. Others were arrested on trumped up charges and imprisoned. No actions were taken on the gendarmes who were the real perpetrators of this crime. After the massacre of cernova, Hlinka became more determined than ever to obtain some form of independence for his people. By 1910, the Slovak position seemed to deteriorate. The Slovak population reached two million in that year's census. They were entitled by law, to forty representatives in the Hungarian Parliament. However, only three of fifty candidates were elected. Skycak had been reelected, but later resigned his seat. The pro_spects of at least an autonomous Slovak state seemed dim. Hlinka had by now joined forces with Hodza. Together, under the banner of the Slovak People's Party, they formed the first cohesive Slovak nationalist movement. Prior to this, there had been loose national groupings, but they had proved to be ineffective against the Magyars. At least now there was a single, unified movement to press for Slovak demands. In this new organization, Hodza was to develop the political programs of the movement, while Hlinka was to organize the support of the Slovak people. The Slovak political base was built on a coalition of Catholic solidarity, agrarian and workers' movements, and also a Czechophile element, composed mostly of the Hlasists, under T. G. Masaryk's indirect leadership. The loss of SLOVAKIA 189 one of these elements could possibly bring down the whole Slovak nationalist movement. For without the support of the whole Slovak society, little could be accomplished, and the dreams of Slovak independence and freedom never realized. Between the years 1860 and 1914, 500,000 Slovaks left their ancestral homes to find hope and freedom in the New World. Here they would be able to express the nationalist sentiment which had so long been denied them by the Magyars. They did not forget their homeland. These American Slovaks were to form a base of political and economic support which was vital to Masaryk in order to establish a union of the Slovak and Czech lands following World War I. ( Third place - College) BIBLIOGRAPHY Capek, Tomas, The siovaks ,of Hungary. New York: F. H. Revell Co., 1906. Crankshaw, Edward, The FaU of the House of Hapsburg . New York: Viking Press, 1963. Jaszi, Oscar, Dissoiution of the Hapsburg Monarchy. The University of Chicago Press, 1929. Jelavich, Barbara, The Hapsburg Empire in European Affairs, 1814-1918. Chicago: Rand McNally and Co., 1969. Kirschbaum, Joseph, siovakia. New York: R. Speller and Sons, 1960. siovakia's Struggie for Independence. Canadian Slovak League, 1959. Lutzow, Count, The Hussite Wars. London: Dent, 1914. Mikus, Joseph, siovakia - A Poiiticai History, 1918-1950. Milwaukee: The Marquette University Press, 1963. Oddo, Gilbert, siovakia and Its Peopk New York: R. Speller and Sons, 1960. Palmer, Alan, A History of East-Centrai Europe since the Congress of Vienna. New York: The Macmillan Co., 1970. Seton-Watson, R. W., siovakia - Then and Now. London: G. Allen and Unwin, Ltd., 1931. Taylor, A. J. P., The Hapsburg Monarchy, 1809-1918. New York: Harper and Row, 1965. Thomson, S. Harrison, Czechosiovakia in European History. Princeton University Press, 1953. Yurchak, Peter, The siovaks. Scranton, Pa., 1957. Zinner, Paul E., Czechosiovakia. University of Notre Dame Press, 1956.  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Slovakia Before the Czechs Description An account of the resource John Berta Slovakia, Vol. 25 (No. 48), 1975 pp. 180-189 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Berta, John A. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1975 name https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/4cbae7fea8b7e3f8c4251b2c9630727d.pdf 41c21b9199ef2a157e0d8b63f1258f09 PDF Text Text SLOVAKIA 190 As others see it We are fortunate, in Canada, in having within our midst, a strong and vital Slovak community. Our many traditions, mingled together throughout society cannot but make us a stronger, more resilient, more tolerant and understanding people. - Pierre EUiot Trudeau Freedom and independence have long been the backbone of Slovak national thought. The Slovak people now suffer under Communist domination and yet have made tremendous sacrifices on both personal and national levels to preserve their native culture, language, and religion. One-third of all Slovak people now live in the United States and in other parts of the Western World. Freedom-loving people throughout Michigan and the world join with Slovak people in their desire to reestablish independence from totalW illiam G. Militarian rule. liken, Governor of the State of Michigan Your continuing efforts to share Slovak traditions and culture are a source of pride to all Americans. - Robert P. Griffin, U.S. Senator As one whose ancestors grew up and lived in Slovakia, I am very proud of my Slovak heritage. Moreover, we Americans of Slovak background can also point with pride to the tremendous contributions the people of the American Slovak Community have made to our great nation. - Philip E . Ruppe, Member of Congress In my own experience, I have found Slovak Americans to be bright, industrious, and filled with a zest for life. Moreover, you have successfully preserved a sense of identity and pride in the Slovak roots, a passion which has been further nourished by the more recent arrivals. As a Slovak citizen recently told a western newsman, "Here we have absolutely no shortage of unful filled desires." Some day in our lifetimes, I trust, democracy and individual liberty will live again in the land of your forefathers. - Lucien N. Nedzi, Member of Congress America is an immeasurably better nation because of the tremen dous contributions of Slovaks. Vigor and dedication to excellence have epitomized the Slovak way of life on America's farmlands, in her cities and educational institution3 and on the Apollo flight to the moon of Commander Eugene Cernan. In remembering Slovakia, you are reminding the world of the special ethnic heritage of Slovaks around the world. - Marvin L . Esch, Member of Congress The Slovak people are a proud and talented people who have enriched the lives of the many countries in which they live. We can all be proud of the contribution of Slovak people to the development of America. The Slovak people have helped to build this country into a great democracy, while retaining their ethnic identity. William S. Broomfield, Member of Congress Although self-determination and democracy have been denied them, the freedom-loving Slovak people have maintained their traditions even after many centuries of foreign oppression. �SLOVAKIA Slovaks living in the western world continue to cherish the dream of an independent Slovak nation. Coieman A. Young, Mayor, City of Detroit Catholic Church is the prime target of the Communists in Slovakia because she is considered an organization that is administered by the Vatican and is in contradiction with the idea of a state-controlled church as is the case in Russia. The major pressure is on the practising Catholics who live their faith, and not so much on the so-called "Catholics of the baptismal register." State employees in influential positions and the teachers are hardest hit. After the removal of Dubcek, they were all carefully scrutinized and their files updated. Only the teachers and professors who are considered reliable Marxists can teach in the high schools and universities. It is requiried of them to sever their affiliation with their Church. That is a condition which must be fulfilled if they wish to keep their post. , In the high schools the teaching of religion is forbidden. In the elementary schools, religion can be taught only if both parents demand it for their children. The headmasters are obliged to try to persuade them not to send the children to religion classes. They have to warn the parents about the grave and adverse consequences this would have if they persist. The parents could lose their good positions in employment, and the children may find it difficult to be accepted for higher studies. All teachers and higheT-ranking white collar workers must be party members or they are subject to obligatory courses in Marxistatheistic ideology. After the fall of 191 Dubcek, more than 30,000 Marxist agitators were trained and no w they are conducting re-educational courses among the students and the intelligentsia. Anybody who refuses such courses is considrered an opponent of the regime and his " negative attitude" is entered into his "cadre" file which accompanies every citizen. The assessment in the file can make it hard to get or to change employment for which the person may have qualifications. The ideological pressure is felt, too, in the family circle. The communist ideal is a family without religion. The generation gap in socialism is intensified because in the family circle unity is destroyed - there is two-track thinking. The open practice of the Faith is in conflict with the ideology of the state. Therefore, the parents have to hide their religious conviction from their children or from each other. If they dare to bring up their children in the Faith, if they teach them to pray, there is the danger that the children will betray them in the school and that leads to stress and conflicts in the family. The denial of religious freedom has, in practice, painful consequences in the very nucleus of human society. Bishop Dominic Kai'ata Slovak Communist authorities have stepped up their promotion of "civil ceremonies" to replace baptism, confirmation, wedding and funeral ceremonies in church. Austrian Catholic sources reported from Slovakia, that "wedding centers" and "funeral halls" for civil ceremonies have been installed in many areas. More than 1750 committees were formed to organize the ceremonies. The sources said such civil rites �192 SLOVAKIA have failed to meet with much suecess. Slovak Interior Minister Egyd Pepych has complained that only 3.4 per cent of people who died in Czecho-Slovakia were buried with civil ceremonies. "The Citizens Committees still have much work to do," he said. Communist officials intensified propaganda in recent w1ieks, our sources said. They distributed booklets explaining the purpose and advantages of the ceremonies. Moreover, "presents" are distributed in the civil program that seeks to replace Christian baptism, confirmation and matrimony. Slovak newpapers and I!'lagazines have published reports of civil ceremonies to increase interest. One Communist daily described a civil "baptism" as follows: "A committee secretary took the baby out of the hands of the mother and placed it into a hand-carved cradle. The parents-both teachers -vecited a promise: "We, the parents, solemnly declare that we will do everything in our power to educate our son as an outstanding citizen of our Socialist country." _ (RNS) Communist professors and state officials in Czecho-Slovakia have been waging a persistent campaign against religion despite constitutional guarantees of freedom of thought and religious choice. This is the central point of Italian Jesuit Father Guiseppe Rulli, writing in the Rome Jesuit review Civilta Cattolica. In a long analytical article, Fr. Rulli examines the writings of several eminent Marxist professors attacking religion and the Roman Catholic Church in particular over the past several years. Among the authors cited by Fr. Rulli were Ladislav Tomasek of the Marxist Leninist Institute of Bratislava; Frantisek Kubovic of the Slovak University, and Minister of Culture Jaroslav Hajek. Despite the Communist government's claims that it is tolerant of religion, Father Rulli stressed that over the past few years a consistent campaign has been mounted against religious freedom . The professors in particular have called for "a battle against idealistic philosophy," which for Fr. Rulli is "without a doubt religious philosophy." Father Rulli cited an article by Frantisek Kubovic in which the Slovak professor declared : "to Catholicism in socialist countries it is not possible to grant 'freedom of action,' because that would mean going along with its anti-socialistic, anti-communist, anti-state and antinational attitudes. Therefove, it is indispensable that it be placed under the control of the socialist state so that political activity and the exploitation of the religious feelings of believers may be halt1id ." Demands by the bishops to be allowed to carry out their religious functions in freedom, to run their seminaries without state control and to enjoy the right of giving instruction freely have been interpreted as examples of their antisocialist, anticommunist attitudes, Father Rulli stated. He also pointed out: "The Czech and Slovak communists accuse the Catholic Church of being an expression of an unilluminating idealism of defending a nonscientific and negative vision of the world and of always having been opposed to communism." In the early 70's both Slovak and Czech public officials moved in on the Catholic Church to restrict its freedom. In 1970, Fr. Rulli report- �SLOVAKIA ed, the Slovak Socialist Republic made it a requirement that priests get government permission to celebrate even a private Mass. Authorities of the Czech Republic followed suit. This was only the beginning of greater and more restrictive controls placed on the bishops and the parishes, Father Rulli reported. Concluding his observations, Fr. Rulli declared that from the opening attacks on religion, "religious faith has been considered an expression of sentiment," and there fore must be controlled by the state to safeguard the people. (NC) In the struggle against communism the Church has always offered the stiffest resistance and countless members of the clergy have sacrificed their lives for their faith and country. The Catholic Church ')f Lithuania was brutally persecuted by the Kremlin regime as were thC' Churches of other nations under the despotic yoke of Moscow. Msgr. Jozef Tiso was the wartime president of the Slovak Republic (Independent Lithuania officially recognized Slovakia in 1939) and was executed by the communists in 1947 because he refused to betray his people and proclaim Slovakia a Soviet republic. As the prelatepresident of his country, Msgr. Tiso provided his beloved Slovakia with a Christian-democratic ideology and based his politics on papal encyclicals, Christian philosophy and national Slovak traditions. Two hours before his execution on the gallows Msgr. Tiso wrote this final message from prison to the Slovak people. The eloquence of this fare well also symbolizes the spirit with which -the heroic priests of Lithuania offered up their lives on the altar of freedom for the salvation of their country and in Heaven in 193 the pFesence of the Almighty became the radiant hope of the Lith uanian people. "In the spirit of this sacrifice which I am about to make," wrot':l Dr. Tiso, "these are my words to the Slovak people: Be unanimous and united in pursuing always, everywhere and in every respect the great principle : For God and for the Nation! This is not only the unequivocal intent of Slovak history, but also the explicit command of God, who mad e it the law of nature, and inculcated it in the nation and all its members. This law I have served all my life and for this reason I regard myself as a martyr in the defense of Chri,tianity against Bolshevism, against which our nation must in all possible ways defend itself, and n ot only in order to remain true to its Christian character, but also in th'} interest of its future survival. In the same way as I am as!dng all of you to remember me in your prayers, so will I also pray to God Al mighty on your behalf and supplicate that He bless the Slovak people in their life-struggle for God and for the nation, and that the Slovak nation shall always remain a faithful and devoted son to the Church of Christ." Blessed are those whose way is blameless, who walk in the law of the Lord! - Bulletin of the Lithuanian Affairs Committ ee In Slovakia, dozens of churches stand half-finished because of an edict forbidding new building of them. Unofficially, childrm, who go to church can't go to trade school or the university. But that doesn't matter as much as being home, even though strange things are happening to that home. I expected to find little old ladies, safe in the security of family �194 SLOVAKIA doing folk arts and embroidery. In stead, Slovakia has gone doubleknit. "Do you have a car?" was the first question, usually. And then, "Do you have a color television set?" . There is a song they sing over endless vodkas when the sun goes down, a song that obviously has never been written down. "Our lives are much better here," is the rough translation, "since our fath• ers went to work in America." In some of the villages we visit, social and economic status is determined by who has relatives in the U.S. If your father happened to go there to work, you get Social Security benefits, and you are comfortable . If he worked in the mines around Wilkes-Barl'le and caught the black lung, you are wealthy. American money is important, because Czecho-Slovak money won't buy much. It's not unusual to find houses with television sets but no toilets, simply because it's easier to buy television sets than plumbing materials. But if you have American money, you can buy "boni" - special certificates which must be spent in six months - to use in the Tuzex. And perhaps the Tuzex is the most telling memory of Slovakia. It is a store that accepts only foreign currency. There is fruit juice and liquor, dry goods and clothing. The!'le are baby carriages and radios. The people crowd in, sometimes pushing each other like so many American suburbanites at a bargain basement sale. In a corner, one woman is selling her "boni." When I pull out a notebook to mark down prices, people stare. A friend cautions me to put away the notebook, and the tension ebbs. Over it all, staring down on the Ban-Lon and baby carriages, is a picture of Lenin. - Carol Towarnicky, Philadelphia Daily News, December 28, 1974. Book Reviews BOOKS AND STUDIES ON SLOVAKIA AND SLOVAKS Reviewed by Prof. J. M. K i r s c h b a u m Robert W. Dean, Nationalism and historiography mostly as a footnote Political Change in Eastern Eu· or a postscript to Czech history rope: The Slovak Question and and were seen "through the Czech the Czechoslovak Reform Move- eyes" by specialists in Eastern Eument, University of Denver, Col- rope, several recent studies (Galia orado, The Social Science Foun- Golan, Eugene Steiner, John Condation and Graduate School of way etc.) departed from this politiInternational Studies, Monograph cally and ideologically oriented Series in World Affairs, Vol. 10, tradition. 1973. Among the large numbers of While in the past Slovakia and books published on post-war politiSlovaks were treated in Western cal developments in Czecho-Slova- �SLOVAKIA kia and especially on the "Dubcek period," Robert W. Dean's concise study seems to be the most objective and his analysis of the reform movement free of anti-Slovak bias. Moreover, the value of Dean's book lies in its research and evaluation of original sources published in Czech Lands or in Slovakia during the period under his examination. As a result, Dean is drawing quite a different picturie of Slovakia's post-war political situation and aspirations of her leadership and population from the account of some other specia1.sts in that area. Communist governments in Prague were not more successful in solving the Slovak question than were the bourgeois governments before the war, and even the purges of leading Slovak Communists for alleged "bourgeois nationalism" were not able to silence the cries for equality, justice and self-government. Slovak intellectuals fought, therefore, not only for the reform of the system, but also for the solution of the Slovak question, because "In Slovakia, the distortion of the Novotny system had been expressed by the subjugation of national aspirations - political, economic and cultural." (p. 28) In 1968, the year of liberalization brought also by the opposition of Slovak intellectuals, Slovaks cla imed more than federalization in Dean's view. There were clear voices of leading intellectuals for confederation and the Slovak Republic of 1939-45 was not only put into a more objective light, but its existence was to remind Prague that there was another solution of the Slovak question. Dean quotes from Kuiturny zivot: " ... it will nevertheless remain true that the Slovak Republic existed as the national state of the 195 Slovaks, the only one in our history ... Let us not turn away from it; it is part of our national traditions. It is important for an accurate scrutiny of our national idea to know that the idea or the remembrance of the Slovak state's independence is alive in the national memory. It connot be ignored forever in examining the alterna tives in the solution of the perspectives of a small nation .. ." (Pavol Stevcek, "Sev,e.ral Theses on the Situation of the Slovak Nation," Kulturny zivot, No. 3, August 2, 1968) . Husak is portrayed by Dean as one of the most articulate promoters of federalization but he did not fail to notice that Husak used the movement for federalization to come to power and abandoned it in order to remain in power. As a result, the Slovak question remained unsolved. The present situation is "centralism in a new guise" (see pages 28-37 ) and the persecution of intellectuals by Husak's regime is but a confirmation of his fear that they could expose the true aspirations of the Slovak people. Die Slowakische Volkskultur (Slo- vak Folk Arts and Culture) . Edited by Emilia Horvathova and Viera Urbancova. Published by Slovak Academy of Sciences, (Bratislava, 1972), 304 pages, 342 illustrations. Slovak folk arts and folk culture have long attracted the attention of foreign visitors and ethnographers by their beauty, richness of colors and inexhaustible fantasy. Some observers regard Slovaks "artists by birth," whose songs and national costumes have a natural expression of a poetry full of sensibility and freshness and whose carvings, toolmakings, paintings and architecture of peasant houses �196 SLOVAKIA excell by a constructive sense of color and design. Exposed for centuries to foreign domination and assimilation, Slovaks cultivated folk arts, songs and costumes as an expression of national consciousness and national identity and pre served a great part of them to this day. The book Die Slowakische Volkskultur deals with and reflects the rich cultural heritage of the Slovak people. It contains elev,e n contributions by eight authors, of whom 5 are women. All contributors belong to the younger generation educated at post-war universities in Slovakia, but they also refer to essays and studies by scholars of earlier periods. The title of the book is actually the same as was the title of the first book in German on Slovak folk art and culture by R. Bednarik, published during the Slovak Republic (Bratislava, 1943) . The present book is larger in scope and relies on new research and scholarly methods. The growth of universities in Slovakia is reflected in many fields of academic endeavor previously neglected. Ethnography was one of these fields even though the first known ,e thnographer among Slavs, P. J. Safarik, was from Slovakia. In spite of regimentation and political pressures, the present Slovak universities produced experts in many disciplines, including ethnography. The book Die Slowakische Volkskultur is a product of this new cultural atmosphere in Slovakia. Divided into eleven chapters, the volume deals with practically all aspects of the life of Slovakia's population - from agriculture and came breeding to family life, housebuilding, folk arts, superstitions and customs. Individual chap- ters are illustrated by photographs, many of them well chosen and enhancing the value of the book. It should be stressed, however, that foreign readers should not visualize present day Slovakia as depicted in this book. Folk arts and folk culture belong to the past in Slovakia as in any other Europ!7 an country and are but a part of Slovak cultural heritage. Slovakia kept pace with European cultural development and is adorned by hundreds of medieval fortresses, cast1es and churches of Renaissance and Baroque art. The beautiful valleys and hills lost their original beauty to industrialization and technological progress did not bypass Slovaks and Slovakia. J. Stasko, Slovaks in the United States of America, Edition Dobra Kniha, (Galt, Ontario, 1974) 79 pages, bibl. and statistics. This concise study contains valuable basic information on a number of topics pertaining to the history of the Slovaks in the United States. There are several mohographs by F . Hrusovsky, J. Pauco and others and two volumes history of American Slovaks by K. culen in the Slovak language but Stasko's work is the first scholarly outline in English and as such should be welcome. The author divided his study into 14 short chapters co·v ering the his- torical background of the Slovak nation, causes and effects of the migration of Slovaks, statistical survey of Slovaks in the United States and their hard beginnings and life in America. Briefly but with solid knowledge of the subjects and appropriate statistics Dr. Stasko analyses the social conditions, religions and civic organizations, education, contributions to American political and economic �SLOVAKIA development and the assimilation process. The booklet is an intelligent look at the basic questions which a historian has to deal with in writing a history of an ethnic group in today's United States. It is, however, rather an outline for a longer book, than a comprehensive story of some 3 million Americans of Slovak origin. No doubt, scholars and students of American history will welcome Dr. Stasko's study as a valuable source of information, while American Slovak historians should be encouraged to use it as a solid foundation and a well balanced structure for a comprehensive history of Slovaks in the United States. The large number of monographs on Slovak-American fraternal organizations, parishes, religious orders, regional histories and preserved newspapers and publica tions will make it possible, even in the absence of regular archives, to prepare for the second centennial of America a history book which will tell other Americans and Slovaks as well the fascinating saga of struggles, trials and final success of American Slovaks. The value of Stasko's work for American historians also lies in his brief survey of Slovak history and in his suggested approach to studying and understanding Slovak history. As often mentioned, the neighbors of Slovakia who wanted to dominate and rule Slovaks, suc ceeded in misleading many historians to accept a false concept of the history of the Slovak people. Even if recent history books seem to be more free of anti-Slovak bias and conceptional errors, there will be for a long time urgent need for serious literature in English and other work. languages on Slovakia and Slovaks. 197 Eckbert K. Jahn, Die Deutschen in der Slowakei 1918-1929, (Germans in Slovakia 1918-1929) , Collegium Carolinum (Munich, 1971), 186 pages, bib!. Jahn's book on German minority in Slovakia is a valuable contribution to the history of Slovakia and it is only to be regretted that he limited his research to such a short period. Neglected before the War and written with ideological prejudice by communist historians since 1948, the history of national minorities in Slovakia is very little known. Yet, the role of minorities in Slovakia's history was of great political, cultural and economic importance. German settlements in Slovakia go back to the 14th century at which time, according to the author, there were over 200,000 Germans on Slovak territory. In 19181929 the German minority counted some 150,000 people. Before the first World War Germans of Slovakia were closer to Magyars than to Slovaks in their political and cultural leanings, but during the centuries which proceed the era of nationalism they helped to develop Slovak cities, mining industries, trades and commerce to the benefit of Slovakia. On the other hand, they were at the origin of the religious division of Slovaks. After the First World War Germans in Slovakia did not take part in Slovak struggle for autonomy and equal status with the Czechs. Affiliated with the socialist and partly with the communist parties, they fought in Prague for minority rights together with other German3 of Czecho-Slovakia. Jahn's study sheds light on many aspects of the life of the German minority in Slovakia and even though the author was not allowed �198 SLOVAKIA by the communist regime to study the archives, except for statistics concerning the elections, he wrote an interesting book, well researched and remarkably free of bias. It is predominantly a political history with special emphasis on the interplay of nationalism and patriotism. -,'he book is divided into six chapters and contains interesting statistics about political and linguistic polarization not only among Germans but also among Jews in Slovakia who claimed German or Hungarian as their mothertongue. The fate of German minority in Slovakia was tragic. First they were indiscriminately murdered by Soviet and Slovak communist partisans and then expelled from Slorakia within the scheme of Dr. Benes' policy of revenge which the Slovaks were unable to change. An extensive bibliography of works in German, Slovak and Engli,h enhanced the value of the book. Victor Mamatey and R. Luza, (ed.) A H isto ry of the Czechoslovak Republic 1918-1948, Princeton U- niversity Press (Princeton, N. J. 1973). More than a score of writers contributed to this volume and while some of them are known as historians with established reputation (Mamatey, Taborsky, Hoensch, Rhode, Wandycz, etc), others are less known or do not belong to the academic community at all (A. J osko) . As a result, the value of individual contributions varies and the points of view differ, except for the general tendency which favors Czechs and views the Slovak question through Czech eyes. In the contributions by Professor Mamatey and J. K. Hoensch, which belong to the best in the volume, this bias was to a great degree avoided. Both are thoroughly acquainted with the subject and they even corrected some malicious accusations of Slovaks (e.g. cooperation with Germans before 1938) spread in the West by Czechs and their Slovak fellow-travelers (J. Lettrich) . Nevertheless, we can also say about this volume what the Canadian historiaq Z. Pech wrote about Western specialists in Eastern European History: "The history of Slovaks in the West has usually been presented from the point of view of 'Czechoslovakism' and has appeared as hardly more than a postscript to Czech history." (Canadian Slavonic Papers, X, 4, 1968). The most conspicuous example of bias in this volume is the contribution by Anna Jasko, whose article -in style and concept-is of such value that it would not be accepted by any serious journal. In R. Lufa's selected bibliography the prejudice against Slovaks who do not advocate Czech domination over Slovakia, attained the point of the ridiculous. And more or less the same can be said about the selection of sources and references quoted. With one or two exceptions, the majority of contributors quoted or referred exclusively to sources which favor the Czechoslovak concept and are hostile to Slovak aspirations for national independence. If we disregard the bias of many contributions, the book can be re garded as a vast source of informa tion. Especially the two chapters by Prof. Mamatey (The Establishment of the Republic and The Development of Czechoslovak Dem0cracy) and Hoensch's survey of the Slovak Republic present well documented accounts of the periods treated by the authors. Taborsky's contribution on "Politics in Exile" �SLOVAKIA has all the attributes of academic writing but he displays the usual Czech unfounded conceit when writing about Slovaks. As the .thorough research of British archives by Prof. F. Vnuk indicates, it is hardly true that "Benes prevailed with ease over his few challengers among the exiled statesmen, such as the former Czecho-Slovak premier, Milan Hodza and Czecho-Slovakia's envoy to Paris, Stefan 0 susky ... ". And it is completely untrue that Benes "fully respected the opposite view holding the Czechs and Slovaks to be two different Slav nations" or that "the Czech-Slovak relations created no problem during the war." It is regrettable that even a historian of Taborsky's reputation wrote such mystifications. 199 riodicals, published in Europe, the United States and Canada. The essays have been written mostly by historians of the younger generation of foreign and Slovak origin, the latter predominantly educated in the West. Notheworthy among the essays is John S. Conway's article in The Slavonic and East European Review (Volume LIi, 126, January, 1974, London, England): "The Churches, the Slovak State and the Jews 1939-1945." The subject was treated in the past by several spe cialists in Eastern Europe (:l'.lurica, Lipscher, Jellinek) and further studies are to be expected. Conway's treatise seems to be the most objective by a foreign historian, and free of usual bias against Slovaks advocating the independence The editors expressed thanks to of Slovakia. Czech emigre politicians who left Prof. Mark Stolarik's essay on their country after their unsuccess- "Agrarian Problems in Slovakia ful collaboration with the commu- 1848-1918," published in Histoire nists "for their advice and encour- Sociale - Social History (Vol. VIII, agement in organizing this study," 3, University of Ottawa, May, 1974), and they "have greatly profited is a valuable contribution to a field from the valuable help of the which was generally neglected by Council of Free Czechoslovakia in Slovak historians until recently. It Washington, D. C." This clearly in- is an historiographic essay and will dicates the background and purpose provide useful information for of the book. The fact that there is further study. among the contributors from the Contemporary political developSlovak side only Prof. Mamatey and ments in Slovakia have been a clerk of the Library of Congress, treated by Prof. Stanislav J . KirschAnna Josko, confirms the prejudice baum of York University in Toand political bias mentioned above. ronto in two essays. Canadian JourAnd this is to be regretted especial- nal of Political Science (Vol. VII, ly for the reason that the book wiH 2, June, 1974) published his French be listed under the name of Prof. essay "Le nationalisme minoritaire: Mamatey who is a reputable hisle cas de la Tcheco-Slovaquie" (Natorian. tionalism of Minorities - the Case Czecho-Slovakia) in which the of ESSAYS ON SLOVAKIA Slovak question is subject to a In recent years, Slovak histol") thorough and objective analysis. The events of 1968 with special and the present political situation in Slovakia became the subject of regard for Slovakia are treated by essays and articles in academic pe- Dr. Stanislav Kirschbaum in the �200 SLOVAKIA (Vol. 15, Munich, 1973), an annual published by Collegium Carolinum and specialized in problems of Czecho-Slovakia. Under the title "Kontinuitat und politischen Wechsels in der Tschecho-Slowakei 1968" (Continu ity ,a nd Political Change in CzechoSlovakia 1968) Prof. Kirschbaum gives Western historians a well documented view of the reform and liberalization movement which was generally ascribed to Czechs in Western historiography even though Slovaks were its spearhead. Bohemia- Jahrbuch Eran Laor: Vergangen und ausgeloscht (Erinnerungen an das slowakisch-ungarische Judentum Reminiscences about Slovak-Magyar Jews), Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart, 1972, 280 pp. Review by Dr. Arved G r e b e r t, Geneva. - A translation A. P. The author of this book until recently was director of a Jewish Travel Agency in Geneva, Switzerland. Eran Laor was born in 1900 in the Slovak town of Cifer in southwestern Slovakia. In this fas cinating book, which is only the first volume of a projected trilogy, he describes town life in Cifer during the first twenty-two years of his own life there, and his student days at the Slovak cultural center in Trnava and later in Bratislava, the capital of Slovakia at the present time. This book by Eran Laor is an invaluable record of Jewish life in Slovakia at the beginning of this century. Laor's father was a well known and highly r•e spected doctor in the region. When he died, writes the author, the people and priests from nearby villages came to pay their last respects to a highly revered humanitarian. Interesting incidents in the book illustrate the symbiosis between the Jews and Slovak people. The history of the Skvarenina, Du~insky and Peterselka (Petrzelka) families from· 1700 portrays in miniature the destiny of the Jews in Slovakia: by their customs, and a revelation of their thoughts and feelings, and a list of their successes and tragedies. Slovakia became a refuge and an island of freedom for the Jews in the 17th and 18th centuries when the author's predecessors settled in the western town of Sen ic1 in 1700. They came from nearby Moravia on the Slovak border because stringent restrictions .h ad been placed on the Jews in all Czech-ruled lands at the time. The author's narrative is chiefly based on family documents such a, family correspondence, locll registries and other official documents, and inscriptions on tombstones , as well as on oral traditions in his immediate family circle. Laor's work is a valuable addition to the history of Slovakil. His concluding chapters, in wh ich he describes the war years in Bratislava (first World War) and subsequently Czech domination of the country, is very interesting. He correctly terms this period as "Czech occup1tion," and he admits tha t he personally participated in demonstrations protesting against the pos~war regime. From his early youth Eran Laor was active as a writer, as a poet and philosophical reviewer. Ha published these in German, Magyar, Hebrew, French and En ] lish. Although originally he wrote chiefly in Magyar, he stopped writing in this language in protest to the wave of anti-semitism that swept ove:· Hungary immediately after the first World War. Today he writes exclusively in Hebrew, German and �SLOVAKIA French but speaks Slovak fluently. From a literary standpoint the book has great value. His style is elegant and his interpretations of events far-reaching. Laor's commentaries give the reader an impression of his wide and rich experiences and wisdom. Above all, he manifests warm effection for his people and love for the country where he was born and spent the most wonderful years of his life : his childh0od and youth. A grand seigneur, in the ful! sense of the word, a person ·µho actually existed in the flesh, an ideal person, is depicted by the author in his book, and he has preserved this image of a sterling personality for our materialisticminded world. Character was still admired in the common homeland of the J ews and Slovaks in his time. Many full page photographs enrich the book. There are pictures of the tombstones of his ancestors: the Skvareninas, Dusinskys in Nadas, his parents in Cifer, and the picture of the Palfy castle in' Pudmerice, photos of Trnava and Bratislava. As we have stated above, this is the first volume of his memoirs. Future volumes promise to be equally interesting, for the author went to live in Constantinople (Istanbul) where he was manager of a family commercial firm. He continued to write poetry, translated poetic works from Turkish and Greek writers, and became intensely involved in the Zionistic movement. During the second World War he worked indefatigably in various high positions to save his £ellow Jews in Europe. After the establishment of the independent state of Israel he became one of the chief founders of the Jewish navy. 201 As director of the Jewish Agency he has rendered invaluable service to his people. One of the most serious problems faced by the fledgling Jewish state of Israel in the beginning was the small number of Jewish inhabitants. Under Laor's dynamic leadership this was soon remedied through the work of the Jewish Agency in Geneva, Switzerland. In a few short years fully one and a half million Jews were transported from Europe to Israel. This influx of Jewish immigrants from the Continent at a critical stage strengthened the economy of the new state and furnished man-power for Israel, all of which enabled Israel to defend itself successfully against the attacks of the neighboring Arabic countries in the ensuing years. Eran Laor's contributions for the establishment and preservation of the state of Israel have been important and vital from the very beginning of its history in our times. Woodlands Above - Mines Below, by Rev. Andrew V. Pier, O.S.B Published by the First Catholic Slovak Union, Cleveland, Ohio. Printed by the Jednota Press, Middletown, Pa. 120 pp., with pictorial supplement, 1974. Price: $2.00 soft cover and $3.00 hard cover. The latest English publication of the First Catholic Slovak Union, printed by its Jednota Press in Middletown, Pa., "Woodlands Above-Mines Below," is virtually a translation by the author, Father Andrew V. Pier, O.S.B., M.A., of his original Slovak edition "Nau nami hory-pod nami bane," which came off the press under his ancient family name, "Pir". The Slovak book was published by the Slovak Institute in Rome, Italy in �202 SLOVAKIA 1972. The English version is revised somewhat and at least eight new episodes have been added. Father Pier is a Slovak Benedictine Monk of St. Andrew's Abbey in Cleveland, Ohio, so it was proper that his superior, the Rt. Rev. Abbot Jerome Koval, O.S.B., wrote the Foreword to his new book. Abbot Koval introduces the mountain village of Blandburg, Pennsylvania, to the readers of this unique volume on life there more than a half century ago. His personal impressions of the locale of the series of boyhood experiences of the author prepare the reader for many pleasant surprises in the book. The book has been selling very v.rell to date. Aside from hundreds of single orders, there have been orders for six, a dozen, fifty, and even for a 100 copies. The early sales indicate that the book will be going to its second printing. The reactions of the readers so far range from such exclamations as 'unbelievable,' 'colorful,' 'a bittersweet work of nostalgia,' 'true to life,' 'the good old days,' 'sweet memories,' 'told simply and beautifully, ' to immediate criticism as 'a modern utopia,' 'a town that never existed' and 'a too, too sweet picture of a town this side of heaven.' At the very outset, however, the author gives his word of honor that all the episodes recounted occured in actual life. At any rate, each reader can judge for himself what rings true or what is imaginative in the book of memories of happenings in a small town in the heart of the Alleghenies in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. Christmas scenes are given the spotlight with no less than three incidents in the very beginningincidents that tug at the heartstrings and set the stage for a happy childhood as seen through the eyes of a bright-eyed, care-free, though pensive boy who never ceased to gaze at the parade of life around him with wonder and joy of being alive. School, not the in-thing for most schoolboys, proved to be a pleasant interlude in early life for a boy to learn and anxious to please his parents and teachers-but he was by no means a teacher's pet. A well-merited tribute is given to the zealous priests who paid parlicular attention to the spiritual needs of their immigrant parishioners. Teachers, physicians, and even the businessmen rate a note of genuine appreciation, while a much admired high school principal gets a special chapter dedicated to his immortal memory. Probably the most popular story in the entire book is that of a recalcitrant bovine creature. Wild life-rabbits, grouse, deer, snakes and bears-is discussed from various angles, as are guns that are both a menace to nature's woodland creatures or a means of maintaining a balance in our ecologydepending on one's point of view. Lightening from the sky, the $20 cigar and a fire are true-to-life acc:mnts of the author in the unusual procession of experiences that are narrated in simple inimitable style. Reference to the work in the brickyard and toil in the mines give a prosaic but realistic touch to an otherwise nostalgic, and in many respects, a utopian picture of the writer's hometown. Moreover, the account of the sudd-e n mysterious appearance of the Ku Klux Klan appears like an ominous black cloud obliterating the rainbow in the sky above Blandburg, but it disappear~ as quickly as it appeared on the horizon. Meditative reflections on "The Good Earth" provide the back- �SLOVAKIA ground to the types of people who lived in the village: 1) Oldtimers, 2) Immigrants, 3) The Justice of Peace, and 4) Boarders. All in all, the book presents an authentic portrayal of a phase of life that was and probably will never again be repeated. Doubtless, the book has not exhausted the memory bank, either of the writer or of the people who experienced a similar way of life. That's the key to the popularity of this book - -people can say, "Why I too re member an incident .... " In fact, Father Pier is writing the episodes for them in this book. So this collection of vignettes will stimulate others to recall and record their experiences so that our generation, and future generations, will not only find pleasure in reading about them, but derive inspiration in the great adventure of life under God. There is a pictorial supplement at the end of the book which seems like an afterthought, but it serves to strengthen the authenticity of th~ work that will hopefully open the door to a whole series of narrations of life in America at the early part of the 20th century. Joseph C. Krajsa Jednota Annual FURDEK. Edited by Joseph C. Krajsa. Published ny the First. Catholic Slovak Unnion, Cleveland, Ohio. l-rinted by Jednota Press, Middletown, Pa. Vol. XIV, 175 pages. Price : $3.00. This year's edition ot the annual Furdek, publication of the Jednota, features a number of new writers who join such regular standbys as Msgr. Jan Rekem, S.T.I'., and Dr. Joseph Kirschbaum, LL.D., Ph.D., of Canada, and Rev. Andrew Pier, O.S.B., and Daniel Tanzone of this country. Edward Kovac's "Ca., tles and Chateaux in Slovakia" with striking photographs of Bojnice, Orava, Lupca, Nedeca, Trencin, Strecno, Devin and Bratislava castles gives the reader a graphic picture of the beauty and gra11deur of only a few of the medieval strongholds in Slovakia, for altogether there are approximately two hundred castles and more than a thousand mansions scattered throughout the historic homeland of our Slovak forefathers. Father Stevko's pictorial montage of his variegated work as missioner, doctor and teacher in the Indonesian missions on the island of West Flores is a reminder of the fact that many Slovak priests, nuns, and Brothers are in the missions in Asia (Indonesia, the Philippines, Japan, South Korea, Burma, India), Africa and South America, as well as in New Guinea and a number of islands in the South Pacific, and Australia. "The Apostolate of Msgr . .C:ugen Filkorn" is a tribute to a dedicated and holy Slovak educator at the University of Bratislava by a former student at the Svoradov Catholic fraternity house at the Slovak university_ Daniel Tanzone's review of the life of Father K11basek on the occasion of the 25th anniversary of the Slovak leader's death in Yonkers, N.Y. is a timely rememberance of a remarkable personality. The panel with photographs of Slovak college students who won Jednota scholarships in 1974 (36 handsome boys and 25 attractive girls) is proof positive of the vital interest of the Jednota organization in higher education and of the high quality of intelligence in our talented youth. May our hopes in their future contributions to our �204 SLOVAKIA Slovak cause, our Jednota society and to American life be justified in the years ahead. By far the most colorful of the contents of the volume is the series of photos of the Sarisan Slovak folk-dancers of Detroit-Windsor and Pittsburgh's Slovakians directed by the dedicated Roman Niznik. "At the Lake" by Helen Majorossy, a new contributor (a talented linguist in Cleveland), is a pensive nature study. Sister M. Mercedes Voytko, SS. C.M., of Danville, Pa., analyzes the much debated controversy of the hyphen in "Czecho-Slovakia" and goes on to give an objective historical survey of the years from 1939 (the year of Slovak Independence and the formation of the Slovak Republic) to 1968 when the Soviet armies invaded the country and sealed its fate (for the time being at least) by leaving a permanent army of occupation. Slovak recruits for the Missionary Sisters of the Sacred Heart are listed by name and contributing Slovak parishes: St. Michael's, Lansford, Pa., St. John's, Allentown, Pa., SS. Cyril and Methodius, Bethlehem, Pa., SS. Cy;ril and Methodius, Coaldale, Pa., St. Andrew's, Catasauqua, Pa., St. Mary's, Northampton, Pa., St. Mary's, McAdoo, Pa., Sacred Heart, Palmerton, Pa., SS. Cyril and Methodius, Reading, Pa., Our Mother of Sorrows, Bridgeport, Pa. Sister M. Bridget Ulicny, M.SE.C., a Slovak nun, has been general superior of the 1700 Sisters of the Sacred Heart the past three years with headquarters in Rome, Italy. A somber and profound note is added to the Furdek annual by Msgr. Jan Rekem, S.T.D., by his "Philosophy of History of the Slovak nation." Dr. Kirschbaum's highly documented commentary "Slovak Language under Communism'' gives the reaqer insight into how the historic language of the Slovak nation has been strongly subjected to pressures by the postwar communist regime in the past three decades. Undoubtedly, the ground-breaking ceremonies that are depicted at the beginning of the annual show that our Jednota is forging ahead and keeping pace with the pressing needs of a hew era. The highly important event that marked the start of a building development program and expansion of the Jednota Press headquarters is truly historic. It is another great milestone in the progress of our fraternal society that is meeting the challenge of our times with renewed hope and vigor. Joyce Iezzi's "Slovak Traditions" and the accompanying picture of the mixed Church choir of St. Florian's parish in United, Pa., provide incontrovertible evidence that our ancient and time-honored liturgy is very much alive despite recent radica•l changes in Church worship in many quarters. Paul Berish's "Chit-Chats with a Giant" is so genuine and heartwarming that the article merits a niche in the literary hall of fame, and the incidental meeting with Karol Sidor reflects the lasting impression the great Slovak political leader and diplomat at the Vatican made upon a total stranger who was a true son of St. Francis. Our Lady of Levocha Shrine in Bedford, Ohio, rates a well deserv• ed historical background furnished origin;illy by Sister M. Augustine, V.S.C., from Slovak sources for her collaborator, Sr. M. Regis, V.S.C., �SLOVAKIA the author of "The History of Our Lady of Levoca." Levoca (Levocha) is known to thousands of American Slovaks from the eastern Spis region where they were accustomed to go on pilgrimage each year to the famous Marian shrine in Slovakia. Editor's Note: On October 5, 1975, the Slovak nuns at the Marian shrine of Our Lady of Levocha in Bedford, Ohio, will commemorate the 45th anniversary of the Blessing of the statue (carved from the wood of an apple tree in Slovakia, touched by the miraculous statue of Mt. Levoca and sent to the U.S. in the summer of 1930) by Archbishop Joseph Schrembs, D.D. Nellie Kovalik, R.N., strikes an ecumenical note in her article, "New St. Gabriel's Candle" while Father Schmieder recalls the delightful activity of a lovable prelate "The Good Monsignor." Rev. Andrew V. Pier, O.S.B, Krcisa slovenskych pamiatkovych kostolov (The Beauty of Slovak Churches). Published by the St. Adalbert Society, Trnava, Slovakia. St. Adalbert Society Press, 1970. Slovakia can boast of many rare monuments of historical and artistic value, besides its wealth of natural beauty. One of the most important places among these monuments is taken by the old Roman Catholic churches which are unique from a historic, architectural and artistic point of view. These Slovak churches, whether they be cathe drals, or local parish churches are gems of sacred art from the gothic and baroque periods and are admired throughout international spheres of culture. Besides reflecting the art heritage of Slovakia 205 during specific periods, these churches remain a valuable source of art history. The review was published by the St. Adalbert Society (Spolok svateho Vojtecha ) in Trnava to com memorate the centenary of its founding in 1870. The front covel' depicts the majestic gothic sanctuary of St. Nicholas Cathedral in Trnava, enclosed by a septagonal apse and four sections of artistically worked reticulated vaulting. It was in this cathedral, which dates from the 14th century, that the founding meeting of the St. Adalbert Society took place on September 14, 1870. The following Slovak churchi:?s or shrines are depicted in this commemorative work: 1. The Holy Rood altar with the neo-gothic pulpit of the Cathedral of St. Martin in Bratislava. 2. The baroque altar in the sanctuary of the Good Church in thr Nitra Cathedral which dates from the year 1732 together with frescoes by G. A. Galliardi dating from 1720. 3. The gothic sanctuary and renaissance baroque main altar of the Roziiava cathedral dating from 1672. 4. The renaissance baroque main altar of St. Adalbert, dating from the 17th century in the Saris pilgrim shrine of Gaboltov. 5. The baroque main altar with the statue of the Sorrowful Mother, patroness of Slovakia in the basilica of Sastin. 6. The 15th century sanctuary and main altar of the pilgrim church at Stare Hory. 7. The gothic main altar, the work of Master Pavol of Levoca, together with frescoes dating from the 14th century in the pari,h church of St. James in Levoca. 8. The interior of the Marianka �206 SLOVAKIA pilgrim church, originally a gothic church today ornamented in baroque style. 9. The main altar of the Kosice Cathedral of Saint Elizabeth, the largest gothic altar in the world. 10. The reconstructed baroque Cathedral of the Assumption ln Banska Bystrica displaying main altar painting by J. L. Kracker dating from 1774. 11. The baroque Lady chapel, the work of G. R. Donner from the first half of the 18th century in the Cathedral of St. Nicholas in Trna'\la. 12. The 15th century altar of St. Michael the Archangel together with the main altar dating from the 19th century in the Church of St. Martin in Spisske Podhradie. The collection offers the student of Slovak ecclesiastical art a wide range of Slovak church art and architecture as found in Slovakia. Daniel F. Tanzone Slovak American Bicentennial Commission Through the initiative of the Slovak League of America and with the cooperative effort of the great majority of Slovak organizations, publications and other entities, a Slovak American Bicentennial Commission was formulated in 1974. The purpose of the Commission is to provide national celebrations commemorating the 200th Birthday of the United States of America in 1976. The first event will be held in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in March, and the second week-long celebration will be held in Detroit, Michigan in June. It is expected that many tens of thousands of Slovak Americans will attend the festivities in Detroit. The Commission will also publish a commemorative book Slovaks in America-A Bicentennial Study, which will encompass a brief history of the Slovak Americans. The officers of the Slovak American Bicentennial Commission are: President, Frances Mizenko, National Secretary of the First Catholic Slovak Ladies Association; Vice President, Dr. Joseph Pauco, National Secretary of the Slovak League of America; and Secretary, Joseph Kristofik, Detroit, Michigan. The Chairman of the Editorial Board for the publication of the book Slovaks in America-A Bicentennial Study is Joseph C. Kra,isa, Editor of Jednota �SLOVAKIA 207 Who's Who Among Slovak Americans Ml CHAE L NOVAK Michael Novak has written two novels and several influential books, including The Rise of the Unmeltable Ethnics (1972), Choosing Our King (1974), The Experience of Nothingness (1970),A New Generation (1964), and Ascent of the Mountain, Flight of the Dove (1971). His books and articles have been published in nine languages. In two of his three years on the faculty at Stanford, 1967 and 1968, the Senior Class elected him "most influential professor." He was a judge for the National Bank Awards in 1972 and has been a juror for the DuPont Awards in Broadcast Journalism since 1971. He leads a seminar in television criticism for the Aspen Institute, and also chairs a private study group on the future of the city of Jerusalem. In 1970, he was a senior staff advisor for Sargent Shriver in congressional campaigns across the nation, and in 1972 he served with McGovern and then with Shriver. As associate director for humanities at the Rockefel- ler Foundation during 1973 and 1974, he created a new program for the humanities, ra1smg the Foundation's spending for the humanities from $400,000 to $4 million per year. He established a widely acclaimed Fellowship program, and instigated programs for working people and high school students under the title of "The Public Humanities.'' He has been a consultant to AT&T, IBM (for an interview in Think magazine), and has participated in many corporate seminars, including the annual seminar of Northern States Power Company in Minnesota. He is Executive Director of EMPAC (Ethnic Millions Political Action Committee), a consulting firm and membership organization, with a nationally recognized board and groups of active advisors in virtually every urban center. EMPAC supports aspirations for equality and justice on the part of the one in four Americans of white ethnic b a ck ground, particularly from Southern and Eastern European cultures. The firm is bi-partisan. �!08 SLOVAKIA Annual S L O V A K I A is published by the Slovak league of America, 313 Ridge Ave., Middletown, Pa. 17057. Subscription $4.00. Editor: Joseph Pauco, Ph.D. Editorial Board: Draga Divinska, Louis Kandra, Joseph M. Kirschbaum, Ph.D., Susan Mikula, Ph.D., Joseph A. Mikus, Ph.D., Fr. Andrew Pier O.S.B., M.A., Daniel F. Tanzone, Sister M. Tybor, SS.C.M., M.A. Our Contributo rs Dr. Arved Grebert, former Slovak diplomat, now in Switzerland Sonya Jason, Slovak American author, Woodland Hills, Ca:it. Joseph Pauco, Ph.D., author, historian, Middletown, Pa. Theodoric J. Zubek, O.F.M., author, Joliet, Ill. Konstantin Cu/en, author, historian (deceased) Anthony X. Sutherland, Ph.D., Columbus, Ohio Daniel F. Tanzone, teacher, Yonkers, N. Y. Sister M. Pamela Smith, SS .C.M., teacher, Danville, Pa. Andrew V. Pier, O.S.B., author, Cleveland, Ohio Antonia Mazanova, on faculty of music, University of Western Ontario Gabor Vermes, department of history, Rutgers Universi ty J. M. Kirschbaum, LL.D., Ph.D., historian, Toronto, Ontario Joseph C. Krajsa , Editor, Jednota, Middletown, Pa. Paul Fia/kovic, Robert Pojer, John Berta - Slovak League of America Scholarship Winners �PRI NTI D IN U.S. A. JIDN OTA PlllN TER Y, MID DLli TOW N, PA. � SLOVAKIA 190 As others see it We are fortunate, in Canada, in having within our midst, a strong and vital Slovak community. Our many traditions, mingled together throughout society cannot but make us a stronger, more resilient, more tolerant and understanding people. - Pierre EUiot Trudeau Freedom and independence have long been the backbone of Slovak national thought. The Slovak people now suffer under Communist domination and yet have made tremendous sacrifices on both personal and national levels to preserve their native culture, language, and religion. One-third of all Slovak people now live in the United States and in other parts of the Western World. Freedom-loving people throughout Michigan and the world join with Slovak people in their desire to reestablish independence from totalW illiam G. Militarian rule. liken, Governor of the State of Michigan Your continuing efforts to share Slovak traditions and culture are a source of pride to all Americans. - Robert P. Griffin, U.S. Senator As one whose ancestors grew up and lived in Slovakia, I am very proud of my Slovak heritage. Moreover, we Americans of Slovak background can also point with pride to the tremendous contributions the people of the American Slovak Community have made to our great nation. - Philip E . Ruppe, Member of Congress In my own experience, I have found Slovak Americans to be bright, industrious, and filled with a zest for life. Moreover, you have successfully preserved a sense of identity and pride in the Slovak roots, a passion which has been further nourished by the more recent arrivals. As a Slovak citizen recently told a western newsman, "Here we have absolutely no shortage of unful filled desires." Some day in our lifetimes, I trust, democracy and individual liberty will live again in the land of your forefathers. - Lucien N. Nedzi, Member of Congress America is an immeasurably better nation because of the tremen dous contributions of Slovaks. Vigor and dedication to excellence have epitomized the Slovak way of life on America's farmlands, in her cities and educational institution3 and on the Apollo flight to the moon of Commander Eugene Cernan. In remembering Slovakia, you are reminding the world of the special ethnic heritage of Slovaks around the world. - Marvin L . Esch, Member of Congress The Slovak people are a proud and talented people who have enriched the lives of the many countries in which they live. We can all be proud of the contribution of Slovak people to the development of America. The Slovak people have helped to build this country into a great democracy, while retaining their ethnic identity. William S. Broomfield, Member of Congress Although self-determination and democracy have been denied them, the freedom-loving Slovak people have maintained their traditions even after many centuries of foreign oppression. �SLOVAKIA Slovaks living in the western world continue to cherish the dream of an independent Slovak nation. Coieman A. Young, Mayor, City of Detroit Catholic Church is the prime target of the Communists in Slovakia because she is considered an organization that is administered by the Vatican and is in contradiction with the idea of a state-controlled church as is the case in Russia. The major pressure is on the practising Catholics who live their faith, and not so much on the so-called "Catholics of the baptismal register." State employees in influential positions and the teachers are hardest hit. After the removal of Dubcek, they were all carefully scrutinized and their files updated. Only the teachers and professors who are considered reliable Marxists can teach in the high schools and universities. It is requiried of them to sever their affiliation with their Church. That is a condition which must be fulfilled if they wish to keep their post. , In the high schools the teaching of religion is forbidden. In the elementary schools, religion can be taught only if both parents demand it for their children. The headmasters are obliged to try to persuade them not to send the children to religion classes. They have to warn the parents about the grave and adverse consequences this would have if they persist. The parents could lose their good positions in employment, and the children may find it difficult to be accepted for higher studies. All teachers and higheT-ranking white collar workers must be party members or they are subject to obligatory courses in Marxistatheistic ideology. After the fall of 191 Dubcek, more than 30,000 Marxist agitators were trained and no w they are conducting re-educational courses among the students and the intelligentsia. Anybody who refuses such courses is considrered an opponent of the regime and his " negative attitude" is entered into his "cadre" file which accompanies every citizen. The assessment in the file can make it hard to get or to change employment for which the person may have qualifications. The ideological pressure is felt, too, in the family circle. The communist ideal is a family without religion. The generation gap in socialism is intensified because in the family circle unity is destroyed - there is two-track thinking. The open practice of the Faith is in conflict with the ideology of the state. Therefore, the parents have to hide their religious conviction from their children or from each other. If they dare to bring up their children in the Faith, if they teach them to pray, there is the danger that the children will betray them in the school and that leads to stress and conflicts in the family. The denial of religious freedom has, in practice, painful consequences in the very nucleus of human society. Bishop Dominic Kai'ata Slovak Communist authorities have stepped up their promotion of "civil ceremonies" to replace baptism, confirmation, wedding and funeral ceremonies in church. Austrian Catholic sources reported from Slovakia, that "wedding centers" and "funeral halls" for civil ceremonies have been installed in many areas. More than 1750 committees were formed to organize the ceremonies. The sources said such civil rites �192 SLOVAKIA have failed to meet with much suecess. Slovak Interior Minister Egyd Pepych has complained that only 3.4 per cent of people who died in Czecho-Slovakia were buried with civil ceremonies. "The Citizens Committees still have much work to do," he said. Communist officials intensified propaganda in recent w1ieks, our sources said. They distributed booklets explaining the purpose and advantages of the ceremonies. Moreover, "presents" are distributed in the civil program that seeks to replace Christian baptism, confirmation and matrimony. Slovak newpapers and I!'lagazines have published reports of civil ceremonies to increase interest. One Communist daily described a civil "baptism" as follows: "A committee secretary took the baby out of the hands of the mother and placed it into a hand-carved cradle. The parents-both teachers -vecited a promise: "We, the parents, solemnly declare that we will do everything in our power to educate our son as an outstanding citizen of our Socialist country." _ (RNS) Communist professors and state officials in Czecho-Slovakia have been waging a persistent campaign against religion despite constitutional guarantees of freedom of thought and religious choice. This is the central point of Italian Jesuit Father Guiseppe Rulli, writing in the Rome Jesuit review Civilta Cattolica. In a long analytical article, Fr. Rulli examines the writings of several eminent Marxist professors attacking religion and the Roman Catholic Church in particular over the past several years. Among the authors cited by Fr. Rulli were Ladislav Tomasek of the Marxist Leninist Institute of Bratislava; Frantisek Kubovic of the Slovak University, and Minister of Culture Jaroslav Hajek. Despite the Communist government's claims that it is tolerant of religion, Father Rulli stressed that over the past few years a consistent campaign has been mounted against religious freedom . The professors in particular have called for "a battle against idealistic philosophy," which for Fr. Rulli is "without a doubt religious philosophy." Father Rulli cited an article by Frantisek Kubovic in which the Slovak professor declared : "to Catholicism in socialist countries it is not possible to grant 'freedom of action,' because that would mean going along with its anti-socialistic, anti-communist, anti-state and antinational attitudes. Therefove, it is indispensable that it be placed under the control of the socialist state so that political activity and the exploitation of the religious feelings of believers may be halt1id ." Demands by the bishops to be allowed to carry out their religious functions in freedom, to run their seminaries without state control and to enjoy the right of giving instruction freely have been interpreted as examples of their antisocialist, anticommunist attitudes, Father Rulli stated. He also pointed out: "The Czech and Slovak communists accuse the Catholic Church of being an expression of an unilluminating idealism of defending a nonscientific and negative vision of the world and of always having been opposed to communism." In the early 70's both Slovak and Czech public officials moved in on the Catholic Church to restrict its freedom. In 1970, Fr. Rulli report- �SLOVAKIA ed, the Slovak Socialist Republic made it a requirement that priests get government permission to celebrate even a private Mass. Authorities of the Czech Republic followed suit. This was only the beginning of greater and more restrictive controls placed on the bishops and the parishes, Father Rulli reported. Concluding his observations, Fr. Rulli declared that from the opening attacks on religion, "religious faith has been considered an expression of sentiment," and there fore must be controlled by the state to safeguard the people. (NC) In the struggle against communism the Church has always offered the stiffest resistance and countless members of the clergy have sacrificed their lives for their faith and country. The Catholic Church ')f Lithuania was brutally persecuted by the Kremlin regime as were thC' Churches of other nations under the despotic yoke of Moscow. Msgr. Jozef Tiso was the wartime president of the Slovak Republic (Independent Lithuania officially recognized Slovakia in 1939) and was executed by the communists in 1947 because he refused to betray his people and proclaim Slovakia a Soviet republic. As the prelatepresident of his country, Msgr. Tiso provided his beloved Slovakia with a Christian-democratic ideology and based his politics on papal encyclicals, Christian philosophy and national Slovak traditions. Two hours before his execution on the gallows Msgr. Tiso wrote this final message from prison to the Slovak people. The eloquence of this fare well also symbolizes the spirit with which -the heroic priests of Lithuania offered up their lives on the altar of freedom for the salvation of their country and in Heaven in 193 the pFesence of the Almighty became the radiant hope of the Lith uanian people. "In the spirit of this sacrifice which I am about to make," wrot':l Dr. Tiso, "these are my words to the Slovak people: Be unanimous and united in pursuing always, everywhere and in every respect the great principle : For God and for the Nation! This is not only the unequivocal intent of Slovak history, but also the explicit command of God, who mad e it the law of nature, and inculcated it in the nation and all its members. This law I have served all my life and for this reason I regard myself as a martyr in the defense of Chri,tianity against Bolshevism, against which our nation must in all possible ways defend itself, and n ot only in order to remain true to its Christian character, but also in th'} interest of its future survival. In the same way as I am as!dng all of you to remember me in your prayers, so will I also pray to God Al mighty on your behalf and supplicate that He bless the Slovak people in their life-struggle for God and for the nation, and that the Slovak nation shall always remain a faithful and devoted son to the Church of Christ." Blessed are those whose way is blameless, who walk in the law of the Lord! - Bulletin of the Lithuanian Affairs Committ ee In Slovakia, dozens of churches stand half-finished because of an edict forbidding new building of them. Unofficially, childrm, who go to church can't go to trade school or the university. But that doesn't matter as much as being home, even though strange things are happening to that home. I expected to find little old ladies, safe in the security of family �194 SLOVAKIA doing folk arts and embroidery. In stead, Slovakia has gone doubleknit. "Do you have a car?" was the first question, usually. And then, "Do you have a color television set?" . There is a song they sing over endless vodkas when the sun goes down, a song that obviously has never been written down. "Our lives are much better here," is the rough translation, "since our fath• ers went to work in America." In some of the villages we visit, social and economic status is determined by who has relatives in the U.S. If your father happened to go there to work, you get Social Security benefits, and you are comfortable . If he worked in the mines around Wilkes-Barl'le and caught the black lung, you are wealthy. American money is important, because Czecho-Slovak money won't buy much. It's not unusual to find houses with television sets but no toilets, simply because it's easier to buy television sets than plumbing materials. But if you have American money, you can buy "boni" - special certificates which must be spent in six months - to use in the Tuzex. And perhaps the Tuzex is the most telling memory of Slovakia. It is a store that accepts only foreign currency. There is fruit juice and liquor, dry goods and clothing. The!'le are baby carriages and radios. The people crowd in, sometimes pushing each other like so many American suburbanites at a bargain basement sale. In a corner, one woman is selling her "boni." When I pull out a notebook to mark down prices, people stare. A friend cautions me to put away the notebook, and the tension ebbs. Over it all, staring down on the Ban-Lon and baby carriages, is a picture of Lenin. - Carol Towarnicky, Philadelphia Daily News, December 28, 1974. Book Reviews BOOKS AND STUDIES ON SLOVAKIA AND SLOVAKS Reviewed by Prof. J. M. K i r s c h b a u m Robert W. Dean, Nationalism and historiography mostly as a footnote Political Change in Eastern Eu· or a postscript to Czech history rope: The Slovak Question and and were seen "through the Czech the Czechoslovak Reform Move- eyes" by specialists in Eastern Eument, University of Denver, Col- rope, several recent studies (Galia orado, The Social Science Foun- Golan, Eugene Steiner, John Condation and Graduate School of way etc.) departed from this politiInternational Studies, Monograph cally and ideologically oriented Series in World Affairs, Vol. 10, tradition. 1973. Among the large numbers of While in the past Slovakia and books published on post-war politiSlovaks were treated in Western cal developments in Czecho-Slova- �SLOVAKIA kia and especially on the "Dubcek period," Robert W. Dean's concise study seems to be the most objective and his analysis of the reform movement free of anti-Slovak bias. Moreover, the value of Dean's book lies in its research and evaluation of original sources published in Czech Lands or in Slovakia during the period under his examination. As a result, Dean is drawing quite a different picturie of Slovakia's post-war political situation and aspirations of her leadership and population from the account of some other specia1.sts in that area. Communist governments in Prague were not more successful in solving the Slovak question than were the bourgeois governments before the war, and even the purges of leading Slovak Communists for alleged "bourgeois nationalism" were not able to silence the cries for equality, justice and self-government. Slovak intellectuals fought, therefore, not only for the reform of the system, but also for the solution of the Slovak question, because "In Slovakia, the distortion of the Novotny system had been expressed by the subjugation of national aspirations - political, economic and cultural." (p. 28) In 1968, the year of liberalization brought also by the opposition of Slovak intellectuals, Slovaks cla imed more than federalization in Dean's view. There were clear voices of leading intellectuals for confederation and the Slovak Republic of 1939-45 was not only put into a more objective light, but its existence was to remind Prague that there was another solution of the Slovak question. Dean quotes from Kuiturny zivot: " ... it will nevertheless remain true that the Slovak Republic existed as the national state of the 195 Slovaks, the only one in our history ... Let us not turn away from it; it is part of our national traditions. It is important for an accurate scrutiny of our national idea to know that the idea or the remembrance of the Slovak state's independence is alive in the national memory. It connot be ignored forever in examining the alterna tives in the solution of the perspectives of a small nation .. ." (Pavol Stevcek, "Sev,e.ral Theses on the Situation of the Slovak Nation," Kulturny zivot, No. 3, August 2, 1968) . Husak is portrayed by Dean as one of the most articulate promoters of federalization but he did not fail to notice that Husak used the movement for federalization to come to power and abandoned it in order to remain in power. As a result, the Slovak question remained unsolved. The present situation is "centralism in a new guise" (see pages 28-37 ) and the persecution of intellectuals by Husak's regime is but a confirmation of his fear that they could expose the true aspirations of the Slovak people. Die Slowakische Volkskultur (Slo- vak Folk Arts and Culture) . Edited by Emilia Horvathova and Viera Urbancova. Published by Slovak Academy of Sciences, (Bratislava, 1972), 304 pages, 342 illustrations. Slovak folk arts and folk culture have long attracted the attention of foreign visitors and ethnographers by their beauty, richness of colors and inexhaustible fantasy. Some observers regard Slovaks "artists by birth," whose songs and national costumes have a natural expression of a poetry full of sensibility and freshness and whose carvings, toolmakings, paintings and architecture of peasant houses �196 SLOVAKIA excell by a constructive sense of color and design. Exposed for centuries to foreign domination and assimilation, Slovaks cultivated folk arts, songs and costumes as an expression of national consciousness and national identity and pre served a great part of them to this day. The book Die Slowakische Volkskultur deals with and reflects the rich cultural heritage of the Slovak people. It contains elev,e n contributions by eight authors, of whom 5 are women. All contributors belong to the younger generation educated at post-war universities in Slovakia, but they also refer to essays and studies by scholars of earlier periods. The title of the book is actually the same as was the title of the first book in German on Slovak folk art and culture by R. Bednarik, published during the Slovak Republic (Bratislava, 1943) . The present book is larger in scope and relies on new research and scholarly methods. The growth of universities in Slovakia is reflected in many fields of academic endeavor previously neglected. Ethnography was one of these fields even though the first known ,e thnographer among Slavs, P. J. Safarik, was from Slovakia. In spite of regimentation and political pressures, the present Slovak universities produced experts in many disciplines, including ethnography. The book Die Slowakische Volkskultur is a product of this new cultural atmosphere in Slovakia. Divided into eleven chapters, the volume deals with practically all aspects of the life of Slovakia's population - from agriculture and came breeding to family life, housebuilding, folk arts, superstitions and customs. Individual chap- ters are illustrated by photographs, many of them well chosen and enhancing the value of the book. It should be stressed, however, that foreign readers should not visualize present day Slovakia as depicted in this book. Folk arts and folk culture belong to the past in Slovakia as in any other Europ!7 an country and are but a part of Slovak cultural heritage. Slovakia kept pace with European cultural development and is adorned by hundreds of medieval fortresses, cast1es and churches of Renaissance and Baroque art. The beautiful valleys and hills lost their original beauty to industrialization and technological progress did not bypass Slovaks and Slovakia. J. Stasko, Slovaks in the United States of America, Edition Dobra Kniha, (Galt, Ontario, 1974) 79 pages, bibl. and statistics. This concise study contains valuable basic information on a number of topics pertaining to the history of the Slovaks in the United States. There are several mohographs by F . Hrusovsky, J. Pauco and others and two volumes history of American Slovaks by K. culen in the Slovak language but Stasko's work is the first scholarly outline in English and as such should be welcome. The author divided his study into 14 short chapters co·v ering the his- torical background of the Slovak nation, causes and effects of the migration of Slovaks, statistical survey of Slovaks in the United States and their hard beginnings and life in America. Briefly but with solid knowledge of the subjects and appropriate statistics Dr. Stasko analyses the social conditions, religions and civic organizations, education, contributions to American political and economic �SLOVAKIA development and the assimilation process. The booklet is an intelligent look at the basic questions which a historian has to deal with in writing a history of an ethnic group in today's United States. It is, however, rather an outline for a longer book, than a comprehensive story of some 3 million Americans of Slovak origin. No doubt, scholars and students of American history will welcome Dr. Stasko's study as a valuable source of information, while American Slovak historians should be encouraged to use it as a solid foundation and a well balanced structure for a comprehensive history of Slovaks in the United States. The large number of monographs on Slovak-American fraternal organizations, parishes, religious orders, regional histories and preserved newspapers and publica tions will make it possible, even in the absence of regular archives, to prepare for the second centennial of America a history book which will tell other Americans and Slovaks as well the fascinating saga of struggles, trials and final success of American Slovaks. The value of Stasko's work for American historians also lies in his brief survey of Slovak history and in his suggested approach to studying and understanding Slovak history. As often mentioned, the neighbors of Slovakia who wanted to dominate and rule Slovaks, suc ceeded in misleading many historians to accept a false concept of the history of the Slovak people. Even if recent history books seem to be more free of anti-Slovak bias and conceptional errors, there will be for a long time urgent need for serious literature in English and other work. languages on Slovakia and Slovaks. 197 Eckbert K. Jahn, Die Deutschen in der Slowakei 1918-1929, (Germans in Slovakia 1918-1929) , Collegium Carolinum (Munich, 1971), 186 pages, bib!. Jahn's book on German minority in Slovakia is a valuable contribution to the history of Slovakia and it is only to be regretted that he limited his research to such a short period. Neglected before the War and written with ideological prejudice by communist historians since 1948, the history of national minorities in Slovakia is very little known. Yet, the role of minorities in Slovakia's history was of great political, cultural and economic importance. German settlements in Slovakia go back to the 14th century at which time, according to the author, there were over 200,000 Germans on Slovak territory. In 19181929 the German minority counted some 150,000 people. Before the first World War Germans of Slovakia were closer to Magyars than to Slovaks in their political and cultural leanings, but during the centuries which proceed the era of nationalism they helped to develop Slovak cities, mining industries, trades and commerce to the benefit of Slovakia. On the other hand, they were at the origin of the religious division of Slovaks. After the First World War Germans in Slovakia did not take part in Slovak struggle for autonomy and equal status with the Czechs. Affiliated with the socialist and partly with the communist parties, they fought in Prague for minority rights together with other German3 of Czecho-Slovakia. Jahn's study sheds light on many aspects of the life of the German minority in Slovakia and even though the author was not allowed �198 SLOVAKIA by the communist regime to study the archives, except for statistics concerning the elections, he wrote an interesting book, well researched and remarkably free of bias. It is predominantly a political history with special emphasis on the interplay of nationalism and patriotism. -,'he book is divided into six chapters and contains interesting statistics about political and linguistic polarization not only among Germans but also among Jews in Slovakia who claimed German or Hungarian as their mothertongue. The fate of German minority in Slovakia was tragic. First they were indiscriminately murdered by Soviet and Slovak communist partisans and then expelled from Slorakia within the scheme of Dr. Benes' policy of revenge which the Slovaks were unable to change. An extensive bibliography of works in German, Slovak and Engli,h enhanced the value of the book. Victor Mamatey and R. Luza, (ed.) A H isto ry of the Czechoslovak Republic 1918-1948, Princeton U- niversity Press (Princeton, N. J. 1973). More than a score of writers contributed to this volume and while some of them are known as historians with established reputation (Mamatey, Taborsky, Hoensch, Rhode, Wandycz, etc), others are less known or do not belong to the academic community at all (A. J osko) . As a result, the value of individual contributions varies and the points of view differ, except for the general tendency which favors Czechs and views the Slovak question through Czech eyes. In the contributions by Professor Mamatey and J. K. Hoensch, which belong to the best in the volume, this bias was to a great degree avoided. Both are thoroughly acquainted with the subject and they even corrected some malicious accusations of Slovaks (e.g. cooperation with Germans before 1938) spread in the West by Czechs and their Slovak fellow-travelers (J. Lettrich) . Nevertheless, we can also say about this volume what the Canadian historiaq Z. Pech wrote about Western specialists in Eastern European History: "The history of Slovaks in the West has usually been presented from the point of view of 'Czechoslovakism' and has appeared as hardly more than a postscript to Czech history." (Canadian Slavonic Papers, X, 4, 1968). The most conspicuous example of bias in this volume is the contribution by Anna Jasko, whose article -in style and concept-is of such value that it would not be accepted by any serious journal. In R. Lufa's selected bibliography the prejudice against Slovaks who do not advocate Czech domination over Slovakia, attained the point of the ridiculous. And more or less the same can be said about the selection of sources and references quoted. With one or two exceptions, the majority of contributors quoted or referred exclusively to sources which favor the Czechoslovak concept and are hostile to Slovak aspirations for national independence. If we disregard the bias of many contributions, the book can be re garded as a vast source of informa tion. Especially the two chapters by Prof. Mamatey (The Establishment of the Republic and The Development of Czechoslovak Dem0cracy) and Hoensch's survey of the Slovak Republic present well documented accounts of the periods treated by the authors. Taborsky's contribution on "Politics in Exile" �SLOVAKIA has all the attributes of academic writing but he displays the usual Czech unfounded conceit when writing about Slovaks. As the .thorough research of British archives by Prof. F. Vnuk indicates, it is hardly true that "Benes prevailed with ease over his few challengers among the exiled statesmen, such as the former Czecho-Slovak premier, Milan Hodza and Czecho-Slovakia's envoy to Paris, Stefan 0 susky ... ". And it is completely untrue that Benes "fully respected the opposite view holding the Czechs and Slovaks to be two different Slav nations" or that "the Czech-Slovak relations created no problem during the war." It is regrettable that even a historian of Taborsky's reputation wrote such mystifications. 199 riodicals, published in Europe, the United States and Canada. The essays have been written mostly by historians of the younger generation of foreign and Slovak origin, the latter predominantly educated in the West. Notheworthy among the essays is John S. Conway's article in The Slavonic and East European Review (Volume LIi, 126, January, 1974, London, England): "The Churches, the Slovak State and the Jews 1939-1945." The subject was treated in the past by several spe cialists in Eastern Europe (:l'.lurica, Lipscher, Jellinek) and further studies are to be expected. Conway's treatise seems to be the most objective by a foreign historian, and free of usual bias against Slovaks advocating the independence The editors expressed thanks to of Slovakia. Czech emigre politicians who left Prof. Mark Stolarik's essay on their country after their unsuccess- "Agrarian Problems in Slovakia ful collaboration with the commu- 1848-1918," published in Histoire nists "for their advice and encour- Sociale - Social History (Vol. VIII, agement in organizing this study," 3, University of Ottawa, May, 1974), and they "have greatly profited is a valuable contribution to a field from the valuable help of the which was generally neglected by Council of Free Czechoslovakia in Slovak historians until recently. It Washington, D. C." This clearly in- is an historiographic essay and will dicates the background and purpose provide useful information for of the book. The fact that there is further study. among the contributors from the Contemporary political developSlovak side only Prof. Mamatey and ments in Slovakia have been a clerk of the Library of Congress, treated by Prof. Stanislav J . KirschAnna Josko, confirms the prejudice baum of York University in Toand political bias mentioned above. ronto in two essays. Canadian JourAnd this is to be regretted especial- nal of Political Science (Vol. VII, ly for the reason that the book wiH 2, June, 1974) published his French be listed under the name of Prof. essay "Le nationalisme minoritaire: Mamatey who is a reputable hisle cas de la Tcheco-Slovaquie" (Natorian. tionalism of Minorities - the Case Czecho-Slovakia) in which the of ESSAYS ON SLOVAKIA Slovak question is subject to a In recent years, Slovak histol") thorough and objective analysis. The events of 1968 with special and the present political situation in Slovakia became the subject of regard for Slovakia are treated by essays and articles in academic pe- Dr. Stanislav Kirschbaum in the �200 SLOVAKIA (Vol. 15, Munich, 1973), an annual published by Collegium Carolinum and specialized in problems of Czecho-Slovakia. Under the title "Kontinuitat und politischen Wechsels in der Tschecho-Slowakei 1968" (Continu ity ,a nd Political Change in CzechoSlovakia 1968) Prof. Kirschbaum gives Western historians a well documented view of the reform and liberalization movement which was generally ascribed to Czechs in Western historiography even though Slovaks were its spearhead. Bohemia- Jahrbuch Eran Laor: Vergangen und ausgeloscht (Erinnerungen an das slowakisch-ungarische Judentum Reminiscences about Slovak-Magyar Jews), Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart, 1972, 280 pp. Review by Dr. Arved G r e b e r t, Geneva. - A translation A. P. The author of this book until recently was director of a Jewish Travel Agency in Geneva, Switzerland. Eran Laor was born in 1900 in the Slovak town of Cifer in southwestern Slovakia. In this fas cinating book, which is only the first volume of a projected trilogy, he describes town life in Cifer during the first twenty-two years of his own life there, and his student days at the Slovak cultural center in Trnava and later in Bratislava, the capital of Slovakia at the present time. This book by Eran Laor is an invaluable record of Jewish life in Slovakia at the beginning of this century. Laor's father was a well known and highly r•e spected doctor in the region. When he died, writes the author, the people and priests from nearby villages came to pay their last respects to a highly revered humanitarian. Interesting incidents in the book illustrate the symbiosis between the Jews and Slovak people. The history of the Skvarenina, Du~insky and Peterselka (Petrzelka) families from· 1700 portrays in miniature the destiny of the Jews in Slovakia: by their customs, and a revelation of their thoughts and feelings, and a list of their successes and tragedies. Slovakia became a refuge and an island of freedom for the Jews in the 17th and 18th centuries when the author's predecessors settled in the western town of Sen ic1 in 1700. They came from nearby Moravia on the Slovak border because stringent restrictions .h ad been placed on the Jews in all Czech-ruled lands at the time. The author's narrative is chiefly based on family documents such a, family correspondence, locll registries and other official documents, and inscriptions on tombstones , as well as on oral traditions in his immediate family circle. Laor's work is a valuable addition to the history of Slovakil. His concluding chapters, in wh ich he describes the war years in Bratislava (first World War) and subsequently Czech domination of the country, is very interesting. He correctly terms this period as "Czech occup1tion," and he admits tha t he personally participated in demonstrations protesting against the pos~war regime. From his early youth Eran Laor was active as a writer, as a poet and philosophical reviewer. Ha published these in German, Magyar, Hebrew, French and En ] lish. Although originally he wrote chiefly in Magyar, he stopped writing in this language in protest to the wave of anti-semitism that swept ove:· Hungary immediately after the first World War. Today he writes exclusively in Hebrew, German and �SLOVAKIA French but speaks Slovak fluently. From a literary standpoint the book has great value. His style is elegant and his interpretations of events far-reaching. Laor's commentaries give the reader an impression of his wide and rich experiences and wisdom. Above all, he manifests warm effection for his people and love for the country where he was born and spent the most wonderful years of his life : his childh0od and youth. A grand seigneur, in the ful! sense of the word, a person ·µho actually existed in the flesh, an ideal person, is depicted by the author in his book, and he has preserved this image of a sterling personality for our materialisticminded world. Character was still admired in the common homeland of the J ews and Slovaks in his time. Many full page photographs enrich the book. There are pictures of the tombstones of his ancestors: the Skvareninas, Dusinskys in Nadas, his parents in Cifer, and the picture of the Palfy castle in' Pudmerice, photos of Trnava and Bratislava. As we have stated above, this is the first volume of his memoirs. Future volumes promise to be equally interesting, for the author went to live in Constantinople (Istanbul) where he was manager of a family commercial firm. He continued to write poetry, translated poetic works from Turkish and Greek writers, and became intensely involved in the Zionistic movement. During the second World War he worked indefatigably in various high positions to save his £ellow Jews in Europe. After the establishment of the independent state of Israel he became one of the chief founders of the Jewish navy. 201 As director of the Jewish Agency he has rendered invaluable service to his people. One of the most serious problems faced by the fledgling Jewish state of Israel in the beginning was the small number of Jewish inhabitants. Under Laor's dynamic leadership this was soon remedied through the work of the Jewish Agency in Geneva, Switzerland. In a few short years fully one and a half million Jews were transported from Europe to Israel. This influx of Jewish immigrants from the Continent at a critical stage strengthened the economy of the new state and furnished man-power for Israel, all of which enabled Israel to defend itself successfully against the attacks of the neighboring Arabic countries in the ensuing years. Eran Laor's contributions for the establishment and preservation of the state of Israel have been important and vital from the very beginning of its history in our times. Woodlands Above - Mines Below, by Rev. Andrew V. Pier, O.S.B Published by the First Catholic Slovak Union, Cleveland, Ohio. Printed by the Jednota Press, Middletown, Pa. 120 pp., with pictorial supplement, 1974. Price: $2.00 soft cover and $3.00 hard cover. The latest English publication of the First Catholic Slovak Union, printed by its Jednota Press in Middletown, Pa., "Woodlands Above-Mines Below," is virtually a translation by the author, Father Andrew V. Pier, O.S.B., M.A., of his original Slovak edition "Nau nami hory-pod nami bane," which came off the press under his ancient family name, "Pir". The Slovak book was published by the Slovak Institute in Rome, Italy in �202 SLOVAKIA 1972. The English version is revised somewhat and at least eight new episodes have been added. Father Pier is a Slovak Benedictine Monk of St. Andrew's Abbey in Cleveland, Ohio, so it was proper that his superior, the Rt. Rev. Abbot Jerome Koval, O.S.B., wrote the Foreword to his new book. Abbot Koval introduces the mountain village of Blandburg, Pennsylvania, to the readers of this unique volume on life there more than a half century ago. His personal impressions of the locale of the series of boyhood experiences of the author prepare the reader for many pleasant surprises in the book. The book has been selling very v.rell to date. Aside from hundreds of single orders, there have been orders for six, a dozen, fifty, and even for a 100 copies. The early sales indicate that the book will be going to its second printing. The reactions of the readers so far range from such exclamations as 'unbelievable,' 'colorful,' 'a bittersweet work of nostalgia,' 'true to life,' 'the good old days,' 'sweet memories,' 'told simply and beautifully, ' to immediate criticism as 'a modern utopia,' 'a town that never existed' and 'a too, too sweet picture of a town this side of heaven.' At the very outset, however, the author gives his word of honor that all the episodes recounted occured in actual life. At any rate, each reader can judge for himself what rings true or what is imaginative in the book of memories of happenings in a small town in the heart of the Alleghenies in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. Christmas scenes are given the spotlight with no less than three incidents in the very beginningincidents that tug at the heartstrings and set the stage for a happy childhood as seen through the eyes of a bright-eyed, care-free, though pensive boy who never ceased to gaze at the parade of life around him with wonder and joy of being alive. School, not the in-thing for most schoolboys, proved to be a pleasant interlude in early life for a boy to learn and anxious to please his parents and teachers-but he was by no means a teacher's pet. A well-merited tribute is given to the zealous priests who paid parlicular attention to the spiritual needs of their immigrant parishioners. Teachers, physicians, and even the businessmen rate a note of genuine appreciation, while a much admired high school principal gets a special chapter dedicated to his immortal memory. Probably the most popular story in the entire book is that of a recalcitrant bovine creature. Wild life-rabbits, grouse, deer, snakes and bears-is discussed from various angles, as are guns that are both a menace to nature's woodland creatures or a means of maintaining a balance in our ecologydepending on one's point of view. Lightening from the sky, the $20 cigar and a fire are true-to-life acc:mnts of the author in the unusual procession of experiences that are narrated in simple inimitable style. Reference to the work in the brickyard and toil in the mines give a prosaic but realistic touch to an otherwise nostalgic, and in many respects, a utopian picture of the writer's hometown. Moreover, the account of the sudd-e n mysterious appearance of the Ku Klux Klan appears like an ominous black cloud obliterating the rainbow in the sky above Blandburg, but it disappear~ as quickly as it appeared on the horizon. Meditative reflections on "The Good Earth" provide the back- �SLOVAKIA ground to the types of people who lived in the village: 1) Oldtimers, 2) Immigrants, 3) The Justice of Peace, and 4) Boarders. All in all, the book presents an authentic portrayal of a phase of life that was and probably will never again be repeated. Doubtless, the book has not exhausted the memory bank, either of the writer or of the people who experienced a similar way of life. That's the key to the popularity of this book - -people can say, "Why I too re member an incident .... " In fact, Father Pier is writing the episodes for them in this book. So this collection of vignettes will stimulate others to recall and record their experiences so that our generation, and future generations, will not only find pleasure in reading about them, but derive inspiration in the great adventure of life under God. There is a pictorial supplement at the end of the book which seems like an afterthought, but it serves to strengthen the authenticity of th~ work that will hopefully open the door to a whole series of narrations of life in America at the early part of the 20th century. Joseph C. Krajsa Jednota Annual FURDEK. Edited by Joseph C. Krajsa. Published ny the First. Catholic Slovak Unnion, Cleveland, Ohio. l-rinted by Jednota Press, Middletown, Pa. Vol. XIV, 175 pages. Price : $3.00. This year's edition ot the annual Furdek, publication of the Jednota, features a number of new writers who join such regular standbys as Msgr. Jan Rekem, S.T.I'., and Dr. Joseph Kirschbaum, LL.D., Ph.D., of Canada, and Rev. Andrew Pier, O.S.B., and Daniel Tanzone of this country. Edward Kovac's "Ca., tles and Chateaux in Slovakia" with striking photographs of Bojnice, Orava, Lupca, Nedeca, Trencin, Strecno, Devin and Bratislava castles gives the reader a graphic picture of the beauty and gra11deur of only a few of the medieval strongholds in Slovakia, for altogether there are approximately two hundred castles and more than a thousand mansions scattered throughout the historic homeland of our Slovak forefathers. Father Stevko's pictorial montage of his variegated work as missioner, doctor and teacher in the Indonesian missions on the island of West Flores is a reminder of the fact that many Slovak priests, nuns, and Brothers are in the missions in Asia (Indonesia, the Philippines, Japan, South Korea, Burma, India), Africa and South America, as well as in New Guinea and a number of islands in the South Pacific, and Australia. "The Apostolate of Msgr . .C:ugen Filkorn" is a tribute to a dedicated and holy Slovak educator at the University of Bratislava by a former student at the Svoradov Catholic fraternity house at the Slovak university_ Daniel Tanzone's review of the life of Father K11basek on the occasion of the 25th anniversary of the Slovak leader's death in Yonkers, N.Y. is a timely rememberance of a remarkable personality. The panel with photographs of Slovak college students who won Jednota scholarships in 1974 (36 handsome boys and 25 attractive girls) is proof positive of the vital interest of the Jednota organization in higher education and of the high quality of intelligence in our talented youth. May our hopes in their future contributions to our �204 SLOVAKIA Slovak cause, our Jednota society and to American life be justified in the years ahead. By far the most colorful of the contents of the volume is the series of photos of the Sarisan Slovak folk-dancers of Detroit-Windsor and Pittsburgh's Slovakians directed by the dedicated Roman Niznik. "At the Lake" by Helen Majorossy, a new contributor (a talented linguist in Cleveland), is a pensive nature study. Sister M. Mercedes Voytko, SS. C.M., of Danville, Pa., analyzes the much debated controversy of the hyphen in "Czecho-Slovakia" and goes on to give an objective historical survey of the years from 1939 (the year of Slovak Independence and the formation of the Slovak Republic) to 1968 when the Soviet armies invaded the country and sealed its fate (for the time being at least) by leaving a permanent army of occupation. Slovak recruits for the Missionary Sisters of the Sacred Heart are listed by name and contributing Slovak parishes: St. Michael's, Lansford, Pa., St. John's, Allentown, Pa., SS. Cyril and Methodius, Bethlehem, Pa., SS. Cy;ril and Methodius, Coaldale, Pa., St. Andrew's, Catasauqua, Pa., St. Mary's, Northampton, Pa., St. Mary's, McAdoo, Pa., Sacred Heart, Palmerton, Pa., SS. Cyril and Methodius, Reading, Pa., Our Mother of Sorrows, Bridgeport, Pa. Sister M. Bridget Ulicny, M.SE.C., a Slovak nun, has been general superior of the 1700 Sisters of the Sacred Heart the past three years with headquarters in Rome, Italy. A somber and profound note is added to the Furdek annual by Msgr. Jan Rekem, S.T.D., by his "Philosophy of History of the Slovak nation." Dr. Kirschbaum's highly documented commentary "Slovak Language under Communism'' gives the reaqer insight into how the historic language of the Slovak nation has been strongly subjected to pressures by the postwar communist regime in the past three decades. Undoubtedly, the ground-breaking ceremonies that are depicted at the beginning of the annual show that our Jednota is forging ahead and keeping pace with the pressing needs of a hew era. The highly important event that marked the start of a building development program and expansion of the Jednota Press headquarters is truly historic. It is another great milestone in the progress of our fraternal society that is meeting the challenge of our times with renewed hope and vigor. Joyce Iezzi's "Slovak Traditions" and the accompanying picture of the mixed Church choir of St. Florian's parish in United, Pa., provide incontrovertible evidence that our ancient and time-honored liturgy is very much alive despite recent radica•l changes in Church worship in many quarters. Paul Berish's "Chit-Chats with a Giant" is so genuine and heartwarming that the article merits a niche in the literary hall of fame, and the incidental meeting with Karol Sidor reflects the lasting impression the great Slovak political leader and diplomat at the Vatican made upon a total stranger who was a true son of St. Francis. Our Lady of Levocha Shrine in Bedford, Ohio, rates a well deserv• ed historical background furnished origin;illy by Sister M. Augustine, V.S.C., from Slovak sources for her collaborator, Sr. M. Regis, V.S.C., �SLOVAKIA the author of "The History of Our Lady of Levoca." Levoca (Levocha) is known to thousands of American Slovaks from the eastern Spis region where they were accustomed to go on pilgrimage each year to the famous Marian shrine in Slovakia. Editor's Note: On October 5, 1975, the Slovak nuns at the Marian shrine of Our Lady of Levocha in Bedford, Ohio, will commemorate the 45th anniversary of the Blessing of the statue (carved from the wood of an apple tree in Slovakia, touched by the miraculous statue of Mt. Levoca and sent to the U.S. in the summer of 1930) by Archbishop Joseph Schrembs, D.D. Nellie Kovalik, R.N., strikes an ecumenical note in her article, "New St. Gabriel's Candle" while Father Schmieder recalls the delightful activity of a lovable prelate "The Good Monsignor." Rev. Andrew V. Pier, O.S.B, Krcisa slovenskych pamiatkovych kostolov (The Beauty of Slovak Churches). Published by the St. Adalbert Society, Trnava, Slovakia. St. Adalbert Society Press, 1970. Slovakia can boast of many rare monuments of historical and artistic value, besides its wealth of natural beauty. One of the most important places among these monuments is taken by the old Roman Catholic churches which are unique from a historic, architectural and artistic point of view. These Slovak churches, whether they be cathe drals, or local parish churches are gems of sacred art from the gothic and baroque periods and are admired throughout international spheres of culture. Besides reflecting the art heritage of Slovakia 205 during specific periods, these churches remain a valuable source of art history. The review was published by the St. Adalbert Society (Spolok svateho Vojtecha ) in Trnava to com memorate the centenary of its founding in 1870. The front covel' depicts the majestic gothic sanctuary of St. Nicholas Cathedral in Trnava, enclosed by a septagonal apse and four sections of artistically worked reticulated vaulting. It was in this cathedral, which dates from the 14th century, that the founding meeting of the St. Adalbert Society took place on September 14, 1870. The following Slovak churchi:?s or shrines are depicted in this commemorative work: 1. The Holy Rood altar with the neo-gothic pulpit of the Cathedral of St. Martin in Bratislava. 2. The baroque altar in the sanctuary of the Good Church in thr Nitra Cathedral which dates from the year 1732 together with frescoes by G. A. Galliardi dating from 1720. 3. The gothic sanctuary and renaissance baroque main altar of the Roziiava cathedral dating from 1672. 4. The renaissance baroque main altar of St. Adalbert, dating from the 17th century in the Saris pilgrim shrine of Gaboltov. 5. The baroque main altar with the statue of the Sorrowful Mother, patroness of Slovakia in the basilica of Sastin. 6. The 15th century sanctuary and main altar of the pilgrim church at Stare Hory. 7. The gothic main altar, the work of Master Pavol of Levoca, together with frescoes dating from the 14th century in the pari,h church of St. James in Levoca. 8. The interior of the Marianka �206 SLOVAKIA pilgrim church, originally a gothic church today ornamented in baroque style. 9. The main altar of the Kosice Cathedral of Saint Elizabeth, the largest gothic altar in the world. 10. The reconstructed baroque Cathedral of the Assumption ln Banska Bystrica displaying main altar painting by J. L. Kracker dating from 1774. 11. The baroque Lady chapel, the work of G. R. Donner from the first half of the 18th century in the Cathedral of St. Nicholas in Trna'\la. 12. The 15th century altar of St. Michael the Archangel together with the main altar dating from the 19th century in the Church of St. Martin in Spisske Podhradie. The collection offers the student of Slovak ecclesiastical art a wide range of Slovak church art and architecture as found in Slovakia. Daniel F. Tanzone Slovak American Bicentennial Commission Through the initiative of the Slovak League of America and with the cooperative effort of the great majority of Slovak organizations, publications and other entities, a Slovak American Bicentennial Commission was formulated in 1974. The purpose of the Commission is to provide national celebrations commemorating the 200th Birthday of the United States of America in 1976. The first event will be held in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in March, and the second week-long celebration will be held in Detroit, Michigan in June. It is expected that many tens of thousands of Slovak Americans will attend the festivities in Detroit. The Commission will also publish a commemorative book Slovaks in America-A Bicentennial Study, which will encompass a brief history of the Slovak Americans. The officers of the Slovak American Bicentennial Commission are: President, Frances Mizenko, National Secretary of the First Catholic Slovak Ladies Association; Vice President, Dr. Joseph Pauco, National Secretary of the Slovak League of America; and Secretary, Joseph Kristofik, Detroit, Michigan. The Chairman of the Editorial Board for the publication of the book Slovaks in America-A Bicentennial Study is Joseph C. Kra,isa, Editor of Jednota �SLOVAKIA 207 Who's Who Among Slovak Americans Ml CHAE L NOVAK Michael Novak has written two novels and several influential books, including The Rise of the Unmeltable Ethnics (1972), Choosing Our King (1974), The Experience of Nothingness (1970),A New Generation (1964), and Ascent of the Mountain, Flight of the Dove (1971). His books and articles have been published in nine languages. In two of his three years on the faculty at Stanford, 1967 and 1968, the Senior Class elected him "most influential professor." He was a judge for the National Bank Awards in 1972 and has been a juror for the DuPont Awards in Broadcast Journalism since 1971. He leads a seminar in television criticism for the Aspen Institute, and also chairs a private study group on the future of the city of Jerusalem. In 1970, he was a senior staff advisor for Sargent Shriver in congressional campaigns across the nation, and in 1972 he served with McGovern and then with Shriver. As associate director for humanities at the Rockefel- ler Foundation during 1973 and 1974, he created a new program for the humanities, ra1smg the Foundation's spending for the humanities from $400,000 to $4 million per year. He established a widely acclaimed Fellowship program, and instigated programs for working people and high school students under the title of "The Public Humanities.'' He has been a consultant to AT&T, IBM (for an interview in Think magazine), and has participated in many corporate seminars, including the annual seminar of Northern States Power Company in Minnesota. He is Executive Director of EMPAC (Ethnic Millions Political Action Committee), a consulting firm and membership organization, with a nationally recognized board and groups of active advisors in virtually every urban center. EMPAC supports aspirations for equality and justice on the part of the one in four Americans of white ethnic b a ck ground, particularly from Southern and Eastern European cultures. The firm is bi-partisan. �!08 SLOVAKIA Annual S L O V A K I A is published by the Slovak league of America, 313 Ridge Ave., Middletown, Pa. 17057. Subscription $4.00. Editor: Joseph Pauco, Ph.D. Editorial Board: Draga Divinska, Louis Kandra, Joseph M. Kirschbaum, Ph.D., Susan Mikula, Ph.D., Joseph A. Mikus, Ph.D., Fr. Andrew Pier O.S.B., M.A., Daniel F. Tanzone, Sister M. Tybor, SS.C.M., M.A. Our Contributo rs Dr. Arved Grebert, former Slovak diplomat, now in Switzerland Sonya Jason, Slovak American author, Woodland Hills, Ca:it. Joseph Pauco, Ph.D., author, historian, Middletown, Pa. Theodoric J. Zubek, O.F.M., author, Joliet, Ill. Konstantin Cu/en, author, historian (deceased) Anthony X. Sutherland, Ph.D., Columbus, Ohio Daniel F. Tanzone, teacher, Yonkers, N. Y. Sister M. Pamela Smith, SS .C.M., teacher, Danville, Pa. Andrew V. Pier, O.S.B., author, Cleveland, Ohio Antonia Mazanova, on faculty of music, University of Western Ontario Gabor Vermes, department of history, Rutgers Universi ty J. M. Kirschbaum, LL.D., Ph.D., historian, Toronto, Ontario Joseph C. Krajsa , Editor, Jednota, Middletown, Pa. Paul Fia/kovic, Robert Pojer, John Berta - Slovak League of America Scholarship Winners �PRI NTI D IN U.S. A. JIDN OTA PlllN TER Y, MID DLli TOW N, PA. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1975, Vol. 25 Description An account of the resource Vol. 25 (No. 48), 1975. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1975 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document SLOVAKIA 190 As others see it We are fortunate, in Canada, in having within our midst, a strong and vital Slovak community. Our many traditions, mingled together throughout society cannot but make us a stronger, more resilient, more tolerant and understanding people. - Pierre EUiot Trudeau Freedom and independence have long been the backbone of Slovak national thought. The Slovak people now suffer under Communist domination and yet have made tremendous sacrifices on both personal and national levels to preserve their native culture, language, and religion. One-third of all Slovak people now live in the United States and in other parts of the Western World. Freedom-loving people throughout Michigan and the world join with Slovak people in their desire to reestablish independence from totalW illiam G. Militarian rule. liken, Governor of the State of Michigan Your continuing efforts to share Slovak traditions and culture are a source of pride to all Americans. - Robert P. Griffin, U.S. Senator As one whose ancestors grew up and lived in Slovakia, I am very proud of my Slovak heritage. Moreover, we Americans of Slovak background can also point with pride to the tremendous contributions the people of the American Slovak Community have made to our great nation. - Philip E . Ruppe, Member of Congress In my own experience, I have found Slovak Americans to be bright, industrious, and filled with a zest for life. Moreover, you have successfully preserved a sense of identity and pride in the Slovak roots, a passion which has been further nourished by the more recent arrivals. As a Slovak citizen recently told a western newsman, "Here we have absolutely no shortage of unful filled desires." Some day in our lifetimes, I trust, democracy and individual liberty will live again in the land of your forefathers. - Lucien N. Nedzi, Member of Congress America is an immeasurably better nation because of the tremen dous contributions of Slovaks. Vigor and dedication to excellence have epitomized the Slovak way of life on America's farmlands, in her cities and educational institution3 and on the Apollo flight to the moon of Commander Eugene Cernan. In remembering Slovakia, you are reminding the world of the special ethnic heritage of Slovaks around the world. - Marvin L . Esch, Member of Congress The Slovak people are a proud and talented people who have enriched the lives of the many countries in which they live. We can all be proud of the contribution of Slovak people to the development of America. The Slovak people have helped to build this country into a great democracy, while retaining their ethnic identity. William S. Broomfield, Member of Congress Although self-determination and democracy have been denied them, the freedom-loving Slovak people have maintained their traditions even after many centuries of foreign oppression. SLOVAKIA Slovaks living in the western world continue to cherish the dream of an independent Slovak nation. Coieman A. Young, Mayor, City of Detroit Catholic Church is the prime target of the Communists in Slovakia because she is considered an organization that is administered by the Vatican and is in contradiction with the idea of a state-controlled church as is the case in Russia. The major pressure is on the practising Catholics who live their faith, and not so much on the so-called "Catholics of the baptismal register." State employees in influential positions and the teachers are hardest hit. After the removal of Dubcek, they were all carefully scrutinized and their files updated. Only the teachers and professors who are considered reliable Marxists can teach in the high schools and universities. It is requiried of them to sever their affiliation with their Church. That is a condition which must be fulfilled if they wish to keep their post. , In the high schools the teaching of religion is forbidden. In the elementary schools, religion can be taught only if both parents demand it for their children. The headmasters are obliged to try to persuade them not to send the children to religion classes. They have to warn the parents about the grave and adverse consequences this would have if they persist. The parents could lose their good positions in employment, and the children may find it difficult to be accepted for higher studies. All teachers and higheT-ranking white collar workers must be party members or they are subject to obligatory courses in Marxistatheistic ideology. After the fall of 191 Dubcek, more than 30,000 Marxist agitators were trained and no w they are conducting re-educational courses among the students and the intelligentsia. Anybody who refuses such courses is considrered an opponent of the regime and his " negative attitude" is entered into his "cadre" file which accompanies every citizen. The assessment in the file can make it hard to get or to change employment for which the person may have qualifications. The ideological pressure is felt, too, in the family circle. The communist ideal is a family without religion. The generation gap in socialism is intensified because in the family circle unity is destroyed - there is two-track thinking. The open practice of the Faith is in conflict with the ideology of the state. Therefore, the parents have to hide their religious conviction from their children or from each other. If they dare to bring up their children in the Faith, if they teach them to pray, there is the danger that the children will betray them in the school and that leads to stress and conflicts in the family. The denial of religious freedom has, in practice, painful consequences in the very nucleus of human society. Bishop Dominic Kai'ata Slovak Communist authorities have stepped up their promotion of "civil ceremonies" to replace baptism, confirmation, wedding and funeral ceremonies in church. Austrian Catholic sources reported from Slovakia, that "wedding centers" and "funeral halls" for civil ceremonies have been installed in many areas. More than 1750 committees were formed to organize the ceremonies. The sources said such civil rites 192 SLOVAKIA have failed to meet with much suecess. Slovak Interior Minister Egyd Pepych has complained that only 3.4 per cent of people who died in Czecho-Slovakia were buried with civil ceremonies. "The Citizens Committees still have much work to do," he said. Communist officials intensified propaganda in recent w1ieks, our sources said. They distributed booklets explaining the purpose and advantages of the ceremonies. Moreover, "presents" are distributed in the civil program that seeks to replace Christian baptism, confirmation and matrimony. Slovak newpapers and I!'lagazines have published reports of civil ceremonies to increase interest. One Communist daily described a civil "baptism" as follows: "A committee secretary took the baby out of the hands of the mother and placed it into a hand-carved cradle. The parents-both teachers -vecited a promise: "We, the parents, solemnly declare that we will do everything in our power to educate our son as an outstanding citizen of our Socialist country." _ (RNS) Communist professors and state officials in Czecho-Slovakia have been waging a persistent campaign against religion despite constitutional guarantees of freedom of thought and religious choice. This is the central point of Italian Jesuit Father Guiseppe Rulli, writing in the Rome Jesuit review Civilta Cattolica. In a long analytical article, Fr. Rulli examines the writings of several eminent Marxist professors attacking religion and the Roman Catholic Church in particular over the past several years. Among the authors cited by Fr. Rulli were Ladislav Tomasek of the Marxist Leninist Institute of Bratislava; Frantisek Kubovic of the Slovak University, and Minister of Culture Jaroslav Hajek. Despite the Communist government's claims that it is tolerant of religion, Father Rulli stressed that over the past few years a consistent campaign has been mounted against religious freedom . The professors in particular have called for "a battle against idealistic philosophy," which for Fr. Rulli is "without a doubt religious philosophy." Father Rulli cited an article by Frantisek Kubovic in which the Slovak professor declared : "to Catholicism in socialist countries it is not possible to grant 'freedom of action,' because that would mean going along with its anti-socialistic, anti-communist, anti-state and antinational attitudes. Therefove, it is indispensable that it be placed under the control of the socialist state so that political activity and the exploitation of the religious feelings of believers may be halt1id ." Demands by the bishops to be allowed to carry out their religious functions in freedom, to run their seminaries without state control and to enjoy the right of giving instruction freely have been interpreted as examples of their antisocialist, anticommunist attitudes, Father Rulli stated. He also pointed out: "The Czech and Slovak communists accuse the Catholic Church of being an expression of an unilluminating idealism of defending a nonscientific and negative vision of the world and of always having been opposed to communism." In the early 70's both Slovak and Czech public officials moved in on the Catholic Church to restrict its freedom. In 1970, Fr. Rulli report- SLOVAKIA ed, the Slovak Socialist Republic made it a requirement that priests get government permission to celebrate even a private Mass. Authorities of the Czech Republic followed suit. This was only the beginning of greater and more restrictive controls placed on the bishops and the parishes, Father Rulli reported. Concluding his observations, Fr. Rulli declared that from the opening attacks on religion, "religious faith has been considered an expression of sentiment," and there fore must be controlled by the state to safeguard the people. (NC) In the struggle against communism the Church has always offered the stiffest resistance and countless members of the clergy have sacrificed their lives for their faith and country. The Catholic Church ')f Lithuania was brutally persecuted by the Kremlin regime as were thC' Churches of other nations under the despotic yoke of Moscow. Msgr. Jozef Tiso was the wartime president of the Slovak Republic (Independent Lithuania officially recognized Slovakia in 1939) and was executed by the communists in 1947 because he refused to betray his people and proclaim Slovakia a Soviet republic. As the prelatepresident of his country, Msgr. Tiso provided his beloved Slovakia with a Christian-democratic ideology and based his politics on papal encyclicals, Christian philosophy and national Slovak traditions. Two hours before his execution on the gallows Msgr. Tiso wrote this final message from prison to the Slovak people. The eloquence of this fare well also symbolizes the spirit with which -the heroic priests of Lithuania offered up their lives on the altar of freedom for the salvation of their country and in Heaven in 193 the pFesence of the Almighty became the radiant hope of the Lith uanian people. "In the spirit of this sacrifice which I am about to make," wrot':l Dr. Tiso, "these are my words to the Slovak people: Be unanimous and united in pursuing always, everywhere and in every respect the great principle : For God and for the Nation! This is not only the unequivocal intent of Slovak history, but also the explicit command of God, who mad e it the law of nature, and inculcated it in the nation and all its members. This law I have served all my life and for this reason I regard myself as a martyr in the defense of Chri,tianity against Bolshevism, against which our nation must in all possible ways defend itself, and n ot only in order to remain true to its Christian character, but also in th'} interest of its future survival. In the same way as I am as!dng all of you to remember me in your prayers, so will I also pray to God Al mighty on your behalf and supplicate that He bless the Slovak people in their life-struggle for God and for the nation, and that the Slovak nation shall always remain a faithful and devoted son to the Church of Christ." Blessed are those whose way is blameless, who walk in the law of the Lord! - Bulletin of the Lithuanian Affairs Committ ee In Slovakia, dozens of churches stand half-finished because of an edict forbidding new building of them. Unofficially, childrm, who go to church can't go to trade school or the university. But that doesn't matter as much as being home, even though strange things are happening to that home. I expected to find little old ladies, safe in the security of family 194 SLOVAKIA doing folk arts and embroidery. In stead, Slovakia has gone doubleknit. "Do you have a car?" was the first question, usually. And then, "Do you have a color television set?" . There is a song they sing over endless vodkas when the sun goes down, a song that obviously has never been written down. "Our lives are much better here," is the rough translation, "since our fath• ers went to work in America." In some of the villages we visit, social and economic status is determined by who has relatives in the U.S. If your father happened to go there to work, you get Social Security benefits, and you are comfortable . If he worked in the mines around Wilkes-Barl'le and caught the black lung, you are wealthy. American money is important, because Czecho-Slovak money won't buy much. It's not unusual to find houses with television sets but no toilets, simply because it's easier to buy television sets than plumbing materials. But if you have American money, you can buy "boni" - special certificates which must be spent in six months - to use in the Tuzex. And perhaps the Tuzex is the most telling memory of Slovakia. It is a store that accepts only foreign currency. There is fruit juice and liquor, dry goods and clothing. The!'le are baby carriages and radios. The people crowd in, sometimes pushing each other like so many American suburbanites at a bargain basement sale. In a corner, one woman is selling her "boni." When I pull out a notebook to mark down prices, people stare. A friend cautions me to put away the notebook, and the tension ebbs. Over it all, staring down on the Ban-Lon and baby carriages, is a picture of Lenin. - Carol Towarnicky, Philadelphia Daily News, December 28, 1974. Book Reviews BOOKS AND STUDIES ON SLOVAKIA AND SLOVAKS Reviewed by Prof. J. M. K i r s c h b a u m Robert W. Dean, Nationalism and historiography mostly as a footnote Political Change in Eastern Eu· or a postscript to Czech history rope: The Slovak Question and and were seen "through the Czech the Czechoslovak Reform Move- eyes" by specialists in Eastern Eument, University of Denver, Col- rope, several recent studies (Galia orado, The Social Science Foun- Golan, Eugene Steiner, John Condation and Graduate School of way etc.) departed from this politiInternational Studies, Monograph cally and ideologically oriented Series in World Affairs, Vol. 10, tradition. 1973. Among the large numbers of While in the past Slovakia and books published on post-war politiSlovaks were treated in Western cal developments in Czecho-Slova- SLOVAKIA kia and especially on the "Dubcek period," Robert W. Dean's concise study seems to be the most objective and his analysis of the reform movement free of anti-Slovak bias. Moreover, the value of Dean's book lies in its research and evaluation of original sources published in Czech Lands or in Slovakia during the period under his examination. As a result, Dean is drawing quite a different picturie of Slovakia's post-war political situation and aspirations of her leadership and population from the account of some other specia1.sts in that area. Communist governments in Prague were not more successful in solving the Slovak question than were the bourgeois governments before the war, and even the purges of leading Slovak Communists for alleged "bourgeois nationalism" were not able to silence the cries for equality, justice and self-government. Slovak intellectuals fought, therefore, not only for the reform of the system, but also for the solution of the Slovak question, because "In Slovakia, the distortion of the Novotny system had been expressed by the subjugation of national aspirations - political, economic and cultural." (p. 28) In 1968, the year of liberalization brought also by the opposition of Slovak intellectuals, Slovaks cla imed more than federalization in Dean's view. There were clear voices of leading intellectuals for confederation and the Slovak Republic of 1939-45 was not only put into a more objective light, but its existence was to remind Prague that there was another solution of the Slovak question. Dean quotes from Kuiturny zivot: " ... it will nevertheless remain true that the Slovak Republic existed as the national state of the 195 Slovaks, the only one in our history ... Let us not turn away from it; it is part of our national traditions. It is important for an accurate scrutiny of our national idea to know that the idea or the remembrance of the Slovak state's independence is alive in the national memory. It connot be ignored forever in examining the alterna tives in the solution of the perspectives of a small nation .. ." (Pavol Stevcek, "Sev,e.ral Theses on the Situation of the Slovak Nation," Kulturny zivot, No. 3, August 2, 1968) . Husak is portrayed by Dean as one of the most articulate promoters of federalization but he did not fail to notice that Husak used the movement for federalization to come to power and abandoned it in order to remain in power. As a result, the Slovak question remained unsolved. The present situation is "centralism in a new guise" (see pages 28-37 ) and the persecution of intellectuals by Husak's regime is but a confirmation of his fear that they could expose the true aspirations of the Slovak people. Die Slowakische Volkskultur (Slo- vak Folk Arts and Culture) . Edited by Emilia Horvathova and Viera Urbancova. Published by Slovak Academy of Sciences, (Bratislava, 1972), 304 pages, 342 illustrations. Slovak folk arts and folk culture have long attracted the attention of foreign visitors and ethnographers by their beauty, richness of colors and inexhaustible fantasy. Some observers regard Slovaks "artists by birth," whose songs and national costumes have a natural expression of a poetry full of sensibility and freshness and whose carvings, toolmakings, paintings and architecture of peasant houses 196 SLOVAKIA excell by a constructive sense of color and design. Exposed for centuries to foreign domination and assimilation, Slovaks cultivated folk arts, songs and costumes as an expression of national consciousness and national identity and pre served a great part of them to this day. The book Die Slowakische Volkskultur deals with and reflects the rich cultural heritage of the Slovak people. It contains elev,e n contributions by eight authors, of whom 5 are women. All contributors belong to the younger generation educated at post-war universities in Slovakia, but they also refer to essays and studies by scholars of earlier periods. The title of the book is actually the same as was the title of the first book in German on Slovak folk art and culture by R. Bednarik, published during the Slovak Republic (Bratislava, 1943) . The present book is larger in scope and relies on new research and scholarly methods. The growth of universities in Slovakia is reflected in many fields of academic endeavor previously neglected. Ethnography was one of these fields even though the first known ,e thnographer among Slavs, P. J. Safarik, was from Slovakia. In spite of regimentation and political pressures, the present Slovak universities produced experts in many disciplines, including ethnography. The book Die Slowakische Volkskultur is a product of this new cultural atmosphere in Slovakia. Divided into eleven chapters, the volume deals with practically all aspects of the life of Slovakia's population - from agriculture and came breeding to family life, housebuilding, folk arts, superstitions and customs. Individual chap- ters are illustrated by photographs, many of them well chosen and enhancing the value of the book. It should be stressed, however, that foreign readers should not visualize present day Slovakia as depicted in this book. Folk arts and folk culture belong to the past in Slovakia as in any other Europ!7 an country and are but a part of Slovak cultural heritage. Slovakia kept pace with European cultural development and is adorned by hundreds of medieval fortresses, cast1es and churches of Renaissance and Baroque art. The beautiful valleys and hills lost their original beauty to industrialization and technological progress did not bypass Slovaks and Slovakia. J. Stasko, Slovaks in the United States of America, Edition Dobra Kniha, (Galt, Ontario, 1974) 79 pages, bibl. and statistics. This concise study contains valuable basic information on a number of topics pertaining to the history of the Slovaks in the United States. There are several mohographs by F . Hrusovsky, J. Pauco and others and two volumes history of American Slovaks by K. culen in the Slovak language but Stasko's work is the first scholarly outline in English and as such should be welcome. The author divided his study into 14 short chapters co·v ering the his- torical background of the Slovak nation, causes and effects of the migration of Slovaks, statistical survey of Slovaks in the United States and their hard beginnings and life in America. Briefly but with solid knowledge of the subjects and appropriate statistics Dr. Stasko analyses the social conditions, religions and civic organizations, education, contributions to American political and economic SLOVAKIA development and the assimilation process. The booklet is an intelligent look at the basic questions which a historian has to deal with in writing a history of an ethnic group in today's United States. It is, however, rather an outline for a longer book, than a comprehensive story of some 3 million Americans of Slovak origin. No doubt, scholars and students of American history will welcome Dr. Stasko's study as a valuable source of information, while American Slovak historians should be encouraged to use it as a solid foundation and a well balanced structure for a comprehensive history of Slovaks in the United States. The large number of monographs on Slovak-American fraternal organizations, parishes, religious orders, regional histories and preserved newspapers and publica tions will make it possible, even in the absence of regular archives, to prepare for the second centennial of America a history book which will tell other Americans and Slovaks as well the fascinating saga of struggles, trials and final success of American Slovaks. The value of Stasko's work for American historians also lies in his brief survey of Slovak history and in his suggested approach to studying and understanding Slovak history. As often mentioned, the neighbors of Slovakia who wanted to dominate and rule Slovaks, suc ceeded in misleading many historians to accept a false concept of the history of the Slovak people. Even if recent history books seem to be more free of anti-Slovak bias and conceptional errors, there will be for a long time urgent need for serious literature in English and other work. languages on Slovakia and Slovaks. 197 Eckbert K. Jahn, Die Deutschen in der Slowakei 1918-1929, (Germans in Slovakia 1918-1929) , Collegium Carolinum (Munich, 1971), 186 pages, bib!. Jahn's book on German minority in Slovakia is a valuable contribution to the history of Slovakia and it is only to be regretted that he limited his research to such a short period. Neglected before the War and written with ideological prejudice by communist historians since 1948, the history of national minorities in Slovakia is very little known. Yet, the role of minorities in Slovakia's history was of great political, cultural and economic importance. German settlements in Slovakia go back to the 14th century at which time, according to the author, there were over 200,000 Germans on Slovak territory. In 19181929 the German minority counted some 150,000 people. Before the first World War Germans of Slovakia were closer to Magyars than to Slovaks in their political and cultural leanings, but during the centuries which proceed the era of nationalism they helped to develop Slovak cities, mining industries, trades and commerce to the benefit of Slovakia. On the other hand, they were at the origin of the religious division of Slovaks. After the First World War Germans in Slovakia did not take part in Slovak struggle for autonomy and equal status with the Czechs. Affiliated with the socialist and partly with the communist parties, they fought in Prague for minority rights together with other German3 of Czecho-Slovakia. Jahn's study sheds light on many aspects of the life of the German minority in Slovakia and even though the author was not allowed 198 SLOVAKIA by the communist regime to study the archives, except for statistics concerning the elections, he wrote an interesting book, well researched and remarkably free of bias. It is predominantly a political history with special emphasis on the interplay of nationalism and patriotism. -,'he book is divided into six chapters and contains interesting statistics about political and linguistic polarization not only among Germans but also among Jews in Slovakia who claimed German or Hungarian as their mothertongue. The fate of German minority in Slovakia was tragic. First they were indiscriminately murdered by Soviet and Slovak communist partisans and then expelled from Slorakia within the scheme of Dr. Benes' policy of revenge which the Slovaks were unable to change. An extensive bibliography of works in German, Slovak and Engli,h enhanced the value of the book. Victor Mamatey and R. Luza, (ed.) A H isto ry of the Czechoslovak Republic 1918-1948, Princeton U- niversity Press (Princeton, N. J. 1973). More than a score of writers contributed to this volume and while some of them are known as historians with established reputation (Mamatey, Taborsky, Hoensch, Rhode, Wandycz, etc), others are less known or do not belong to the academic community at all (A. J osko) . As a result, the value of individual contributions varies and the points of view differ, except for the general tendency which favors Czechs and views the Slovak question through Czech eyes. In the contributions by Professor Mamatey and J. K. Hoensch, which belong to the best in the volume, this bias was to a great degree avoided. Both are thoroughly acquainted with the subject and they even corrected some malicious accusations of Slovaks (e.g. cooperation with Germans before 1938) spread in the West by Czechs and their Slovak fellow-travelers (J. Lettrich) . Nevertheless, we can also say about this volume what the Canadian historiaq Z. Pech wrote about Western specialists in Eastern European History: "The history of Slovaks in the West has usually been presented from the point of view of 'Czechoslovakism' and has appeared as hardly more than a postscript to Czech history." (Canadian Slavonic Papers, X, 4, 1968). The most conspicuous example of bias in this volume is the contribution by Anna Jasko, whose article -in style and concept-is of such value that it would not be accepted by any serious journal. In R. Lufa's selected bibliography the prejudice against Slovaks who do not advocate Czech domination over Slovakia, attained the point of the ridiculous. And more or less the same can be said about the selection of sources and references quoted. With one or two exceptions, the majority of contributors quoted or referred exclusively to sources which favor the Czechoslovak concept and are hostile to Slovak aspirations for national independence. If we disregard the bias of many contributions, the book can be re garded as a vast source of informa tion. Especially the two chapters by Prof. Mamatey (The Establishment of the Republic and The Development of Czechoslovak Dem0cracy) and Hoensch's survey of the Slovak Republic present well documented accounts of the periods treated by the authors. Taborsky's contribution on "Politics in Exile" SLOVAKIA has all the attributes of academic writing but he displays the usual Czech unfounded conceit when writing about Slovaks. As the .thorough research of British archives by Prof. F. Vnuk indicates, it is hardly true that "Benes prevailed with ease over his few challengers among the exiled statesmen, such as the former Czecho-Slovak premier, Milan Hodza and Czecho-Slovakia's envoy to Paris, Stefan 0 susky ... ". And it is completely untrue that Benes "fully respected the opposite view holding the Czechs and Slovaks to be two different Slav nations" or that "the Czech-Slovak relations created no problem during the war." It is regrettable that even a historian of Taborsky's reputation wrote such mystifications. 199 riodicals, published in Europe, the United States and Canada. The essays have been written mostly by historians of the younger generation of foreign and Slovak origin, the latter predominantly educated in the West. Notheworthy among the essays is John S. Conway's article in The Slavonic and East European Review (Volume LIi, 126, January, 1974, London, England): "The Churches, the Slovak State and the Jews 1939-1945." The subject was treated in the past by several spe cialists in Eastern Europe (:l'.lurica, Lipscher, Jellinek) and further studies are to be expected. Conway's treatise seems to be the most objective by a foreign historian, and free of usual bias against Slovaks advocating the independence The editors expressed thanks to of Slovakia. Czech emigre politicians who left Prof. Mark Stolarik's essay on their country after their unsuccess- "Agrarian Problems in Slovakia ful collaboration with the commu- 1848-1918," published in Histoire nists "for their advice and encour- Sociale - Social History (Vol. VIII, agement in organizing this study," 3, University of Ottawa, May, 1974), and they "have greatly profited is a valuable contribution to a field from the valuable help of the which was generally neglected by Council of Free Czechoslovakia in Slovak historians until recently. It Washington, D. C." This clearly in- is an historiographic essay and will dicates the background and purpose provide useful information for of the book. The fact that there is further study. among the contributors from the Contemporary political developSlovak side only Prof. Mamatey and ments in Slovakia have been a clerk of the Library of Congress, treated by Prof. Stanislav J . KirschAnna Josko, confirms the prejudice baum of York University in Toand political bias mentioned above. ronto in two essays. Canadian JourAnd this is to be regretted especial- nal of Political Science (Vol. VII, ly for the reason that the book wiH 2, June, 1974) published his French be listed under the name of Prof. essay "Le nationalisme minoritaire: Mamatey who is a reputable hisle cas de la Tcheco-Slovaquie" (Natorian. tionalism of Minorities - the Case Czecho-Slovakia) in which the of ESSAYS ON SLOVAKIA Slovak question is subject to a In recent years, Slovak histol") thorough and objective analysis. The events of 1968 with special and the present political situation in Slovakia became the subject of regard for Slovakia are treated by essays and articles in academic pe- Dr. Stanislav Kirschbaum in the 200 SLOVAKIA (Vol. 15, Munich, 1973), an annual published by Collegium Carolinum and specialized in problems of Czecho-Slovakia. Under the title "Kontinuitat und politischen Wechsels in der Tschecho-Slowakei 1968" (Continu ity ,a nd Political Change in CzechoSlovakia 1968) Prof. Kirschbaum gives Western historians a well documented view of the reform and liberalization movement which was generally ascribed to Czechs in Western historiography even though Slovaks were its spearhead. Bohemia- Jahrbuch Eran Laor: Vergangen und ausgeloscht (Erinnerungen an das slowakisch-ungarische Judentum Reminiscences about Slovak-Magyar Jews), Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart, 1972, 280 pp. Review by Dr. Arved G r e b e r t, Geneva. - A translation A. P. The author of this book until recently was director of a Jewish Travel Agency in Geneva, Switzerland. Eran Laor was born in 1900 in the Slovak town of Cifer in southwestern Slovakia. In this fas cinating book, which is only the first volume of a projected trilogy, he describes town life in Cifer during the first twenty-two years of his own life there, and his student days at the Slovak cultural center in Trnava and later in Bratislava, the capital of Slovakia at the present time. This book by Eran Laor is an invaluable record of Jewish life in Slovakia at the beginning of this century. Laor's father was a well known and highly r•e spected doctor in the region. When he died, writes the author, the people and priests from nearby villages came to pay their last respects to a highly revered humanitarian. Interesting incidents in the book illustrate the symbiosis between the Jews and Slovak people. The history of the Skvarenina, Du~insky and Peterselka (Petrzelka) families from· 1700 portrays in miniature the destiny of the Jews in Slovakia: by their customs, and a revelation of their thoughts and feelings, and a list of their successes and tragedies. Slovakia became a refuge and an island of freedom for the Jews in the 17th and 18th centuries when the author's predecessors settled in the western town of Sen ic1 in 1700. They came from nearby Moravia on the Slovak border because stringent restrictions .h ad been placed on the Jews in all Czech-ruled lands at the time. The author's narrative is chiefly based on family documents such a, family correspondence, locll registries and other official documents, and inscriptions on tombstones , as well as on oral traditions in his immediate family circle. Laor's work is a valuable addition to the history of Slovakil. His concluding chapters, in wh ich he describes the war years in Bratislava (first World War) and subsequently Czech domination of the country, is very interesting. He correctly terms this period as "Czech occup1tion," and he admits tha t he personally participated in demonstrations protesting against the pos~war regime. From his early youth Eran Laor was active as a writer, as a poet and philosophical reviewer. Ha published these in German, Magyar, Hebrew, French and En ] lish. Although originally he wrote chiefly in Magyar, he stopped writing in this language in protest to the wave of anti-semitism that swept ove:· Hungary immediately after the first World War. Today he writes exclusively in Hebrew, German and SLOVAKIA French but speaks Slovak fluently. From a literary standpoint the book has great value. His style is elegant and his interpretations of events far-reaching. Laor's commentaries give the reader an impression of his wide and rich experiences and wisdom. Above all, he manifests warm effection for his people and love for the country where he was born and spent the most wonderful years of his life : his childh0od and youth. A grand seigneur, in the ful! sense of the word, a person ·µho actually existed in the flesh, an ideal person, is depicted by the author in his book, and he has preserved this image of a sterling personality for our materialisticminded world. Character was still admired in the common homeland of the J ews and Slovaks in his time. Many full page photographs enrich the book. There are pictures of the tombstones of his ancestors: the Skvareninas, Dusinskys in Nadas, his parents in Cifer, and the picture of the Palfy castle in' Pudmerice, photos of Trnava and Bratislava. As we have stated above, this is the first volume of his memoirs. Future volumes promise to be equally interesting, for the author went to live in Constantinople (Istanbul) where he was manager of a family commercial firm. He continued to write poetry, translated poetic works from Turkish and Greek writers, and became intensely involved in the Zionistic movement. During the second World War he worked indefatigably in various high positions to save his £ellow Jews in Europe. After the establishment of the independent state of Israel he became one of the chief founders of the Jewish navy. 201 As director of the Jewish Agency he has rendered invaluable service to his people. One of the most serious problems faced by the fledgling Jewish state of Israel in the beginning was the small number of Jewish inhabitants. Under Laor's dynamic leadership this was soon remedied through the work of the Jewish Agency in Geneva, Switzerland. In a few short years fully one and a half million Jews were transported from Europe to Israel. This influx of Jewish immigrants from the Continent at a critical stage strengthened the economy of the new state and furnished man-power for Israel, all of which enabled Israel to defend itself successfully against the attacks of the neighboring Arabic countries in the ensuing years. Eran Laor's contributions for the establishment and preservation of the state of Israel have been important and vital from the very beginning of its history in our times. Woodlands Above - Mines Below, by Rev. Andrew V. Pier, O.S.B Published by the First Catholic Slovak Union, Cleveland, Ohio. Printed by the Jednota Press, Middletown, Pa. 120 pp., with pictorial supplement, 1974. Price: $2.00 soft cover and $3.00 hard cover. The latest English publication of the First Catholic Slovak Union, printed by its Jednota Press in Middletown, Pa., "Woodlands Above-Mines Below," is virtually a translation by the author, Father Andrew V. Pier, O.S.B., M.A., of his original Slovak edition "Nau nami hory-pod nami bane," which came off the press under his ancient family name, "Pir". The Slovak book was published by the Slovak Institute in Rome, Italy in 202 SLOVAKIA 1972. The English version is revised somewhat and at least eight new episodes have been added. Father Pier is a Slovak Benedictine Monk of St. Andrew's Abbey in Cleveland, Ohio, so it was proper that his superior, the Rt. Rev. Abbot Jerome Koval, O.S.B., wrote the Foreword to his new book. Abbot Koval introduces the mountain village of Blandburg, Pennsylvania, to the readers of this unique volume on life there more than a half century ago. His personal impressions of the locale of the series of boyhood experiences of the author prepare the reader for many pleasant surprises in the book. The book has been selling very v.rell to date. Aside from hundreds of single orders, there have been orders for six, a dozen, fifty, and even for a 100 copies. The early sales indicate that the book will be going to its second printing. The reactions of the readers so far range from such exclamations as 'unbelievable,' 'colorful,' 'a bittersweet work of nostalgia,' 'true to life,' 'the good old days,' 'sweet memories,' 'told simply and beautifully, ' to immediate criticism as 'a modern utopia,' 'a town that never existed' and 'a too, too sweet picture of a town this side of heaven.' At the very outset, however, the author gives his word of honor that all the episodes recounted occured in actual life. At any rate, each reader can judge for himself what rings true or what is imaginative in the book of memories of happenings in a small town in the heart of the Alleghenies in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. Christmas scenes are given the spotlight with no less than three incidents in the very beginningincidents that tug at the heartstrings and set the stage for a happy childhood as seen through the eyes of a bright-eyed, care-free, though pensive boy who never ceased to gaze at the parade of life around him with wonder and joy of being alive. School, not the in-thing for most schoolboys, proved to be a pleasant interlude in early life for a boy to learn and anxious to please his parents and teachers-but he was by no means a teacher's pet. A well-merited tribute is given to the zealous priests who paid parlicular attention to the spiritual needs of their immigrant parishioners. Teachers, physicians, and even the businessmen rate a note of genuine appreciation, while a much admired high school principal gets a special chapter dedicated to his immortal memory. Probably the most popular story in the entire book is that of a recalcitrant bovine creature. Wild life-rabbits, grouse, deer, snakes and bears-is discussed from various angles, as are guns that are both a menace to nature's woodland creatures or a means of maintaining a balance in our ecologydepending on one's point of view. Lightening from the sky, the $20 cigar and a fire are true-to-life acc:mnts of the author in the unusual procession of experiences that are narrated in simple inimitable style. Reference to the work in the brickyard and toil in the mines give a prosaic but realistic touch to an otherwise nostalgic, and in many respects, a utopian picture of the writer's hometown. Moreover, the account of the sudd-e n mysterious appearance of the Ku Klux Klan appears like an ominous black cloud obliterating the rainbow in the sky above Blandburg, but it disappear~ as quickly as it appeared on the horizon. Meditative reflections on "The Good Earth" provide the back- SLOVAKIA ground to the types of people who lived in the village: 1) Oldtimers, 2) Immigrants, 3) The Justice of Peace, and 4) Boarders. All in all, the book presents an authentic portrayal of a phase of life that was and probably will never again be repeated. Doubtless, the book has not exhausted the memory bank, either of the writer or of the people who experienced a similar way of life. That's the key to the popularity of this book - -people can say, "Why I too re member an incident .... " In fact, Father Pier is writing the episodes for them in this book. So this collection of vignettes will stimulate others to recall and record their experiences so that our generation, and future generations, will not only find pleasure in reading about them, but derive inspiration in the great adventure of life under God. There is a pictorial supplement at the end of the book which seems like an afterthought, but it serves to strengthen the authenticity of th~ work that will hopefully open the door to a whole series of narrations of life in America at the early part of the 20th century. Joseph C. Krajsa Jednota Annual FURDEK. Edited by Joseph C. Krajsa. Published ny the First. Catholic Slovak Unnion, Cleveland, Ohio. l-rinted by Jednota Press, Middletown, Pa. Vol. XIV, 175 pages. Price : $3.00. This year's edition ot the annual Furdek, publication of the Jednota, features a number of new writers who join such regular standbys as Msgr. Jan Rekem, S.T.I'., and Dr. Joseph Kirschbaum, LL.D., Ph.D., of Canada, and Rev. Andrew Pier, O.S.B., and Daniel Tanzone of this country. Edward Kovac's "Ca., tles and Chateaux in Slovakia" with striking photographs of Bojnice, Orava, Lupca, Nedeca, Trencin, Strecno, Devin and Bratislava castles gives the reader a graphic picture of the beauty and gra11deur of only a few of the medieval strongholds in Slovakia, for altogether there are approximately two hundred castles and more than a thousand mansions scattered throughout the historic homeland of our Slovak forefathers. Father Stevko's pictorial montage of his variegated work as missioner, doctor and teacher in the Indonesian missions on the island of West Flores is a reminder of the fact that many Slovak priests, nuns, and Brothers are in the missions in Asia (Indonesia, the Philippines, Japan, South Korea, Burma, India), Africa and South America, as well as in New Guinea and a number of islands in the South Pacific, and Australia. "The Apostolate of Msgr . .C:ugen Filkorn" is a tribute to a dedicated and holy Slovak educator at the University of Bratislava by a former student at the Svoradov Catholic fraternity house at the Slovak university_ Daniel Tanzone's review of the life of Father K11basek on the occasion of the 25th anniversary of the Slovak leader's death in Yonkers, N.Y. is a timely rememberance of a remarkable personality. The panel with photographs of Slovak college students who won Jednota scholarships in 1974 (36 handsome boys and 25 attractive girls) is proof positive of the vital interest of the Jednota organization in higher education and of the high quality of intelligence in our talented youth. May our hopes in their future contributions to our 204 SLOVAKIA Slovak cause, our Jednota society and to American life be justified in the years ahead. By far the most colorful of the contents of the volume is the series of photos of the Sarisan Slovak folk-dancers of Detroit-Windsor and Pittsburgh's Slovakians directed by the dedicated Roman Niznik. "At the Lake" by Helen Majorossy, a new contributor (a talented linguist in Cleveland), is a pensive nature study. Sister M. Mercedes Voytko, SS. C.M., of Danville, Pa., analyzes the much debated controversy of the hyphen in "Czecho-Slovakia" and goes on to give an objective historical survey of the years from 1939 (the year of Slovak Independence and the formation of the Slovak Republic) to 1968 when the Soviet armies invaded the country and sealed its fate (for the time being at least) by leaving a permanent army of occupation. Slovak recruits for the Missionary Sisters of the Sacred Heart are listed by name and contributing Slovak parishes: St. Michael's, Lansford, Pa., St. John's, Allentown, Pa., SS. Cyril and Methodius, Bethlehem, Pa., SS. Cy;ril and Methodius, Coaldale, Pa., St. Andrew's, Catasauqua, Pa., St. Mary's, Northampton, Pa., St. Mary's, McAdoo, Pa., Sacred Heart, Palmerton, Pa., SS. Cyril and Methodius, Reading, Pa., Our Mother of Sorrows, Bridgeport, Pa. Sister M. Bridget Ulicny, M.SE.C., a Slovak nun, has been general superior of the 1700 Sisters of the Sacred Heart the past three years with headquarters in Rome, Italy. A somber and profound note is added to the Furdek annual by Msgr. Jan Rekem, S.T.D., by his "Philosophy of History of the Slovak nation." Dr. Kirschbaum's highly documented commentary "Slovak Language under Communism'' gives the reaqer insight into how the historic language of the Slovak nation has been strongly subjected to pressures by the postwar communist regime in the past three decades. Undoubtedly, the ground-breaking ceremonies that are depicted at the beginning of the annual show that our Jednota is forging ahead and keeping pace with the pressing needs of a hew era. The highly important event that marked the start of a building development program and expansion of the Jednota Press headquarters is truly historic. It is another great milestone in the progress of our fraternal society that is meeting the challenge of our times with renewed hope and vigor. Joyce Iezzi's "Slovak Traditions" and the accompanying picture of the mixed Church choir of St. Florian's parish in United, Pa., provide incontrovertible evidence that our ancient and time-honored liturgy is very much alive despite recent radica•l changes in Church worship in many quarters. Paul Berish's "Chit-Chats with a Giant" is so genuine and heartwarming that the article merits a niche in the literary hall of fame, and the incidental meeting with Karol Sidor reflects the lasting impression the great Slovak political leader and diplomat at the Vatican made upon a total stranger who was a true son of St. Francis. Our Lady of Levocha Shrine in Bedford, Ohio, rates a well deserv• ed historical background furnished origin;illy by Sister M. Augustine, V.S.C., from Slovak sources for her collaborator, Sr. M. Regis, V.S.C., SLOVAKIA the author of "The History of Our Lady of Levoca." Levoca (Levocha) is known to thousands of American Slovaks from the eastern Spis region where they were accustomed to go on pilgrimage each year to the famous Marian shrine in Slovakia. Editor's Note: On October 5, 1975, the Slovak nuns at the Marian shrine of Our Lady of Levocha in Bedford, Ohio, will commemorate the 45th anniversary of the Blessing of the statue (carved from the wood of an apple tree in Slovakia, touched by the miraculous statue of Mt. Levoca and sent to the U.S. in the summer of 1930) by Archbishop Joseph Schrembs, D.D. Nellie Kovalik, R.N., strikes an ecumenical note in her article, "New St. Gabriel's Candle" while Father Schmieder recalls the delightful activity of a lovable prelate "The Good Monsignor." Rev. Andrew V. Pier, O.S.B, Krcisa slovenskych pamiatkovych kostolov (The Beauty of Slovak Churches). Published by the St. Adalbert Society, Trnava, Slovakia. St. Adalbert Society Press, 1970. Slovakia can boast of many rare monuments of historical and artistic value, besides its wealth of natural beauty. One of the most important places among these monuments is taken by the old Roman Catholic churches which are unique from a historic, architectural and artistic point of view. These Slovak churches, whether they be cathe drals, or local parish churches are gems of sacred art from the gothic and baroque periods and are admired throughout international spheres of culture. Besides reflecting the art heritage of Slovakia 205 during specific periods, these churches remain a valuable source of art history. The review was published by the St. Adalbert Society (Spolok svateho Vojtecha ) in Trnava to com memorate the centenary of its founding in 1870. The front covel' depicts the majestic gothic sanctuary of St. Nicholas Cathedral in Trnava, enclosed by a septagonal apse and four sections of artistically worked reticulated vaulting. It was in this cathedral, which dates from the 14th century, that the founding meeting of the St. Adalbert Society took place on September 14, 1870. The following Slovak churchi:?s or shrines are depicted in this commemorative work: 1. The Holy Rood altar with the neo-gothic pulpit of the Cathedral of St. Martin in Bratislava. 2. The baroque altar in the sanctuary of the Good Church in thr Nitra Cathedral which dates from the year 1732 together with frescoes by G. A. Galliardi dating from 1720. 3. The gothic sanctuary and renaissance baroque main altar of the Roziiava cathedral dating from 1672. 4. The renaissance baroque main altar of St. Adalbert, dating from the 17th century in the Saris pilgrim shrine of Gaboltov. 5. The baroque main altar with the statue of the Sorrowful Mother, patroness of Slovakia in the basilica of Sastin. 6. The 15th century sanctuary and main altar of the pilgrim church at Stare Hory. 7. The gothic main altar, the work of Master Pavol of Levoca, together with frescoes dating from the 14th century in the pari,h church of St. James in Levoca. 8. The interior of the Marianka 206 SLOVAKIA pilgrim church, originally a gothic church today ornamented in baroque style. 9. The main altar of the Kosice Cathedral of Saint Elizabeth, the largest gothic altar in the world. 10. The reconstructed baroque Cathedral of the Assumption ln Banska Bystrica displaying main altar painting by J. L. Kracker dating from 1774. 11. The baroque Lady chapel, the work of G. R. Donner from the first half of the 18th century in the Cathedral of St. Nicholas in Trna'\la. 12. The 15th century altar of St. Michael the Archangel together with the main altar dating from the 19th century in the Church of St. Martin in Spisske Podhradie. The collection offers the student of Slovak ecclesiastical art a wide range of Slovak church art and architecture as found in Slovakia. Daniel F. Tanzone Slovak American Bicentennial Commission Through the initiative of the Slovak League of America and with the cooperative effort of the great majority of Slovak organizations, publications and other entities, a Slovak American Bicentennial Commission was formulated in 1974. The purpose of the Commission is to provide national celebrations commemorating the 200th Birthday of the United States of America in 1976. The first event will be held in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in March, and the second week-long celebration will be held in Detroit, Michigan in June. It is expected that many tens of thousands of Slovak Americans will attend the festivities in Detroit. The Commission will also publish a commemorative book Slovaks in America-A Bicentennial Study, which will encompass a brief history of the Slovak Americans. The officers of the Slovak American Bicentennial Commission are: President, Frances Mizenko, National Secretary of the First Catholic Slovak Ladies Association; Vice President, Dr. Joseph Pauco, National Secretary of the Slovak League of America; and Secretary, Joseph Kristofik, Detroit, Michigan. The Chairman of the Editorial Board for the publication of the book Slovaks in America-A Bicentennial Study is Joseph C. Kra,isa, Editor of Jednota SLOVAKIA 207 Who's Who Among Slovak Americans Ml CHAE L NOVAK Michael Novak has written two novels and several influential books, including The Rise of the Unmeltable Ethnics (1972), Choosing Our King (1974), The Experience of Nothingness (1970),A New Generation (1964), and Ascent of the Mountain, Flight of the Dove (1971). His books and articles have been published in nine languages. In two of his three years on the faculty at Stanford, 1967 and 1968, the Senior Class elected him "most influential professor." He was a judge for the National Bank Awards in 1972 and has been a juror for the DuPont Awards in Broadcast Journalism since 1971. He leads a seminar in television criticism for the Aspen Institute, and also chairs a private study group on the future of the city of Jerusalem. In 1970, he was a senior staff advisor for Sargent Shriver in congressional campaigns across the nation, and in 1972 he served with McGovern and then with Shriver. As associate director for humanities at the Rockefel- ler Foundation during 1973 and 1974, he created a new program for the humanities, ra1smg the Foundation's spending for the humanities from $400,000 to $4 million per year. He established a widely acclaimed Fellowship program, and instigated programs for working people and high school students under the title of "The Public Humanities.'' He has been a consultant to AT&T, IBM (for an interview in Think magazine), and has participated in many corporate seminars, including the annual seminar of Northern States Power Company in Minnesota. He is Executive Director of EMPAC (Ethnic Millions Political Action Committee), a consulting firm and membership organization, with a nationally recognized board and groups of active advisors in virtually every urban center. EMPAC supports aspirations for equality and justice on the part of the one in four Americans of white ethnic b a ck ground, particularly from Southern and Eastern European cultures. The firm is bi-partisan. !08 SLOVAKIA Annual S L O V A K I A is published by the Slovak league of America, 313 Ridge Ave., Middletown, Pa. 17057. Subscription $4.00. Editor: Joseph Pauco, Ph.D. Editorial Board: Draga Divinska, Louis Kandra, Joseph M. Kirschbaum, Ph.D., Susan Mikula, Ph.D., Joseph A. Mikus, Ph.D., Fr. Andrew Pier O.S.B., M.A., Daniel F. Tanzone, Sister M. Tybor, SS.C.M., M.A. Our Contributo rs Dr. Arved Grebert, former Slovak diplomat, now in Switzerland Sonya Jason, Slovak American author, Woodland Hills, Ca:it. Joseph Pauco, Ph.D., author, historian, Middletown, Pa. Theodoric J. Zubek, O.F.M., author, Joliet, Ill. Konstantin Cu/en, author, historian (deceased) Anthony X. Sutherland, Ph.D., Columbus, Ohio Daniel F. Tanzone, teacher, Yonkers, N. Y. Sister M. Pamela Smith, SS .C.M., teacher, Danville, Pa. Andrew V. Pier, O.S.B., author, Cleveland, Ohio Antonia Mazanova, on faculty of music, University of Western Ontario Gabor Vermes, department of history, Rutgers Universi ty J. M. Kirschbaum, LL.D., Ph.D., historian, Toronto, Ontario Joseph C. Krajsa , Editor, Jednota, Middletown, Pa. Paul Fia/kovic, Robert Pojer, John Berta - Slovak League of America Scholarship Winners PRI NTI D IN U.S. A. JIDN OTA PlllN TER Y, MID DLli TOW N, PA.  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Back Matter, Slovakia, Vol. 25 (No. 48) Description An account of the resource includes As Others See It; Book Reviews; Slovak American Bicentennial Commission; Who's Who Among Slovak Americans; Our Contributors Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1975 https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/c30f945dcf2daf44efdb7612fa4a4bf6.pdf bdd1e80a5e2b6d03615aa8421a4c8c36 PDF Text Text Editor JOSEPH PAU C 0, Ph.D. Published by: THE SLOVAK LEAGUE OF AMERICA 313 Ridge Avenue Middletown, Pennsylvania 17057 Volume XXIV Number 47 �SLOVAKIA • VOLUME XXIV 1974 • NO. 47 Editor JOSEPH PAUCO, Ph.D. . Published by THE SLOVAK LEAGUE OF AMERICA 313 Ridge Avenue • Middletown, Pennsylvania 17057 �Printed by JEDNOTA PRINTERY, Middletown, Pennsylvania, U.S. A. �s SLOVAKIA Contents Ma:i:imilian Hell, S. J. - Stephen Sencik, S. J. - 5 Anthony X. Suther- Tiso's Formative Years and Early Political Career - land, Ph.D. - 24 Sr. Martina Tybor, SS.C.M. - Philip A . Hrobak - 36 Andrew Pier, The 35th Anniversary of Slovak Independence Day - O.S.B. - 51 American Sl.ovaks Lost a Great Man - Stephen B. Roman - Slovak Destiny - Joseph C. Krajsa - 54 57 Slovak League of America and Slovak World Congress - Behuncik - Edward J. 60 Slovaks Abr,oad and Their Role in Slovakia's Struggle for Freedom - J. M. Kirschbaum, Ph.D. Slovak Pioneers in America Slovaks in Blandburg - 63 Joseph Pauco, Ph.D. - Andrew Pier, O.S.B. - · 80 . . • Michael O'Pake, Esq. - Slovak Heritage - The Youth Conference - Tanzone - 67 84 Slovak League of America - Daniel F. 88 Some Personal Observations • on the 1973 Slovak League of America Conference - Susan Pojer, B.A. 92 One Species, Many Cultures - Michael Novak - 96 The Artful Dodgers: Directors of Ethnic Studies Programs Fenchak - Paul 112 Survey Research and Ethnic Studies Great Slovak Talent - Steven I. Miller, Ph.D. 120 130 The Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius and the Preservation of Slovak Culture in America - William Wagner 132 156 Famous Slovak Inve'ntors - Slovak Background of Events Through the Soviet Takeover in 1968 Jane Noonan - 162 The Slovak Arts in Perspective Slovak som ja - Marlene Bartos - Stephen John Knoblock - Noted Slovak Jubilarians - J. M. Kirschbaum - 210 Current Issues - As the Others See It - 213 Who's Who Among American Slovaks Book Reviews - 217 Our Contributors - 232 169 177 215 Francis Vnuk - 181 �SLOVAKIA Annual S L O V A K I A is published by the Slovak League of America, 313 Ridge Avenue, Middletown, Pa. 17057. Subscription $4.00. Editor: Joseph Pa u co, Ph .D. Editorial Board: Draga Divinska, Louis Kandra , Joseph M. Kirschbaum, Ph.D., Susan Mikula, M.A., Joseph A. Mikus, Ph .D., Fr. Andrew Pier, O.S.B., M.A. , Daniel F. Tanzone, M.A., Sister Martina Tybor, SS.C.M., M.A. � Editor JOSEPH PAU C 0, Ph.D. Published by: THE SLOVAK LEAGUE OF AMERICA 313 Ridge Avenue Middletown, Pennsylvania 17057 Volume XXIV Number 47 �SLOVAKIA • VOLUME XXIV 1974 • NO. 47 Editor JOSEPH PAUCO, Ph.D. . Published by THE SLOVAK LEAGUE OF AMERICA 313 Ridge Avenue • Middletown, Pennsylvania 17057 �Printed by JEDNOTA PRINTERY, Middletown, Pennsylvania, U.S. A. �s SLOVAKIA Contents Ma:i:imilian Hell, S. J. - Stephen Sencik, S. J. - 5 Anthony X. Suther- Tiso's Formative Years and Early Political Career - land, Ph.D. - 24 Sr. Martina Tybor, SS.C.M. - Philip A . Hrobak - 36 Andrew Pier, The 35th Anniversary of Slovak Independence Day - O.S.B. - 51 American Sl.ovaks Lost a Great Man - Stephen B. Roman - Slovak Destiny - Joseph C. Krajsa - 54 57 Slovak League of America and Slovak World Congress - Behuncik - Edward J. 60 Slovaks Abr,oad and Their Role in Slovakia's Struggle for Freedom - J. M. Kirschbaum, Ph.D. Slovak Pioneers in America Slovaks in Blandburg - 63 Joseph Pauco, Ph.D. - Andrew Pier, O.S.B. - · 80 . . • Michael O'Pake, Esq. - Slovak Heritage - The Youth Conference - Tanzone - 67 84 Slovak League of America - Daniel F. 88 Some Personal Observations • on the 1973 Slovak League of America Conference - Susan Pojer, B.A. 92 One Species, Many Cultures - Michael Novak - 96 The Artful Dodgers: Directors of Ethnic Studies Programs Fenchak - Paul 112 Survey Research and Ethnic Studies Great Slovak Talent - Steven I. Miller, Ph.D. 120 130 The Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius and the Preservation of Slovak Culture in America - William Wagner 132 156 Famous Slovak Inve'ntors - Slovak Background of Events Through the Soviet Takeover in 1968 Jane Noonan - 162 The Slovak Arts in Perspective Slovak som ja - Marlene Bartos - Stephen John Knoblock - Noted Slovak Jubilarians - J. M. Kirschbaum - 210 Current Issues - As the Others See It - 213 Who's Who Among American Slovaks Book Reviews - 217 Our Contributors - 232 169 177 215 Francis Vnuk - 181 �SLOVAKIA Annual S L O V A K I A is published by the Slovak League of America, 313 Ridge Avenue, Middletown, Pa. 17057. Subscription $4.00. Editor: Joseph Pa u co, Ph .D. Editorial Board: Draga Divinska, Louis Kandra , Joseph M. Kirschbaum, Ph.D., Susan Mikula, M.A., Joseph A. Mikus, Ph .D., Fr. Andrew Pier, O.S.B., M.A. , Daniel F. Tanzone, M.A., Sister Martina Tybor, SS.C.M., M.A. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1974, Vol. 24 Description An account of the resource Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document Editor JOSEPH PAU C 0, Ph.D. Published by: THE SLOVAK LEAGUE OF AMERICA 313 Ridge Avenue Middletown, Pennsylvania 17057 Volume XXIV Number 47 SLOVAKIA • VOLUME XXIV 1974 • NO. 47 Editor JOSEPH PAUCO, Ph.D. . Published by THE SLOVAK LEAGUE OF AMERICA 313 Ridge Avenue • Middletown, Pennsylvania 17057 Printed by JEDNOTA PRINTERY, Middletown, Pennsylvania, U.S. A. s SLOVAKIA Contents Ma:i:imilian Hell, S. J. - Stephen Sencik, S. J. - 5 Anthony X. Suther- Tiso's Formative Years and Early Political Career - land, Ph.D. - 24 Sr. Martina Tybor, SS.C.M. - Philip A . Hrobak - 36 Andrew Pier, The 35th Anniversary of Slovak Independence Day - O.S.B. - 51 American Sl.ovaks Lost a Great Man - Stephen B. Roman - Slovak Destiny - Joseph C. Krajsa - 54 57 Slovak League of America and Slovak World Congress - Behuncik - Edward J. 60 Slovaks Abr,oad and Their Role in Slovakia's Struggle for Freedom - J. M. Kirschbaum, Ph.D. Slovak Pioneers in America Slovaks in Blandburg - 63 Joseph Pauco, Ph.D. - Andrew Pier, O.S.B. - · 80 . . • Michael O'Pake, Esq. - Slovak Heritage - The Youth Conference - Tanzone - 67 84 Slovak League of America - Daniel F. 88 Some Personal Observations • on the 1973 Slovak League of America Conference - Susan Pojer, B.A. 92 One Species, Many Cultures - Michael Novak - 96 The Artful Dodgers: Directors of Ethnic Studies Programs Fenchak - Paul 112 Survey Research and Ethnic Studies Great Slovak Talent - Steven I. Miller, Ph.D. 120 130 The Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius and the Preservation of Slovak Culture in America - William Wagner 132 156 Famous Slovak Inve'ntors - Slovak Background of Events Through the Soviet Takeover in 1968 Jane Noonan - 162 The Slovak Arts in Perspective Slovak som ja - Marlene Bartos - Stephen John Knoblock - Noted Slovak Jubilarians - J. M. Kirschbaum - 210 Current Issues - As the Others See It - 213 Who's Who Among American Slovaks Book Reviews - 217 Our Contributors - 232 169 177 215 Francis Vnuk - 181 SLOVAKIA Annual S L O V A K I A is published by the Slovak League of America, 313 Ridge Avenue, Middletown, Pa. 17057. Subscription $4.00. Editor: Joseph Pa u co, Ph .D. Editorial Board: Draga Divinska, Louis Kandra , Joseph M. Kirschbaum, Ph.D., Susan Mikula, M.A., Joseph A. Mikus, Ph .D., Fr. Andrew Pier, O.S.B., M.A. , Daniel F. Tanzone, M.A., Sister Martina Tybor, SS.C.M., M.A.  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Front Matter, Slovakia, Vol. 24 (No. 47) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/a28a545fdb27eebc30f45d742ea38300.pdf 07206094eaf8fe13e0a91ee9ffad8b4b PDF Text Text SLOVAKIA Stephen S e n t 5 f k , S. J. Maximilian Hell, S.J. SLOVAK SCIENTIST OF WORLD RENOWN 1720-1792 On the occasion of a world-wide commemoration of the 250th anniversary of the birth of the Jesuit Maximilian Hell, which was sponsored by the international organization UNESCO, the Slovak Museum of Mining in Banska Stiavnica, Slovakia, published a worthy volume of lectures selected from a learned conference that was convoked in honor of the achievements of this distinguished scientist and remarkable teacher. The fact that a Slovak scholar was rightfully among those who were considered and assigned a place on the calendar of world-wide celebrations and that he was, in fact, universally recognized and honored-even with the liistinction of a commemorative UNESCO postal stampnaturally reflects honor not only on the man but also on his homeland, Slovakia. It likewise brings a degree of prestige of Slovak scholars who are devoted to scientific pursuit and it provides even the average layman with an opportunity to turn attention to the Slovak past and perhaps to catch in it at least a glimpse of some significant features that have long been indistinct or wholly unknown until now. In the thoughtful study titled "Banska Stiavnica-the Natural Environment of Maximilian Hell," (one of the papers published in the above-mentioned volume, cf. pp. 40 ff.) Dr. Jozef Vlachovic writes: "A thoughtful study of that period in the history of Banska Stiavnica brings one many a surprise and prompts frank admiration for the inhabitants of that town in its early days of economic growth. Largely because of their unmitigated effort, which appears to have been almost superhuman at times, and by reason of their remarkable intellectual gifts and physical stamina, they developed their community to an exceptional �6 SLOVAKIA degree of prosperity and progress." Dr. Vlachovic also notes that many aspects of the city's history and its. uniquely flourishing mining industry have not yet been adequately researched and should become the object of proper scholarly investigation. Encouraged by this observation, this writer has undertaken at least a bri~f exploration of the life and times of Maximilian Hell. The main objective · is to examine the highlights of his life and to survey the general environment in which the scientist was shaped, noting the influences that had contributed to the molding of his character and the bent of his scientific activities. FAMILY INFLUENCES The axiomatic principle that the earliest and strongest influences in life come from the home was borne out in the early shaping of the personality of Maximilian Hell who came of a family that was extraordinary in some respects. His father was Matthias Cornelius Hell, born c. 1650. It is very likely that he was of German background although his birthplace was Horny Slavkov near Pribram. He.began his working career in the Czech mining industry. It is generally agreed that he must have been gifted and industrious; this surmise is substantiated by the fact that he rapidly advanced in his working position so that although he was still a very young man, he was soon ranked as a highly qualified mining technician. He was, however, the kind of technician who not only mastered the intricacies of the industrial equipment readily and was able to increase production significantly, but he could also turn his keen perception and deep concern to the welfare and safety of the men who worked in the mines. His sense of responsibility reached out to men as well as to machines. In 1694, when Matthias Hell was in the prime of his manhood and had already enjoyed some recognition for his achievements, Count :Cudovit Thavonath, the chairman of a mining commission and recruiter of highly qualified experts for the mining industry, offered him a position in Banska stiavnica. The offer was attractive to Hell and he decided to accept it. This was the circumstance that brought the Heil family to the stiavnica mining region; Matthias Hell adjusted to the new surroundings easily. �SLOVAKIA 7 His characteristic devotion to duty and scrupulous sense of' responsibility, his competence and skill as well as his f:r1endly and understanding attitude toward his fellow workers and his subordinates soon won him many friends and admirers. These traits also recommended him for early promotion, and before long he was named chief industrial engineer of the stiavnica mining enterprise. In this position he became the promoter of remarkably improved technical prbcedtires. He also won great acciaim for the construction of water works in the vicinity of Banska stiavnica. On three separate occasions it was Hell who saved the stiavnica mines from utter ruin or from closing. Around 1700, the entire stiavnica mining operation was imperiled because the underground water level had risen to a critical high. In the face of this danger, the mines were all but abandoned until Matthias Hell master-minded a practical plan to save them. Harnessing water power drawn from the dikes built in the mine area, he put machinery to work-for pumpirtg out the excess underground water accumulation. In 1703, the revolutionary forces of George Rakoczy II seized central Slovakia and dispossessed Count Thavonath. In these troubled time mine production declined appreciably · and Rakoczy ordered General Berceny to halt all mining operations and to level the entire facility. Matthias Hell knew how very unwise and irresponsible such a procedure would be and he prevailed upon General Berceny not to carry out this order. Later, after the suppression of the Rakoczy uprising and a ret:urn to normalcy, the mines were again threatened because there were insufficient funds for reconstruction and .the proper updating of the plant in order to insure effective and profitable production. An executive order brought work to a standstill and it appeared that the industry was doomed. In this predicament, Hell intervened with a personal appeal made in the course of an interview with Emperor Joseph I of Vienna. He succeeded in prevailing upon the sovereign to realize that the reconstruction and restoration of the mines would bring public benefit and economic prosperity to this part of his realm. After the death of his wife, Matthias Hell lived as a widower for some time, doing his best to bring up his �8 SLOVAKIA children satisfactorily. On September 22, 1707, however, he married Julia Victoria Steindel who came of a GermanSlovak family in $tiavnica. This marriage was blest with four sons, each of whom distinguished himself in some way of life. The eldest, Ignatius Cornelius, became an outstanding engineer engaged in analyzing and assaying the various types of ore that were extracted in the $tiavnica mines. Joseph Charles, the second eldest, earned recognition and a degree of fame for a number of discoveries and inventions related to the mining industry. Some of the scientific and technical principles underlying these devices are still used to advantage throughout the world, even to our day. On May 15, 1720, when Matthias Cornelius Hell was already seventy years old, his third son was born. At his baptism in the Jesuit church in Banska $tiavnica he was given the name Maximilian. The occasion was solemn and significant, and a special aura was added to the ceremonies because the godparents were Count Tavonath and his wife. The fourth son in the family was Michael who distinguished himself in the local community as a chief inspector of the pumping operation in the mines. The Hell family had special regard for religious and intellectual training. The parents were solicitous about providing for their children a solid and wholesome preparation for life, and the children were intellectually gifted and responsive, all of them showing a special aptitude for mathematical and natural sciences. The fact that the mining school center was located at Vindsachta where the Hell family lived, made drawing boards and mapping materials, charts and model of mine working equipment, libraries and many learning aids accessible to the children, and they readily became very familiar with all these resources, deriving an excellent general and broadening education out of this circumstance. The scientific genius of Maximilian Hell found much opportunity for expression in this milieu of central-Slovak mining towns where socio-economic development was at a peak. This factor makes it advisable to pause a bit in order to survey the background with at least cursory interest. HANSKA $TIAVNICA was a leading city in Slovakia. As a matter of fact, it �SLOVAKIA 9 was second in rank, coming right after Bratislava, the capital city, and by actual count it had three hundred buildings more than Bratislava. Very early references to goldsmiths and to metal mining in the area can be traced back to at least the year 1075. In the sixteenth century events so shaped themselves that the city had every assurance of securely laid foundations for its cultural growth and for long-range prosperity of a high order. A large number of outstanding leaders in the field of technology and scientists of established repute came to reside in Banska stiavnica. The success and prosperity of the city were conditioned primarily on the natural underground richness of its mineral deposits and secondarily on other significant factors. In 1587 Banska stiavnica became the seat of the municipal treasury or finance department and the recognized head of seven mining cities in central Slovakia that had formed a partnership for mutual defense in the face of the Turkish menace and for united resistance to John Zapol'sky. Later most of the city's mining interests passed into the hands of affluent citizens so that the industry was not controlled by foreign investors but it developed and thrived on the capital of its own citizens who were characteristically energetic, hard-working and well educated individuals. The increase of mining output and the expansion of the mining industry as a whole were commensurate with the rising level of scholastic standards and academic opportunities, with the remarkable development of the educational system and with the rapidly advancing cultural status of the townspeople in stiavnica. In 1725 Banska stiavnica opened a technical school of mining which later evolved into a school of advanced learning and by 1770 became the Mining Academy for specialized study. It was the first advanced school of its kind in all Europe, attracting widespread attention for its departments of chemistry and physics. It had the unique distinction of being the first school in the history of education to introduce the laboratory method of instruction in chemistry. European technical schools were greatly interested in the outcomes of scientific experiments that were conducted in the innovated laboratory classes at the school. The Polytechnic Institute of Paris adopted the laboratory �10 SLOVAKIA method of instruction in chemistry as it had been introduced in the Academy of Mining in Banska stiavnica. Before long, other European polytechnic schools and universities also did so. Excellently equipped laboratories, an eminently qualified staff of teachers and research scholars as well as an environment and atmosphere conducive to pursuits of learning and research attracted scientists and inventors of established name to come to Banska stiavnica. For example: Volta, Tandi, Lippi, Savarezi, Melograni and a number of experts associated with the Spanish mining endeavors in America had devoted some time to specialized study in the laboratories at Banska stiavnica. The great demand for young engineers who had finished their studies at Banska stiavnica testifies to the high quality of schooling that was offered here. Early in the nineteenth century the sultan Mohammed invited into his service twelve graduates of this school, one of whom-John Knechtel-became the supervisor of mines in the Turkish empire. It was mainly because of the stimulus provided by the Mining Academy that the first world congress of natural scientists, attended largely by metallurgists and chemists, was held in Sklene Teplice in 1786. The International Society of Mining Science was established at this congress. Among its charter members were Anton Ruprecht and the Jesuit Nicholas Poda, both of whom were members of the faculty at the Mining Academy. Banska stiavnica reached the peak of its glory and prosperity in the first half of the eighteenth century. At that time its mining enterprises employed at least eight thousand workers and specialized technicians. The population of the city was always predominantly Slovak. In 1715, for example, its leading families registered these national origins or backgrounds: 424 Slovak, 360 German, and only 20 Magyar. Practically everyone who lived in the city was fluent in three languages: Slovak, German and Magyar. By the close of the eighteenth century, however, the city began to decline because it was no longer able to provide adequate job opportunities in the local mines and foundries. In the nineteenth century mining and �SLOVAKIA 11 metal works were superseded by other industrial interests that were introduced into Banska stiavnica. BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF MAXIMILIAN HELL Early in his life Maximilian Hell gave every indication of precocious gifts and talents, and the home and family in which he was nurtured greatly contributed to the full development of his natural endowments. Although his health began to fail, the aged father still continued to discharge his responsibilities as chief mining engineer and at the same time, he conscientiously saw to the consistently thorough and sound training of his sons. All four boys acquired their earliest acquaintance with scientific lore and some basic in the study of science from their father right at home. Later they were able to build on these fundamentals when they attended the already famed Mining Academy. Even in his boyhood, Maximilian was strongly influenced by the Jesuit professors in Banska stiavnica who were remarkably dedicated priests and were now involved in vital movement to restore Catholicism in this town which was recovering after the defeat of Rakoczy. These Jesuits had a well established mission in the village Vindsachta where the Hell family lived. One of their principal concerns was the education and proper training of the younger generation. As one measure toward this end they had founded a junior high school in Banska stiavnica and the boys of their school won many accolades for their dramatic presentations and declamations as well as for their performances in public examinations. Later a number of Jesuits also taught at the Mining Academy, especially in the departments of Latin, rhetoric and poetry. Father Nicholas Poda and Father Charles Tierenberger were heads of mathematics, mechanics and physics. They were famed experts in their specialized fields and they were excellent educators as well. Father Poda produced a textbook on mechanical engineering with special reference to the mining industry. It was the first textbook of its kind. For many decades the hand written lecture notes of Father Tierenberger were valued as a kind of mathematics handbook. Much of their substance and method still �12 SLOVAKIA had some value in practical application as late as the beginning of our century. There is no question about the lasting influence of the Jesuits upon the formative years of Maximilian Hell's life. Even from early boyhood he cultivated a strong inclination to develop his talents in their Society. He knew with what devotion the Jesuits promoted science and learning together with profound spirituality, for he had living examples of this kind of life in action and in its full reality as often as he looked about at the inspiration of Jesuit teachers in his midst, men who were effectively combined intensive religious life with specialized skills and scholarship in the natural sciences. On the recommendation of local teachers, the father sent his growing son to schools in Banska Bystrica where he could enroll in humanities courses at the Jesuit senior high school. In 1738 Maximilian Hell entered the Jesuit novitiate in Trencin. He was then a promising young man of eighteen. He devoted two years to the exclusive study of the fundamentals of religious life as it is lived in the Society of Jesus. Marginally, he continued his interest in the natural sciences, principally in mathematics. After his novitiate training was completed in 1740, his superiors sent him to Vienna for further study. This was the first time that he left his native Slovakia but he knew that his absence would be only temporary, that he would return one day with a rich store of enlarged knowledge and new experiences that could be shared with his countrymen. His life and accomplishments prove that this aspiration was no empty dream. Hell began his studies in Vienna by enrolling in the department of philosophy. In his day, this department also offered courses in what was catalogued as natural philoso phy and included the study of mathematics, physics and astronomy. These were the courses that interested Maximilian Hell the most. During the time that he was absorbed in mastering these natural sciences at Vienna, he also published his first book Elementa algebrae. The university at Vienna opened a new phase of life for the aspiring Jesuit. Two outstanding Jesuit educators who took note of this brilliant student were Erasmus Frolich, professor of mathematics, applied science in mechanics and history; and Joseph Franz, lecturer in philosophy, who �SLOVAKIA 13 was also devoted to exploring problems in mmmg and astronomy-subjects from the dark pits in the deep earth to the distant vaults in the skies. Franz already enjoyed an established reputation in the world of science, for he was the founder and the director of the Oriental Institute in Vienna. Both his diplomatic and his study tours in Turkey and in Asia Minor had yielded him a great deal of interesting and useful information, especially in matters of Oriental astronomy, mathematics and physics. He became very fond of Maximilian Hell whom he esteemed mainly because of his grasp in mining technology and his practical understanding of mining machines and equipment. Aware of these qualifications in Hell, Franz chose him to be the recipient of a special fellowship and to serve as an assistant in his department. Later he introduced him to the wonders of astronomy and in time he made him an assistant in the Jesuit observatory. Maximilian became enchanted by this science of the heavens and he discovered that here at least was his greatest prospect for the direct application of his attractions and his natural capacities for natural science and mathematics. It is standard Jesuit practice that after two years of study in philosophy, a candidate devotes a year or two to actual teaching and work in the apostolate in order to benefit from such realistic experience and to test innate capacities. On his personal initiative Maximilian Hell petitioned his superiors to assign him to some work of this nature in his native Slovakia. This reasonable request was honored and he was sent to teach Latin, Greek, history and geography at the high school in Levoca. Later he himself added mathematics to the courses that he taught and in his free time he continued the study of astronomy which fascinated him thoroughly. He proved to be very effective in his work with Slovak high school students as well as in his activities among the local people. They admired him greatly and were impressed by his personality and his intellectual gifts. From Levoca Hell often visited his friend Adam Kollar who taught in Liptovsky Sv. Mikulas. He, too, had had Jesuit training in the background but he decided to leave the Society before ordination. After two years of teaching at the high school in Levoca, Hell returned to Vienna for theological studies which lasted �14 SLOVAKIA four years, and finally in 1751 he achieved the most ardent hope of his lifetime when he was ordained priest. In this same year he was also awarded the academic degree Doctor of Philosophy. After ordination he taught for some time at the humanities school in Banska Bystrica which was quite close to his native Banska stiavnica. This made it possible for him to keep in close touch with his brother Joseph who was employed as a mechanical engineer. Pooling his talents with Samuel Makovini he was busily engaged in constructing a new pumping device to control the water level in the mines. The unusual feature of this pumping machine lay in the fact that it was not dependent on motor power or on levers, on pressure valves or pistons, but its operational force was pressurized water power alone. Maximilian was of great help to Joseph in this undertaking, for he worked out sensitive mathematical calculations that were involved in the planning. At the same time he was broadening and deepening his own mastery of physics. Interestingly, 110 years later this ingenious concept of the Hell brothers of using the force of pressurized air to pump liquids was put to practical use for the first time when the United States undertook operations to extract crude oil out of Pennsylvania oil fields. The discovery of the Hell brothers became the common property of all men. While he was in Banska Bystrica, Maximilian successfully completed what is termed the third probationary period in the Jesuit formation program and he became a full-fledged member, dedicated to a lifetime career in the Society. At the request of Count Konigseck, who was very influential in the mining industry and who was well acquainted with the Hell family, and with the sanction of his immediate -superiors, the young Jesuit tutored the Count's son in mathematics and physics for some time, helping to prepare him for a lifetime office in mining supervision. It should be kept in mind that at this time the Mining Academy was not yet founded in Banska stiavnica. The tutorial service that Hell performed for Count Konigseck's son really made of him a pioneer in mining instruction on the secondary level. It was ten years later-specifically on April 3, 1770-that Empress Maria Theresa, Queen of �SLOVAKIA 15 Hungary and Bohemia, granted approbation to the proposal presented by Count Novohradsky after mature deliberation with Professor Hell, for the founding of the Mining Academy which was to be an advanced technical institute of mining in Banska stiavnica. Hell was also commissioned to translate the mining statutes of Hungary (the old multinational state) from German into Latin. This event too indicates what respect Maximilian Hell commanded in scientific circles, for a task of this kind could be entrusted only to one with proven abilities not only in fluent Latin expression but also with a command of clear and precise mining terminology. Though Hell was greatly preoccupied with these activities, his study of astronomy did not suffer in any way. As a matter of fact, he made steady progress in this science and his prestige among astronomers continued to grow. In 1752 Dean Borgias Keri of the University of Trnava approached him about the founding of a university observatory. Hell welcomed the proposition, for if he had a particular ambition, it was to see his native Slovakia advance significantly in scientific scholarship as well as in all branches of learning. After an all-too-brief stay of one year in Trnava, Hell was assigned to Kluz in present-day Rumania where he was to establish a new college and build an observatory. He devoted three years of intensive work to this task. In the course of this time, however, he not only supervised the construction of the college and its observatory but he also taught mathematics and found time for the apostolic work of pastoral service among the Slovaks and Germans who were beginning to settle in Kluz and its vicinity and were in need of priestly ministry. By way of a marginal professional undertaking, he also compiled and published some handbooks in mathematics. In formal professional circles Hell earned not only recognition but even evident regard and esteem for his scholarly proficiency and his achievements in mathematics, physics and astronomy. After the eminent natural scientist and mathematician John Marinoni died in Vienna, Hell was invited to that city and was named director of the new observatory at the University of Vienna. In the discharge of this office he created extraordinary and needful pressure �16 SLOVAKIA in order to provide for the observatory the newest kind of equipment that was available in that day. In line of duty, he devoted meticulous attention to the movement of heavenly bodies, conducted guided tours of the observatory on behalf of noteworthy visitors, collaborated with projects of scientific institutes outside the country, supervised the publication of calendars of astronomic interest and information, and conducted sessions in the practical study of astronomy and observation of heavenly bodies. From 1755 on, Hell undertook very serious efforts to correlate and coordinate the theoretic and the practical aspects of science. He was gratifyingly successful in the endeavor. With a sense of elation he accepted an offer to teach mechanics and to conduct lectures for aspiring builders, construction engineers and artists. In time, Hell found himself constrained to resign his teaching commitments because of the burdens of office. He had become court astronomer and mathematician as well as editor of the learned astronomy annual Ephemerides Astronomicae. The greatest of demands were made on him by this journal which he compiled and edited for 37 years, except for some brief and intermittent periods. It brought its readers pertinent mathematical tables and calculations and almanac-styled articles on heavenly phenomena, primarily the movement of the principal heavenly bodies: the sun, the moon and the stars. Hell also made of this annual the publications vehicle for reports on astronomic observations from many European observatories. His prestigious position as well as his deservedly respected reputation as a remarkable scholar and an accomplished scientist together with his winning disposition and gracious manner all worked to the good in attracting the cooperation of significant men of science and learning in other countries. This editing of a scientific journal of this nature was a pioneering venture. England launched a similar publication only ten years later. The Berlin Academy did not initiate such a publication until two decades later. THE ACCOMPLISHMENTS OF MAXIMILIAN HELL Writing in the periodical The Slovak Jesuits in Canada �SLOVAKIA 17 <1970, p. 48) Dr. Robert Bajcar observes that "It is a challenging and complex task to evaluate the achievements of Maximilian Hell. This is due largely to the fact that the man himself is an impressive personality of uncommon stature and his is a broad spectrum of interests with a markedly varied field of activity. Nor is it a simple matter to do this uniquely versatile scientist justice by appropriate placement in proper historic and generic classifications." Dr. Bajcar feels that Maximilian Hell is first and foremost an astronomer. In this appreciation of Hell, however, we choose to review his contributions to his native land and to speak of his scientific expedition to the polar regions m the company of John ~ajnovic, another Slovak Jesuit scholar. It is an interesting detail of research findings that the first efforts to organize scientific activities and interests in the multinational and polyglot country of Hungary were begun in Slovak lands. In 1763 Adam Kollar, honored by his colleagues with the epithet "The Slovak Socrates," addressed to Hungarian scholars and learned citizens his proposal for founding a Hungarian learned society whose members would concern themselves with active participation in or the support of research into the history, natural science, economics and political science of Hungary. Two years later, Kollar published a Latin document justifying the taxation of properties owned by the Church and the nobility. This offended many sensibilities and the aristocracy retaliated with an official proclamation in parliament by which Kollar was denounced as a traitor and his paper was publicly burned at an open demonstration in the courtyard of the Bratislava townhall. Maria Theresa exonerated Kollar, her official director at the imperial library, but she tabled his proposal for the founding of a learned society. A second endeavor to establish a Hungarian learned society was made in 1771. This one, too, was initiated in Slovakia. This time the proposition was presented to Maria Theresa anonymously although it is generally surmised that is was formulated by Kollar, Trstiansky and Count Teleki. The proposed body was to be called Academia Augusta and was to consist of four departments: philosophy, history, political economy and education. In May, 1774, �18 SLOVAKIA the court counselor authorized Adam Kollar and Maximilian Hell to draft the charter and the by-laws of the projected association. For a long time Hell had given much thought to the prospects of organizing scientific thought and activities. He had his own preconceptions about the nature and objectives of a learned body, and unhappily his ideas did not square with Kalla.r's. Hell envisioned niceties of distinction between the university as a pedagogical institution and the learned academy as a scientific institute. He believed that: It is the function of a lecturer or a professor in a given discipline to present the subject matter of a course within its current context and degree of development together with all available findings that are related to it at that time and in such a manner that it will be readily comprehended and assimilated by the average student in attendance ... An active member of the learned society, on the other hand, is responsible not only for demonstrating professional mastery in his specialized field, but he likewise bears the responsibility of bring,i ng the fruits and findings of personal study, eocperimentation and research, the responsibility of making new contribution to the general store of data already available in that field. Members of a learned institute bring discovery and enrichment to science and learning; professors, by contrast, present to their classes and audiences facts and explanations bearing on the findings made by learned societies in order to enlarge and expand knowledge that is already available. By Hell's definition then, the essential scientist is intrinsically a discoverer of new facts or new ideas. For this reason, Hell was convinced that this unique aspect of science scholarship had to be a characteristic and integral feature of the authentic academy of sciences. There is fundamental truth in the perceptive thinking of Hell but this was thoroughly radical thinking in his day. It was also truly radical, for example, to consider Hell's exclusion of the hwnanities from the academy. His philosophy of thinking out the structure of the academy ruled out history, law, linguistics, the fine arts and related disciplines. It is not surprising then that Hell's plan was vigorously opposed by the humanists. As a matter of fact, Kollar himself came to take a stand against Hell and his unrelenting position. Hell also had ideas of his own concerning the financial �SLOVAKIA 19 security of the proposed academy. He proposed that it be supported by the publication of scientific almanacs that would be promoted throughout all the countries of the Habsburg empire. Officialdom in Hungary did not endorse this plan but offered the counter-proposal that the academy be established with headquarters in Trnava, where the University of Trnava would see to its functioning. This time it was Hell's proposal that was relegated ad acta. But his hopes and his efforts to organize scientific thought and activities in home reasonable way were not entirely in vain. The international science institute which was founded in Sklene Teplice in 1786 never would have been established in Slovakia had its establishment not been proceded by the hopeful plans and efforts of scientists like Hell and Kollar. A significant contribution of Maximilian Hell to the Slovak world of science was his construction of an observatory at the University of Trnava. At this time in the history of learning and education, an observatory had more than scientific value exclusively; it also satisfied academic and practical roles. Hell's peculiar genius lay in his ability to combine scientific theory with practical application. His scientific almanacs were sought not only by specialists in astronomy but by geographers, mariners, travelers and military strategists as well. He was proficient in using scientific knowledge to good purpose for many practical uses. Danish astronomers and sailors were especially eager to have his publications. One year after his accession to the throne, the young King Christian officially invited Hell to come to Denmark and offered him a commission to take charge of astronomic observation on Warde Island in the icy North Sea during the eclipse of the sun on June 3, 1769. With the consent of Maria Theresa, Hell accepted the King's offer and made necessary preparations for the journey and for the observation study. He chose for his companion a fellow-Jesuit John sajnowho was his junior by thirteen years. Sajnovic had experience as an assistant at the Trnava University observatory which Hell had founded. Both men were natives of the same region, they were of compatible disposition and vic �20 SLOVAKIA had many interests in common. The younger man was entrusted with all the details of the journey by land and by sea, and he was to prepare the physical features of the observation station on Warde Island. Hell was to look after the essentially scientific details connected with the task of observation and with the keeping of a scientific diary and official records. A secondary assignment for sajnovic was to study the flora and fauna of Lapland as well as the native Laplanders, the Eskimos and the Finns; their language, customs and culture-truly a formidable and responsible task. Hell added to his main objectives a study of the aurora borealis, the magnetic needle and the Gulf Stream-its influence on storms, etc. On April 28, 1768 Hell and sajnovic set out on the long expedition from Vienna to the Arctic Circle. The journey was long and taxing, requiring all of five months. On October 1, they finally reached their destination, Warde Island in the frozen North Sea. The work to which they set themselves there was even more strenuous than their journey had been. Their new surroundings were utterly strange, strange beyond all expectations. The polar summer was chilling, the sky was usually overcast, and the entire landscape and seascape were shrouded in fog. They set to work energetically building their research station and made eager preparation for June 3, the date of the eclipse when Venus was to pass between the sun and the earth, blotting out the sun's light. Hell's scientific log, his astute observations together with his scientific notations and calculations made in connection with this phenomenon became a substantial contribution to the composite fund of world facts in astronomy. On returning from this expedition, Hell presented himself before a session convoked by the Academy of Sciences at Copenhagen and delivered a thorough report on his journey, his observations and his conclusions. He promised to send a copy of this report to the Danish king. As a token of gratitude, Christian II granted Hell an annual pension of a thousand gulden but Hell graciously declined the bounty of the King. �SLOVAKIA 21 When Hell reached Vienna, he worked out some of his notes in greater detail and an account of his research and observation was published in a 1771 annual devoted to astronomy. Shortly afterwards he prepared another work on this subject. It was published as a French study in Journal des savants in 1776. Hell had set himself the further task of preparing a meticulously detailed account which was to be published in three comprehensive volumes but this scholarly work was never completed because the suppression of the Society of Jesus brought it to a halt. This unfortunate dissolution of the Jesuits also caused Hell to lose all his faithful associates and co-workers of long standing. Besides, he was burdened with an overwhelming multiplicity of pressing duties that prevented his application to the projected volumes. Another obstacle was the lack of financial resources to defray the expenses that would be entailed by such a publication. John sajnovic, Hell's companion and associate on the expedition to the Arctic for the solar eclipse observations, also produced a valuable work. It was published under the sponsorship of the University of Trnava. One feature of it was the linguistic study in which sajnovic pointed out various elements that the Lapp, the Finnish and the Chinese languages have in common with Magyar. Because Hell's long promised three-volume account of the Arctic project with all its scientific implications never went to print, differences of opinion on the merits of Hell's contribution began to appear among some groups of interested scientists. De la Lande and Encke were among the astronomers who cast doubts on Hell's time and date calculations in the researching of the solar eclipse as well as in his data relevant to general observations from this expedition. Much later, however, the American astronomer Newcomb made an exhaustive study of Hell's records in Vienna and he confirmed the findings of the polar expedition as Hell had reported them. Closer to our day the Danish astronomer Nielsen painstakingly reviewed Hell's calculations and reaffirmed their correctness and reliability in the light of modern scientific methods and theories. �22 SLOVAKIA CONCLUDING SUMMARY Maximilian Hell was an outstanding scholar and scientist whom Slovakia gave to the world. His major interest was in astronomy but he was also an authority in related branches of science, mainly in mathematics, physics, meteorology, physical geography, and mining geodesy and geodynamics. As a young man in his prime, he established and conducted astronomic observatories in Trnava, Kluz, Jager and Budapest. When we realize that in Hell's day astronomical observatories were the foremost of scientific institutes, and that physics and natural science laboratories came into being at a later time, we begin to appreciate more fully the fact that Hell's achievements were of prime significance not only within the borders of his own country but in all Europe as well. Hell himself was not-and he did not attempt to be-the kind of scientific research scholar who opens new fields of study on the basis of revolutionary or daring hypothetic premises; he was the characteristically patient, painstaking, persistant scholar whose whole life and achievement was grounded in diligent and unmitigated devotion to work and in dogged perseverance in a task. Too great a portion of Hell's scientific endeavor still remains unexamined and inadequately appraised. Much of his correspondence which deals with scientific interests is practically untouched. Pinzger published a monograph on Hell in which he included some samplings of this correspondence but his sources were not truly representative, for he limited himself to Austrian and Hungarian sources exclusively. The bulk of Hell's corr~spondence is reserved in the Academy of Sciences and in the archives of the observatory at the University of Vienna which is also official guardian of a special fund or trust in Hell's memory. Besides meriting recognition as a research scholar in various branches of science, Hell also deserves to be remembered as an educator of note. He was a renowned teacher and a distinguished lecturer at the University of Vienna. It is generally agreed that in the entire realm there was not at that time a scholar who was his equal, much less any one who could have performed or continued Hell's commit- �SLOVAKIA 23 ments more creditably or more satisfactorily. Because he was always a leader who was greatly involved in the scientific movements and activities of all Europe, he was offered membership in many notable scientific societies and associations. A further achievement of Maximilian Hell was his detailed mapping of the surface of the moon. The International Union of Astronomers recognized the value of this project and honored it by naming one of the moon's craters in honor of Hell. The life and achievements of this Jesuit scholar testify to the fact that Slovakia has much in her past that reflects glory upon the Slovaks as a nation. This should inspire a sense of wholesome pride and ambition in today's generation of descendants of Slovak families at home and .abroad. Translated by Barbara F t ci c n i k and Sister Martina T y b o r THE EASTERN SLOVAK CITY of Presov, historic market-town for centuries, is expanding its industrial facilities . Last year a modern super chicken-farm was established and put into operation. Moreover, a special auto-service with a daily capacity for approximately 500 autos was inaugurated. The center covering an area of 30,000 sq. meters was built at a cost of almost 50 million crowns (about $10,000,000.00). ALTHOUGH EACH YEAR the Slovak shipbuilders in Koma.mo, Slovakia, make scores of vessels for the Soviet Union which employs them on the Danube, Slovak shipping is limited to a pair of ships, the Slavin and Trnava, and three small craft. � SLOVAKIA Stephen S e n t 5 f k , S. J. Maximilian Hell, S.J. SLOVAK SCIENTIST OF WORLD RENOWN 1720-1792 On the occasion of a world-wide commemoration of the 250th anniversary of the birth of the Jesuit Maximilian Hell, which was sponsored by the international organization UNESCO, the Slovak Museum of Mining in Banska Stiavnica, Slovakia, published a worthy volume of lectures selected from a learned conference that was convoked in honor of the achievements of this distinguished scientist and remarkable teacher. The fact that a Slovak scholar was rightfully among those who were considered and assigned a place on the calendar of world-wide celebrations and that he was, in fact, universally recognized and honored-even with the liistinction of a commemorative UNESCO postal stampnaturally reflects honor not only on the man but also on his homeland, Slovakia. It likewise brings a degree of prestige of Slovak scholars who are devoted to scientific pursuit and it provides even the average layman with an opportunity to turn attention to the Slovak past and perhaps to catch in it at least a glimpse of some significant features that have long been indistinct or wholly unknown until now. In the thoughtful study titled "Banska Stiavnica-the Natural Environment of Maximilian Hell," (one of the papers published in the above-mentioned volume, cf. pp. 40 ff.) Dr. Jozef Vlachovic writes: "A thoughtful study of that period in the history of Banska Stiavnica brings one many a surprise and prompts frank admiration for the inhabitants of that town in its early days of economic growth. Largely because of their unmitigated effort, which appears to have been almost superhuman at times, and by reason of their remarkable intellectual gifts and physical stamina, they developed their community to an exceptional �6 SLOVAKIA degree of prosperity and progress." Dr. Vlachovic also notes that many aspects of the city's history and its. uniquely flourishing mining industry have not yet been adequately researched and should become the object of proper scholarly investigation. Encouraged by this observation, this writer has undertaken at least a bri~f exploration of the life and times of Maximilian Hell. The main objective · is to examine the highlights of his life and to survey the general environment in which the scientist was shaped, noting the influences that had contributed to the molding of his character and the bent of his scientific activities. FAMILY INFLUENCES The axiomatic principle that the earliest and strongest influences in life come from the home was borne out in the early shaping of the personality of Maximilian Hell who came of a family that was extraordinary in some respects. His father was Matthias Cornelius Hell, born c. 1650. It is very likely that he was of German background although his birthplace was Horny Slavkov near Pribram. He.began his working career in the Czech mining industry. It is generally agreed that he must have been gifted and industrious; this surmise is substantiated by the fact that he rapidly advanced in his working position so that although he was still a very young man, he was soon ranked as a highly qualified mining technician. He was, however, the kind of technician who not only mastered the intricacies of the industrial equipment readily and was able to increase production significantly, but he could also turn his keen perception and deep concern to the welfare and safety of the men who worked in the mines. His sense of responsibility reached out to men as well as to machines. In 1694, when Matthias Hell was in the prime of his manhood and had already enjoyed some recognition for his achievements, Count :Cudovit Thavonath, the chairman of a mining commission and recruiter of highly qualified experts for the mining industry, offered him a position in Banska stiavnica. The offer was attractive to Hell and he decided to accept it. This was the circumstance that brought the Heil family to the stiavnica mining region; Matthias Hell adjusted to the new surroundings easily. �SLOVAKIA 7 His characteristic devotion to duty and scrupulous sense of' responsibility, his competence and skill as well as his f:r1endly and understanding attitude toward his fellow workers and his subordinates soon won him many friends and admirers. These traits also recommended him for early promotion, and before long he was named chief industrial engineer of the stiavnica mining enterprise. In this position he became the promoter of remarkably improved technical prbcedtires. He also won great acciaim for the construction of water works in the vicinity of Banska stiavnica. On three separate occasions it was Hell who saved the stiavnica mines from utter ruin or from closing. Around 1700, the entire stiavnica mining operation was imperiled because the underground water level had risen to a critical high. In the face of this danger, the mines were all but abandoned until Matthias Hell master-minded a practical plan to save them. Harnessing water power drawn from the dikes built in the mine area, he put machinery to work-for pumpirtg out the excess underground water accumulation. In 1703, the revolutionary forces of George Rakoczy II seized central Slovakia and dispossessed Count Thavonath. In these troubled time mine production declined appreciably · and Rakoczy ordered General Berceny to halt all mining operations and to level the entire facility. Matthias Hell knew how very unwise and irresponsible such a procedure would be and he prevailed upon General Berceny not to carry out this order. Later, after the suppression of the Rakoczy uprising and a ret:urn to normalcy, the mines were again threatened because there were insufficient funds for reconstruction and .the proper updating of the plant in order to insure effective and profitable production. An executive order brought work to a standstill and it appeared that the industry was doomed. In this predicament, Hell intervened with a personal appeal made in the course of an interview with Emperor Joseph I of Vienna. He succeeded in prevailing upon the sovereign to realize that the reconstruction and restoration of the mines would bring public benefit and economic prosperity to this part of his realm. After the death of his wife, Matthias Hell lived as a widower for some time, doing his best to bring up his �8 SLOVAKIA children satisfactorily. On September 22, 1707, however, he married Julia Victoria Steindel who came of a GermanSlovak family in $tiavnica. This marriage was blest with four sons, each of whom distinguished himself in some way of life. The eldest, Ignatius Cornelius, became an outstanding engineer engaged in analyzing and assaying the various types of ore that were extracted in the $tiavnica mines. Joseph Charles, the second eldest, earned recognition and a degree of fame for a number of discoveries and inventions related to the mining industry. Some of the scientific and technical principles underlying these devices are still used to advantage throughout the world, even to our day. On May 15, 1720, when Matthias Cornelius Hell was already seventy years old, his third son was born. At his baptism in the Jesuit church in Banska $tiavnica he was given the name Maximilian. The occasion was solemn and significant, and a special aura was added to the ceremonies because the godparents were Count Tavonath and his wife. The fourth son in the family was Michael who distinguished himself in the local community as a chief inspector of the pumping operation in the mines. The Hell family had special regard for religious and intellectual training. The parents were solicitous about providing for their children a solid and wholesome preparation for life, and the children were intellectually gifted and responsive, all of them showing a special aptitude for mathematical and natural sciences. The fact that the mining school center was located at Vindsachta where the Hell family lived, made drawing boards and mapping materials, charts and model of mine working equipment, libraries and many learning aids accessible to the children, and they readily became very familiar with all these resources, deriving an excellent general and broadening education out of this circumstance. The scientific genius of Maximilian Hell found much opportunity for expression in this milieu of central-Slovak mining towns where socio-economic development was at a peak. This factor makes it advisable to pause a bit in order to survey the background with at least cursory interest. HANSKA $TIAVNICA was a leading city in Slovakia. As a matter of fact, it �SLOVAKIA 9 was second in rank, coming right after Bratislava, the capital city, and by actual count it had three hundred buildings more than Bratislava. Very early references to goldsmiths and to metal mining in the area can be traced back to at least the year 1075. In the sixteenth century events so shaped themselves that the city had every assurance of securely laid foundations for its cultural growth and for long-range prosperity of a high order. A large number of outstanding leaders in the field of technology and scientists of established repute came to reside in Banska stiavnica. The success and prosperity of the city were conditioned primarily on the natural underground richness of its mineral deposits and secondarily on other significant factors. In 1587 Banska stiavnica became the seat of the municipal treasury or finance department and the recognized head of seven mining cities in central Slovakia that had formed a partnership for mutual defense in the face of the Turkish menace and for united resistance to John Zapol'sky. Later most of the city's mining interests passed into the hands of affluent citizens so that the industry was not controlled by foreign investors but it developed and thrived on the capital of its own citizens who were characteristically energetic, hard-working and well educated individuals. The increase of mining output and the expansion of the mining industry as a whole were commensurate with the rising level of scholastic standards and academic opportunities, with the remarkable development of the educational system and with the rapidly advancing cultural status of the townspeople in stiavnica. In 1725 Banska stiavnica opened a technical school of mining which later evolved into a school of advanced learning and by 1770 became the Mining Academy for specialized study. It was the first advanced school of its kind in all Europe, attracting widespread attention for its departments of chemistry and physics. It had the unique distinction of being the first school in the history of education to introduce the laboratory method of instruction in chemistry. European technical schools were greatly interested in the outcomes of scientific experiments that were conducted in the innovated laboratory classes at the school. The Polytechnic Institute of Paris adopted the laboratory �10 SLOVAKIA method of instruction in chemistry as it had been introduced in the Academy of Mining in Banska stiavnica. Before long, other European polytechnic schools and universities also did so. Excellently equipped laboratories, an eminently qualified staff of teachers and research scholars as well as an environment and atmosphere conducive to pursuits of learning and research attracted scientists and inventors of established name to come to Banska stiavnica. For example: Volta, Tandi, Lippi, Savarezi, Melograni and a number of experts associated with the Spanish mining endeavors in America had devoted some time to specialized study in the laboratories at Banska stiavnica. The great demand for young engineers who had finished their studies at Banska stiavnica testifies to the high quality of schooling that was offered here. Early in the nineteenth century the sultan Mohammed invited into his service twelve graduates of this school, one of whom-John Knechtel-became the supervisor of mines in the Turkish empire. It was mainly because of the stimulus provided by the Mining Academy that the first world congress of natural scientists, attended largely by metallurgists and chemists, was held in Sklene Teplice in 1786. The International Society of Mining Science was established at this congress. Among its charter members were Anton Ruprecht and the Jesuit Nicholas Poda, both of whom were members of the faculty at the Mining Academy. Banska stiavnica reached the peak of its glory and prosperity in the first half of the eighteenth century. At that time its mining enterprises employed at least eight thousand workers and specialized technicians. The population of the city was always predominantly Slovak. In 1715, for example, its leading families registered these national origins or backgrounds: 424 Slovak, 360 German, and only 20 Magyar. Practically everyone who lived in the city was fluent in three languages: Slovak, German and Magyar. By the close of the eighteenth century, however, the city began to decline because it was no longer able to provide adequate job opportunities in the local mines and foundries. In the nineteenth century mining and �SLOVAKIA 11 metal works were superseded by other industrial interests that were introduced into Banska stiavnica. BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF MAXIMILIAN HELL Early in his life Maximilian Hell gave every indication of precocious gifts and talents, and the home and family in which he was nurtured greatly contributed to the full development of his natural endowments. Although his health began to fail, the aged father still continued to discharge his responsibilities as chief mining engineer and at the same time, he conscientiously saw to the consistently thorough and sound training of his sons. All four boys acquired their earliest acquaintance with scientific lore and some basic in the study of science from their father right at home. Later they were able to build on these fundamentals when they attended the already famed Mining Academy. Even in his boyhood, Maximilian was strongly influenced by the Jesuit professors in Banska stiavnica who were remarkably dedicated priests and were now involved in vital movement to restore Catholicism in this town which was recovering after the defeat of Rakoczy. These Jesuits had a well established mission in the village Vindsachta where the Hell family lived. One of their principal concerns was the education and proper training of the younger generation. As one measure toward this end they had founded a junior high school in Banska stiavnica and the boys of their school won many accolades for their dramatic presentations and declamations as well as for their performances in public examinations. Later a number of Jesuits also taught at the Mining Academy, especially in the departments of Latin, rhetoric and poetry. Father Nicholas Poda and Father Charles Tierenberger were heads of mathematics, mechanics and physics. They were famed experts in their specialized fields and they were excellent educators as well. Father Poda produced a textbook on mechanical engineering with special reference to the mining industry. It was the first textbook of its kind. For many decades the hand written lecture notes of Father Tierenberger were valued as a kind of mathematics handbook. Much of their substance and method still �12 SLOVAKIA had some value in practical application as late as the beginning of our century. There is no question about the lasting influence of the Jesuits upon the formative years of Maximilian Hell's life. Even from early boyhood he cultivated a strong inclination to develop his talents in their Society. He knew with what devotion the Jesuits promoted science and learning together with profound spirituality, for he had living examples of this kind of life in action and in its full reality as often as he looked about at the inspiration of Jesuit teachers in his midst, men who were effectively combined intensive religious life with specialized skills and scholarship in the natural sciences. On the recommendation of local teachers, the father sent his growing son to schools in Banska Bystrica where he could enroll in humanities courses at the Jesuit senior high school. In 1738 Maximilian Hell entered the Jesuit novitiate in Trencin. He was then a promising young man of eighteen. He devoted two years to the exclusive study of the fundamentals of religious life as it is lived in the Society of Jesus. Marginally, he continued his interest in the natural sciences, principally in mathematics. After his novitiate training was completed in 1740, his superiors sent him to Vienna for further study. This was the first time that he left his native Slovakia but he knew that his absence would be only temporary, that he would return one day with a rich store of enlarged knowledge and new experiences that could be shared with his countrymen. His life and accomplishments prove that this aspiration was no empty dream. Hell began his studies in Vienna by enrolling in the department of philosophy. In his day, this department also offered courses in what was catalogued as natural philoso phy and included the study of mathematics, physics and astronomy. These were the courses that interested Maximilian Hell the most. During the time that he was absorbed in mastering these natural sciences at Vienna, he also published his first book Elementa algebrae. The university at Vienna opened a new phase of life for the aspiring Jesuit. Two outstanding Jesuit educators who took note of this brilliant student were Erasmus Frolich, professor of mathematics, applied science in mechanics and history; and Joseph Franz, lecturer in philosophy, who �SLOVAKIA 13 was also devoted to exploring problems in mmmg and astronomy-subjects from the dark pits in the deep earth to the distant vaults in the skies. Franz already enjoyed an established reputation in the world of science, for he was the founder and the director of the Oriental Institute in Vienna. Both his diplomatic and his study tours in Turkey and in Asia Minor had yielded him a great deal of interesting and useful information, especially in matters of Oriental astronomy, mathematics and physics. He became very fond of Maximilian Hell whom he esteemed mainly because of his grasp in mining technology and his practical understanding of mining machines and equipment. Aware of these qualifications in Hell, Franz chose him to be the recipient of a special fellowship and to serve as an assistant in his department. Later he introduced him to the wonders of astronomy and in time he made him an assistant in the Jesuit observatory. Maximilian became enchanted by this science of the heavens and he discovered that here at least was his greatest prospect for the direct application of his attractions and his natural capacities for natural science and mathematics. It is standard Jesuit practice that after two years of study in philosophy, a candidate devotes a year or two to actual teaching and work in the apostolate in order to benefit from such realistic experience and to test innate capacities. On his personal initiative Maximilian Hell petitioned his superiors to assign him to some work of this nature in his native Slovakia. This reasonable request was honored and he was sent to teach Latin, Greek, history and geography at the high school in Levoca. Later he himself added mathematics to the courses that he taught and in his free time he continued the study of astronomy which fascinated him thoroughly. He proved to be very effective in his work with Slovak high school students as well as in his activities among the local people. They admired him greatly and were impressed by his personality and his intellectual gifts. From Levoca Hell often visited his friend Adam Kollar who taught in Liptovsky Sv. Mikulas. He, too, had had Jesuit training in the background but he decided to leave the Society before ordination. After two years of teaching at the high school in Levoca, Hell returned to Vienna for theological studies which lasted �14 SLOVAKIA four years, and finally in 1751 he achieved the most ardent hope of his lifetime when he was ordained priest. In this same year he was also awarded the academic degree Doctor of Philosophy. After ordination he taught for some time at the humanities school in Banska Bystrica which was quite close to his native Banska stiavnica. This made it possible for him to keep in close touch with his brother Joseph who was employed as a mechanical engineer. Pooling his talents with Samuel Makovini he was busily engaged in constructing a new pumping device to control the water level in the mines. The unusual feature of this pumping machine lay in the fact that it was not dependent on motor power or on levers, on pressure valves or pistons, but its operational force was pressurized water power alone. Maximilian was of great help to Joseph in this undertaking, for he worked out sensitive mathematical calculations that were involved in the planning. At the same time he was broadening and deepening his own mastery of physics. Interestingly, 110 years later this ingenious concept of the Hell brothers of using the force of pressurized air to pump liquids was put to practical use for the first time when the United States undertook operations to extract crude oil out of Pennsylvania oil fields. The discovery of the Hell brothers became the common property of all men. While he was in Banska Bystrica, Maximilian successfully completed what is termed the third probationary period in the Jesuit formation program and he became a full-fledged member, dedicated to a lifetime career in the Society. At the request of Count Konigseck, who was very influential in the mining industry and who was well acquainted with the Hell family, and with the sanction of his immediate -superiors, the young Jesuit tutored the Count's son in mathematics and physics for some time, helping to prepare him for a lifetime office in mining supervision. It should be kept in mind that at this time the Mining Academy was not yet founded in Banska stiavnica. The tutorial service that Hell performed for Count Konigseck's son really made of him a pioneer in mining instruction on the secondary level. It was ten years later-specifically on April 3, 1770-that Empress Maria Theresa, Queen of �SLOVAKIA 15 Hungary and Bohemia, granted approbation to the proposal presented by Count Novohradsky after mature deliberation with Professor Hell, for the founding of the Mining Academy which was to be an advanced technical institute of mining in Banska stiavnica. Hell was also commissioned to translate the mining statutes of Hungary (the old multinational state) from German into Latin. This event too indicates what respect Maximilian Hell commanded in scientific circles, for a task of this kind could be entrusted only to one with proven abilities not only in fluent Latin expression but also with a command of clear and precise mining terminology. Though Hell was greatly preoccupied with these activities, his study of astronomy did not suffer in any way. As a matter of fact, he made steady progress in this science and his prestige among astronomers continued to grow. In 1752 Dean Borgias Keri of the University of Trnava approached him about the founding of a university observatory. Hell welcomed the proposition, for if he had a particular ambition, it was to see his native Slovakia advance significantly in scientific scholarship as well as in all branches of learning. After an all-too-brief stay of one year in Trnava, Hell was assigned to Kluz in present-day Rumania where he was to establish a new college and build an observatory. He devoted three years of intensive work to this task. In the course of this time, however, he not only supervised the construction of the college and its observatory but he also taught mathematics and found time for the apostolic work of pastoral service among the Slovaks and Germans who were beginning to settle in Kluz and its vicinity and were in need of priestly ministry. By way of a marginal professional undertaking, he also compiled and published some handbooks in mathematics. In formal professional circles Hell earned not only recognition but even evident regard and esteem for his scholarly proficiency and his achievements in mathematics, physics and astronomy. After the eminent natural scientist and mathematician John Marinoni died in Vienna, Hell was invited to that city and was named director of the new observatory at the University of Vienna. In the discharge of this office he created extraordinary and needful pressure �16 SLOVAKIA in order to provide for the observatory the newest kind of equipment that was available in that day. In line of duty, he devoted meticulous attention to the movement of heavenly bodies, conducted guided tours of the observatory on behalf of noteworthy visitors, collaborated with projects of scientific institutes outside the country, supervised the publication of calendars of astronomic interest and information, and conducted sessions in the practical study of astronomy and observation of heavenly bodies. From 1755 on, Hell undertook very serious efforts to correlate and coordinate the theoretic and the practical aspects of science. He was gratifyingly successful in the endeavor. With a sense of elation he accepted an offer to teach mechanics and to conduct lectures for aspiring builders, construction engineers and artists. In time, Hell found himself constrained to resign his teaching commitments because of the burdens of office. He had become court astronomer and mathematician as well as editor of the learned astronomy annual Ephemerides Astronomicae. The greatest of demands were made on him by this journal which he compiled and edited for 37 years, except for some brief and intermittent periods. It brought its readers pertinent mathematical tables and calculations and almanac-styled articles on heavenly phenomena, primarily the movement of the principal heavenly bodies: the sun, the moon and the stars. Hell also made of this annual the publications vehicle for reports on astronomic observations from many European observatories. His prestigious position as well as his deservedly respected reputation as a remarkable scholar and an accomplished scientist together with his winning disposition and gracious manner all worked to the good in attracting the cooperation of significant men of science and learning in other countries. This editing of a scientific journal of this nature was a pioneering venture. England launched a similar publication only ten years later. The Berlin Academy did not initiate such a publication until two decades later. THE ACCOMPLISHMENTS OF MAXIMILIAN HELL Writing in the periodical The Slovak Jesuits in Canada �SLOVAKIA 17 <1970, p. 48) Dr. Robert Bajcar observes that "It is a challenging and complex task to evaluate the achievements of Maximilian Hell. This is due largely to the fact that the man himself is an impressive personality of uncommon stature and his is a broad spectrum of interests with a markedly varied field of activity. Nor is it a simple matter to do this uniquely versatile scientist justice by appropriate placement in proper historic and generic classifications." Dr. Bajcar feels that Maximilian Hell is first and foremost an astronomer. In this appreciation of Hell, however, we choose to review his contributions to his native land and to speak of his scientific expedition to the polar regions m the company of John ~ajnovic, another Slovak Jesuit scholar. It is an interesting detail of research findings that the first efforts to organize scientific activities and interests in the multinational and polyglot country of Hungary were begun in Slovak lands. In 1763 Adam Kollar, honored by his colleagues with the epithet "The Slovak Socrates," addressed to Hungarian scholars and learned citizens his proposal for founding a Hungarian learned society whose members would concern themselves with active participation in or the support of research into the history, natural science, economics and political science of Hungary. Two years later, Kollar published a Latin document justifying the taxation of properties owned by the Church and the nobility. This offended many sensibilities and the aristocracy retaliated with an official proclamation in parliament by which Kollar was denounced as a traitor and his paper was publicly burned at an open demonstration in the courtyard of the Bratislava townhall. Maria Theresa exonerated Kollar, her official director at the imperial library, but she tabled his proposal for the founding of a learned society. A second endeavor to establish a Hungarian learned society was made in 1771. This one, too, was initiated in Slovakia. This time the proposition was presented to Maria Theresa anonymously although it is generally surmised that is was formulated by Kollar, Trstiansky and Count Teleki. The proposed body was to be called Academia Augusta and was to consist of four departments: philosophy, history, political economy and education. In May, 1774, �18 SLOVAKIA the court counselor authorized Adam Kollar and Maximilian Hell to draft the charter and the by-laws of the projected association. For a long time Hell had given much thought to the prospects of organizing scientific thought and activities. He had his own preconceptions about the nature and objectives of a learned body, and unhappily his ideas did not square with Kalla.r's. Hell envisioned niceties of distinction between the university as a pedagogical institution and the learned academy as a scientific institute. He believed that: It is the function of a lecturer or a professor in a given discipline to present the subject matter of a course within its current context and degree of development together with all available findings that are related to it at that time and in such a manner that it will be readily comprehended and assimilated by the average student in attendance ... An active member of the learned society, on the other hand, is responsible not only for demonstrating professional mastery in his specialized field, but he likewise bears the responsibility of bring,i ng the fruits and findings of personal study, eocperimentation and research, the responsibility of making new contribution to the general store of data already available in that field. Members of a learned institute bring discovery and enrichment to science and learning; professors, by contrast, present to their classes and audiences facts and explanations bearing on the findings made by learned societies in order to enlarge and expand knowledge that is already available. By Hell's definition then, the essential scientist is intrinsically a discoverer of new facts or new ideas. For this reason, Hell was convinced that this unique aspect of science scholarship had to be a characteristic and integral feature of the authentic academy of sciences. There is fundamental truth in the perceptive thinking of Hell but this was thoroughly radical thinking in his day. It was also truly radical, for example, to consider Hell's exclusion of the hwnanities from the academy. His philosophy of thinking out the structure of the academy ruled out history, law, linguistics, the fine arts and related disciplines. It is not surprising then that Hell's plan was vigorously opposed by the humanists. As a matter of fact, Kollar himself came to take a stand against Hell and his unrelenting position. Hell also had ideas of his own concerning the financial �SLOVAKIA 19 security of the proposed academy. He proposed that it be supported by the publication of scientific almanacs that would be promoted throughout all the countries of the Habsburg empire. Officialdom in Hungary did not endorse this plan but offered the counter-proposal that the academy be established with headquarters in Trnava, where the University of Trnava would see to its functioning. This time it was Hell's proposal that was relegated ad acta. But his hopes and his efforts to organize scientific thought and activities in home reasonable way were not entirely in vain. The international science institute which was founded in Sklene Teplice in 1786 never would have been established in Slovakia had its establishment not been proceded by the hopeful plans and efforts of scientists like Hell and Kollar. A significant contribution of Maximilian Hell to the Slovak world of science was his construction of an observatory at the University of Trnava. At this time in the history of learning and education, an observatory had more than scientific value exclusively; it also satisfied academic and practical roles. Hell's peculiar genius lay in his ability to combine scientific theory with practical application. His scientific almanacs were sought not only by specialists in astronomy but by geographers, mariners, travelers and military strategists as well. He was proficient in using scientific knowledge to good purpose for many practical uses. Danish astronomers and sailors were especially eager to have his publications. One year after his accession to the throne, the young King Christian officially invited Hell to come to Denmark and offered him a commission to take charge of astronomic observation on Warde Island in the icy North Sea during the eclipse of the sun on June 3, 1769. With the consent of Maria Theresa, Hell accepted the King's offer and made necessary preparations for the journey and for the observation study. He chose for his companion a fellow-Jesuit John sajnowho was his junior by thirteen years. Sajnovic had experience as an assistant at the Trnava University observatory which Hell had founded. Both men were natives of the same region, they were of compatible disposition and vic �20 SLOVAKIA had many interests in common. The younger man was entrusted with all the details of the journey by land and by sea, and he was to prepare the physical features of the observation station on Warde Island. Hell was to look after the essentially scientific details connected with the task of observation and with the keeping of a scientific diary and official records. A secondary assignment for sajnovic was to study the flora and fauna of Lapland as well as the native Laplanders, the Eskimos and the Finns; their language, customs and culture-truly a formidable and responsible task. Hell added to his main objectives a study of the aurora borealis, the magnetic needle and the Gulf Stream-its influence on storms, etc. On April 28, 1768 Hell and sajnovic set out on the long expedition from Vienna to the Arctic Circle. The journey was long and taxing, requiring all of five months. On October 1, they finally reached their destination, Warde Island in the frozen North Sea. The work to which they set themselves there was even more strenuous than their journey had been. Their new surroundings were utterly strange, strange beyond all expectations. The polar summer was chilling, the sky was usually overcast, and the entire landscape and seascape were shrouded in fog. They set to work energetically building their research station and made eager preparation for June 3, the date of the eclipse when Venus was to pass between the sun and the earth, blotting out the sun's light. Hell's scientific log, his astute observations together with his scientific notations and calculations made in connection with this phenomenon became a substantial contribution to the composite fund of world facts in astronomy. On returning from this expedition, Hell presented himself before a session convoked by the Academy of Sciences at Copenhagen and delivered a thorough report on his journey, his observations and his conclusions. He promised to send a copy of this report to the Danish king. As a token of gratitude, Christian II granted Hell an annual pension of a thousand gulden but Hell graciously declined the bounty of the King. �SLOVAKIA 21 When Hell reached Vienna, he worked out some of his notes in greater detail and an account of his research and observation was published in a 1771 annual devoted to astronomy. Shortly afterwards he prepared another work on this subject. It was published as a French study in Journal des savants in 1776. Hell had set himself the further task of preparing a meticulously detailed account which was to be published in three comprehensive volumes but this scholarly work was never completed because the suppression of the Society of Jesus brought it to a halt. This unfortunate dissolution of the Jesuits also caused Hell to lose all his faithful associates and co-workers of long standing. Besides, he was burdened with an overwhelming multiplicity of pressing duties that prevented his application to the projected volumes. Another obstacle was the lack of financial resources to defray the expenses that would be entailed by such a publication. John sajnovic, Hell's companion and associate on the expedition to the Arctic for the solar eclipse observations, also produced a valuable work. It was published under the sponsorship of the University of Trnava. One feature of it was the linguistic study in which sajnovic pointed out various elements that the Lapp, the Finnish and the Chinese languages have in common with Magyar. Because Hell's long promised three-volume account of the Arctic project with all its scientific implications never went to print, differences of opinion on the merits of Hell's contribution began to appear among some groups of interested scientists. De la Lande and Encke were among the astronomers who cast doubts on Hell's time and date calculations in the researching of the solar eclipse as well as in his data relevant to general observations from this expedition. Much later, however, the American astronomer Newcomb made an exhaustive study of Hell's records in Vienna and he confirmed the findings of the polar expedition as Hell had reported them. Closer to our day the Danish astronomer Nielsen painstakingly reviewed Hell's calculations and reaffirmed their correctness and reliability in the light of modern scientific methods and theories. �22 SLOVAKIA CONCLUDING SUMMARY Maximilian Hell was an outstanding scholar and scientist whom Slovakia gave to the world. His major interest was in astronomy but he was also an authority in related branches of science, mainly in mathematics, physics, meteorology, physical geography, and mining geodesy and geodynamics. As a young man in his prime, he established and conducted astronomic observatories in Trnava, Kluz, Jager and Budapest. When we realize that in Hell's day astronomical observatories were the foremost of scientific institutes, and that physics and natural science laboratories came into being at a later time, we begin to appreciate more fully the fact that Hell's achievements were of prime significance not only within the borders of his own country but in all Europe as well. Hell himself was not-and he did not attempt to be-the kind of scientific research scholar who opens new fields of study on the basis of revolutionary or daring hypothetic premises; he was the characteristically patient, painstaking, persistant scholar whose whole life and achievement was grounded in diligent and unmitigated devotion to work and in dogged perseverance in a task. Too great a portion of Hell's scientific endeavor still remains unexamined and inadequately appraised. Much of his correspondence which deals with scientific interests is practically untouched. Pinzger published a monograph on Hell in which he included some samplings of this correspondence but his sources were not truly representative, for he limited himself to Austrian and Hungarian sources exclusively. The bulk of Hell's corr~spondence is reserved in the Academy of Sciences and in the archives of the observatory at the University of Vienna which is also official guardian of a special fund or trust in Hell's memory. Besides meriting recognition as a research scholar in various branches of science, Hell also deserves to be remembered as an educator of note. He was a renowned teacher and a distinguished lecturer at the University of Vienna. It is generally agreed that in the entire realm there was not at that time a scholar who was his equal, much less any one who could have performed or continued Hell's commit- �SLOVAKIA 23 ments more creditably or more satisfactorily. Because he was always a leader who was greatly involved in the scientific movements and activities of all Europe, he was offered membership in many notable scientific societies and associations. A further achievement of Maximilian Hell was his detailed mapping of the surface of the moon. The International Union of Astronomers recognized the value of this project and honored it by naming one of the moon's craters in honor of Hell. The life and achievements of this Jesuit scholar testify to the fact that Slovakia has much in her past that reflects glory upon the Slovaks as a nation. This should inspire a sense of wholesome pride and ambition in today's generation of descendants of Slovak families at home and .abroad. Translated by Barbara F t ci c n i k and Sister Martina T y b o r THE EASTERN SLOVAK CITY of Presov, historic market-town for centuries, is expanding its industrial facilities . Last year a modern super chicken-farm was established and put into operation. Moreover, a special auto-service with a daily capacity for approximately 500 autos was inaugurated. The center covering an area of 30,000 sq. meters was built at a cost of almost 50 million crowns (about $10,000,000.00). ALTHOUGH EACH YEAR the Slovak shipbuilders in Koma.mo, Slovakia, make scores of vessels for the Soviet Union which employs them on the Danube, Slovak shipping is limited to a pair of ships, the Slavin and Trnava, and three small craft. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1974, Vol. 24 Description An account of the resource Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document SLOVAKIA Stephen S e n t 5 f k , S. J. Maximilian Hell, S.J. SLOVAK SCIENTIST OF WORLD RENOWN 1720-1792 On the occasion of a world-wide commemoration of the 250th anniversary of the birth of the Jesuit Maximilian Hell, which was sponsored by the international organization UNESCO, the Slovak Museum of Mining in Banska Stiavnica, Slovakia, published a worthy volume of lectures selected from a learned conference that was convoked in honor of the achievements of this distinguished scientist and remarkable teacher. The fact that a Slovak scholar was rightfully among those who were considered and assigned a place on the calendar of world-wide celebrations and that he was, in fact, universally recognized and honored-even with the liistinction of a commemorative UNESCO postal stampnaturally reflects honor not only on the man but also on his homeland, Slovakia. It likewise brings a degree of prestige of Slovak scholars who are devoted to scientific pursuit and it provides even the average layman with an opportunity to turn attention to the Slovak past and perhaps to catch in it at least a glimpse of some significant features that have long been indistinct or wholly unknown until now. In the thoughtful study titled "Banska Stiavnica-the Natural Environment of Maximilian Hell," (one of the papers published in the above-mentioned volume, cf. pp. 40 ff.) Dr. Jozef Vlachovic writes: "A thoughtful study of that period in the history of Banska Stiavnica brings one many a surprise and prompts frank admiration for the inhabitants of that town in its early days of economic growth. Largely because of their unmitigated effort, which appears to have been almost superhuman at times, and by reason of their remarkable intellectual gifts and physical stamina, they developed their community to an exceptional 6 SLOVAKIA degree of prosperity and progress." Dr. Vlachovic also notes that many aspects of the city's history and its. uniquely flourishing mining industry have not yet been adequately researched and should become the object of proper scholarly investigation. Encouraged by this observation, this writer has undertaken at least a bri~f exploration of the life and times of Maximilian Hell. The main objective · is to examine the highlights of his life and to survey the general environment in which the scientist was shaped, noting the influences that had contributed to the molding of his character and the bent of his scientific activities. FAMILY INFLUENCES The axiomatic principle that the earliest and strongest influences in life come from the home was borne out in the early shaping of the personality of Maximilian Hell who came of a family that was extraordinary in some respects. His father was Matthias Cornelius Hell, born c. 1650. It is very likely that he was of German background although his birthplace was Horny Slavkov near Pribram. He.began his working career in the Czech mining industry. It is generally agreed that he must have been gifted and industrious; this surmise is substantiated by the fact that he rapidly advanced in his working position so that although he was still a very young man, he was soon ranked as a highly qualified mining technician. He was, however, the kind of technician who not only mastered the intricacies of the industrial equipment readily and was able to increase production significantly, but he could also turn his keen perception and deep concern to the welfare and safety of the men who worked in the mines. His sense of responsibility reached out to men as well as to machines. In 1694, when Matthias Hell was in the prime of his manhood and had already enjoyed some recognition for his achievements, Count :Cudovit Thavonath, the chairman of a mining commission and recruiter of highly qualified experts for the mining industry, offered him a position in Banska stiavnica. The offer was attractive to Hell and he decided to accept it. This was the circumstance that brought the Heil family to the stiavnica mining region; Matthias Hell adjusted to the new surroundings easily. SLOVAKIA 7 His characteristic devotion to duty and scrupulous sense of' responsibility, his competence and skill as well as his f:r1endly and understanding attitude toward his fellow workers and his subordinates soon won him many friends and admirers. These traits also recommended him for early promotion, and before long he was named chief industrial engineer of the stiavnica mining enterprise. In this position he became the promoter of remarkably improved technical prbcedtires. He also won great acciaim for the construction of water works in the vicinity of Banska stiavnica. On three separate occasions it was Hell who saved the stiavnica mines from utter ruin or from closing. Around 1700, the entire stiavnica mining operation was imperiled because the underground water level had risen to a critical high. In the face of this danger, the mines were all but abandoned until Matthias Hell master-minded a practical plan to save them. Harnessing water power drawn from the dikes built in the mine area, he put machinery to work-for pumpirtg out the excess underground water accumulation. In 1703, the revolutionary forces of George Rakoczy II seized central Slovakia and dispossessed Count Thavonath. In these troubled time mine production declined appreciably · and Rakoczy ordered General Berceny to halt all mining operations and to level the entire facility. Matthias Hell knew how very unwise and irresponsible such a procedure would be and he prevailed upon General Berceny not to carry out this order. Later, after the suppression of the Rakoczy uprising and a ret:urn to normalcy, the mines were again threatened because there were insufficient funds for reconstruction and .the proper updating of the plant in order to insure effective and profitable production. An executive order brought work to a standstill and it appeared that the industry was doomed. In this predicament, Hell intervened with a personal appeal made in the course of an interview with Emperor Joseph I of Vienna. He succeeded in prevailing upon the sovereign to realize that the reconstruction and restoration of the mines would bring public benefit and economic prosperity to this part of his realm. After the death of his wife, Matthias Hell lived as a widower for some time, doing his best to bring up his 8 SLOVAKIA children satisfactorily. On September 22, 1707, however, he married Julia Victoria Steindel who came of a GermanSlovak family in $tiavnica. This marriage was blest with four sons, each of whom distinguished himself in some way of life. The eldest, Ignatius Cornelius, became an outstanding engineer engaged in analyzing and assaying the various types of ore that were extracted in the $tiavnica mines. Joseph Charles, the second eldest, earned recognition and a degree of fame for a number of discoveries and inventions related to the mining industry. Some of the scientific and technical principles underlying these devices are still used to advantage throughout the world, even to our day. On May 15, 1720, when Matthias Cornelius Hell was already seventy years old, his third son was born. At his baptism in the Jesuit church in Banska $tiavnica he was given the name Maximilian. The occasion was solemn and significant, and a special aura was added to the ceremonies because the godparents were Count Tavonath and his wife. The fourth son in the family was Michael who distinguished himself in the local community as a chief inspector of the pumping operation in the mines. The Hell family had special regard for religious and intellectual training. The parents were solicitous about providing for their children a solid and wholesome preparation for life, and the children were intellectually gifted and responsive, all of them showing a special aptitude for mathematical and natural sciences. The fact that the mining school center was located at Vindsachta where the Hell family lived, made drawing boards and mapping materials, charts and model of mine working equipment, libraries and many learning aids accessible to the children, and they readily became very familiar with all these resources, deriving an excellent general and broadening education out of this circumstance. The scientific genius of Maximilian Hell found much opportunity for expression in this milieu of central-Slovak mining towns where socio-economic development was at a peak. This factor makes it advisable to pause a bit in order to survey the background with at least cursory interest. HANSKA $TIAVNICA was a leading city in Slovakia. As a matter of fact, it SLOVAKIA 9 was second in rank, coming right after Bratislava, the capital city, and by actual count it had three hundred buildings more than Bratislava. Very early references to goldsmiths and to metal mining in the area can be traced back to at least the year 1075. In the sixteenth century events so shaped themselves that the city had every assurance of securely laid foundations for its cultural growth and for long-range prosperity of a high order. A large number of outstanding leaders in the field of technology and scientists of established repute came to reside in Banska stiavnica. The success and prosperity of the city were conditioned primarily on the natural underground richness of its mineral deposits and secondarily on other significant factors. In 1587 Banska stiavnica became the seat of the municipal treasury or finance department and the recognized head of seven mining cities in central Slovakia that had formed a partnership for mutual defense in the face of the Turkish menace and for united resistance to John Zapol'sky. Later most of the city's mining interests passed into the hands of affluent citizens so that the industry was not controlled by foreign investors but it developed and thrived on the capital of its own citizens who were characteristically energetic, hard-working and well educated individuals. The increase of mining output and the expansion of the mining industry as a whole were commensurate with the rising level of scholastic standards and academic opportunities, with the remarkable development of the educational system and with the rapidly advancing cultural status of the townspeople in stiavnica. In 1725 Banska stiavnica opened a technical school of mining which later evolved into a school of advanced learning and by 1770 became the Mining Academy for specialized study. It was the first advanced school of its kind in all Europe, attracting widespread attention for its departments of chemistry and physics. It had the unique distinction of being the first school in the history of education to introduce the laboratory method of instruction in chemistry. European technical schools were greatly interested in the outcomes of scientific experiments that were conducted in the innovated laboratory classes at the school. The Polytechnic Institute of Paris adopted the laboratory 10 SLOVAKIA method of instruction in chemistry as it had been introduced in the Academy of Mining in Banska stiavnica. Before long, other European polytechnic schools and universities also did so. Excellently equipped laboratories, an eminently qualified staff of teachers and research scholars as well as an environment and atmosphere conducive to pursuits of learning and research attracted scientists and inventors of established name to come to Banska stiavnica. For example: Volta, Tandi, Lippi, Savarezi, Melograni and a number of experts associated with the Spanish mining endeavors in America had devoted some time to specialized study in the laboratories at Banska stiavnica. The great demand for young engineers who had finished their studies at Banska stiavnica testifies to the high quality of schooling that was offered here. Early in the nineteenth century the sultan Mohammed invited into his service twelve graduates of this school, one of whom-John Knechtel-became the supervisor of mines in the Turkish empire. It was mainly because of the stimulus provided by the Mining Academy that the first world congress of natural scientists, attended largely by metallurgists and chemists, was held in Sklene Teplice in 1786. The International Society of Mining Science was established at this congress. Among its charter members were Anton Ruprecht and the Jesuit Nicholas Poda, both of whom were members of the faculty at the Mining Academy. Banska stiavnica reached the peak of its glory and prosperity in the first half of the eighteenth century. At that time its mining enterprises employed at least eight thousand workers and specialized technicians. The population of the city was always predominantly Slovak. In 1715, for example, its leading families registered these national origins or backgrounds: 424 Slovak, 360 German, and only 20 Magyar. Practically everyone who lived in the city was fluent in three languages: Slovak, German and Magyar. By the close of the eighteenth century, however, the city began to decline because it was no longer able to provide adequate job opportunities in the local mines and foundries. In the nineteenth century mining and SLOVAKIA 11 metal works were superseded by other industrial interests that were introduced into Banska stiavnica. BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF MAXIMILIAN HELL Early in his life Maximilian Hell gave every indication of precocious gifts and talents, and the home and family in which he was nurtured greatly contributed to the full development of his natural endowments. Although his health began to fail, the aged father still continued to discharge his responsibilities as chief mining engineer and at the same time, he conscientiously saw to the consistently thorough and sound training of his sons. All four boys acquired their earliest acquaintance with scientific lore and some basic in the study of science from their father right at home. Later they were able to build on these fundamentals when they attended the already famed Mining Academy. Even in his boyhood, Maximilian was strongly influenced by the Jesuit professors in Banska stiavnica who were remarkably dedicated priests and were now involved in vital movement to restore Catholicism in this town which was recovering after the defeat of Rakoczy. These Jesuits had a well established mission in the village Vindsachta where the Hell family lived. One of their principal concerns was the education and proper training of the younger generation. As one measure toward this end they had founded a junior high school in Banska stiavnica and the boys of their school won many accolades for their dramatic presentations and declamations as well as for their performances in public examinations. Later a number of Jesuits also taught at the Mining Academy, especially in the departments of Latin, rhetoric and poetry. Father Nicholas Poda and Father Charles Tierenberger were heads of mathematics, mechanics and physics. They were famed experts in their specialized fields and they were excellent educators as well. Father Poda produced a textbook on mechanical engineering with special reference to the mining industry. It was the first textbook of its kind. For many decades the hand written lecture notes of Father Tierenberger were valued as a kind of mathematics handbook. Much of their substance and method still 12 SLOVAKIA had some value in practical application as late as the beginning of our century. There is no question about the lasting influence of the Jesuits upon the formative years of Maximilian Hell's life. Even from early boyhood he cultivated a strong inclination to develop his talents in their Society. He knew with what devotion the Jesuits promoted science and learning together with profound spirituality, for he had living examples of this kind of life in action and in its full reality as often as he looked about at the inspiration of Jesuit teachers in his midst, men who were effectively combined intensive religious life with specialized skills and scholarship in the natural sciences. On the recommendation of local teachers, the father sent his growing son to schools in Banska Bystrica where he could enroll in humanities courses at the Jesuit senior high school. In 1738 Maximilian Hell entered the Jesuit novitiate in Trencin. He was then a promising young man of eighteen. He devoted two years to the exclusive study of the fundamentals of religious life as it is lived in the Society of Jesus. Marginally, he continued his interest in the natural sciences, principally in mathematics. After his novitiate training was completed in 1740, his superiors sent him to Vienna for further study. This was the first time that he left his native Slovakia but he knew that his absence would be only temporary, that he would return one day with a rich store of enlarged knowledge and new experiences that could be shared with his countrymen. His life and accomplishments prove that this aspiration was no empty dream. Hell began his studies in Vienna by enrolling in the department of philosophy. In his day, this department also offered courses in what was catalogued as natural philoso phy and included the study of mathematics, physics and astronomy. These were the courses that interested Maximilian Hell the most. During the time that he was absorbed in mastering these natural sciences at Vienna, he also published his first book Elementa algebrae. The university at Vienna opened a new phase of life for the aspiring Jesuit. Two outstanding Jesuit educators who took note of this brilliant student were Erasmus Frolich, professor of mathematics, applied science in mechanics and history; and Joseph Franz, lecturer in philosophy, who SLOVAKIA 13 was also devoted to exploring problems in mmmg and astronomy-subjects from the dark pits in the deep earth to the distant vaults in the skies. Franz already enjoyed an established reputation in the world of science, for he was the founder and the director of the Oriental Institute in Vienna. Both his diplomatic and his study tours in Turkey and in Asia Minor had yielded him a great deal of interesting and useful information, especially in matters of Oriental astronomy, mathematics and physics. He became very fond of Maximilian Hell whom he esteemed mainly because of his grasp in mining technology and his practical understanding of mining machines and equipment. Aware of these qualifications in Hell, Franz chose him to be the recipient of a special fellowship and to serve as an assistant in his department. Later he introduced him to the wonders of astronomy and in time he made him an assistant in the Jesuit observatory. Maximilian became enchanted by this science of the heavens and he discovered that here at least was his greatest prospect for the direct application of his attractions and his natural capacities for natural science and mathematics. It is standard Jesuit practice that after two years of study in philosophy, a candidate devotes a year or two to actual teaching and work in the apostolate in order to benefit from such realistic experience and to test innate capacities. On his personal initiative Maximilian Hell petitioned his superiors to assign him to some work of this nature in his native Slovakia. This reasonable request was honored and he was sent to teach Latin, Greek, history and geography at the high school in Levoca. Later he himself added mathematics to the courses that he taught and in his free time he continued the study of astronomy which fascinated him thoroughly. He proved to be very effective in his work with Slovak high school students as well as in his activities among the local people. They admired him greatly and were impressed by his personality and his intellectual gifts. From Levoca Hell often visited his friend Adam Kollar who taught in Liptovsky Sv. Mikulas. He, too, had had Jesuit training in the background but he decided to leave the Society before ordination. After two years of teaching at the high school in Levoca, Hell returned to Vienna for theological studies which lasted 14 SLOVAKIA four years, and finally in 1751 he achieved the most ardent hope of his lifetime when he was ordained priest. In this same year he was also awarded the academic degree Doctor of Philosophy. After ordination he taught for some time at the humanities school in Banska Bystrica which was quite close to his native Banska stiavnica. This made it possible for him to keep in close touch with his brother Joseph who was employed as a mechanical engineer. Pooling his talents with Samuel Makovini he was busily engaged in constructing a new pumping device to control the water level in the mines. The unusual feature of this pumping machine lay in the fact that it was not dependent on motor power or on levers, on pressure valves or pistons, but its operational force was pressurized water power alone. Maximilian was of great help to Joseph in this undertaking, for he worked out sensitive mathematical calculations that were involved in the planning. At the same time he was broadening and deepening his own mastery of physics. Interestingly, 110 years later this ingenious concept of the Hell brothers of using the force of pressurized air to pump liquids was put to practical use for the first time when the United States undertook operations to extract crude oil out of Pennsylvania oil fields. The discovery of the Hell brothers became the common property of all men. While he was in Banska Bystrica, Maximilian successfully completed what is termed the third probationary period in the Jesuit formation program and he became a full-fledged member, dedicated to a lifetime career in the Society. At the request of Count Konigseck, who was very influential in the mining industry and who was well acquainted with the Hell family, and with the sanction of his immediate -superiors, the young Jesuit tutored the Count's son in mathematics and physics for some time, helping to prepare him for a lifetime office in mining supervision. It should be kept in mind that at this time the Mining Academy was not yet founded in Banska stiavnica. The tutorial service that Hell performed for Count Konigseck's son really made of him a pioneer in mining instruction on the secondary level. It was ten years later-specifically on April 3, 1770-that Empress Maria Theresa, Queen of SLOVAKIA 15 Hungary and Bohemia, granted approbation to the proposal presented by Count Novohradsky after mature deliberation with Professor Hell, for the founding of the Mining Academy which was to be an advanced technical institute of mining in Banska stiavnica. Hell was also commissioned to translate the mining statutes of Hungary (the old multinational state) from German into Latin. This event too indicates what respect Maximilian Hell commanded in scientific circles, for a task of this kind could be entrusted only to one with proven abilities not only in fluent Latin expression but also with a command of clear and precise mining terminology. Though Hell was greatly preoccupied with these activities, his study of astronomy did not suffer in any way. As a matter of fact, he made steady progress in this science and his prestige among astronomers continued to grow. In 1752 Dean Borgias Keri of the University of Trnava approached him about the founding of a university observatory. Hell welcomed the proposition, for if he had a particular ambition, it was to see his native Slovakia advance significantly in scientific scholarship as well as in all branches of learning. After an all-too-brief stay of one year in Trnava, Hell was assigned to Kluz in present-day Rumania where he was to establish a new college and build an observatory. He devoted three years of intensive work to this task. In the course of this time, however, he not only supervised the construction of the college and its observatory but he also taught mathematics and found time for the apostolic work of pastoral service among the Slovaks and Germans who were beginning to settle in Kluz and its vicinity and were in need of priestly ministry. By way of a marginal professional undertaking, he also compiled and published some handbooks in mathematics. In formal professional circles Hell earned not only recognition but even evident regard and esteem for his scholarly proficiency and his achievements in mathematics, physics and astronomy. After the eminent natural scientist and mathematician John Marinoni died in Vienna, Hell was invited to that city and was named director of the new observatory at the University of Vienna. In the discharge of this office he created extraordinary and needful pressure 16 SLOVAKIA in order to provide for the observatory the newest kind of equipment that was available in that day. In line of duty, he devoted meticulous attention to the movement of heavenly bodies, conducted guided tours of the observatory on behalf of noteworthy visitors, collaborated with projects of scientific institutes outside the country, supervised the publication of calendars of astronomic interest and information, and conducted sessions in the practical study of astronomy and observation of heavenly bodies. From 1755 on, Hell undertook very serious efforts to correlate and coordinate the theoretic and the practical aspects of science. He was gratifyingly successful in the endeavor. With a sense of elation he accepted an offer to teach mechanics and to conduct lectures for aspiring builders, construction engineers and artists. In time, Hell found himself constrained to resign his teaching commitments because of the burdens of office. He had become court astronomer and mathematician as well as editor of the learned astronomy annual Ephemerides Astronomicae. The greatest of demands were made on him by this journal which he compiled and edited for 37 years, except for some brief and intermittent periods. It brought its readers pertinent mathematical tables and calculations and almanac-styled articles on heavenly phenomena, primarily the movement of the principal heavenly bodies: the sun, the moon and the stars. Hell also made of this annual the publications vehicle for reports on astronomic observations from many European observatories. His prestigious position as well as his deservedly respected reputation as a remarkable scholar and an accomplished scientist together with his winning disposition and gracious manner all worked to the good in attracting the cooperation of significant men of science and learning in other countries. This editing of a scientific journal of this nature was a pioneering venture. England launched a similar publication only ten years later. The Berlin Academy did not initiate such a publication until two decades later. THE ACCOMPLISHMENTS OF MAXIMILIAN HELL Writing in the periodical The Slovak Jesuits in Canada SLOVAKIA 17 <1970, p. 48) Dr. Robert Bajcar observes that "It is a challenging and complex task to evaluate the achievements of Maximilian Hell. This is due largely to the fact that the man himself is an impressive personality of uncommon stature and his is a broad spectrum of interests with a markedly varied field of activity. Nor is it a simple matter to do this uniquely versatile scientist justice by appropriate placement in proper historic and generic classifications." Dr. Bajcar feels that Maximilian Hell is first and foremost an astronomer. In this appreciation of Hell, however, we choose to review his contributions to his native land and to speak of his scientific expedition to the polar regions m the company of John ~ajnovic, another Slovak Jesuit scholar. It is an interesting detail of research findings that the first efforts to organize scientific activities and interests in the multinational and polyglot country of Hungary were begun in Slovak lands. In 1763 Adam Kollar, honored by his colleagues with the epithet "The Slovak Socrates," addressed to Hungarian scholars and learned citizens his proposal for founding a Hungarian learned society whose members would concern themselves with active participation in or the support of research into the history, natural science, economics and political science of Hungary. Two years later, Kollar published a Latin document justifying the taxation of properties owned by the Church and the nobility. This offended many sensibilities and the aristocracy retaliated with an official proclamation in parliament by which Kollar was denounced as a traitor and his paper was publicly burned at an open demonstration in the courtyard of the Bratislava townhall. Maria Theresa exonerated Kollar, her official director at the imperial library, but she tabled his proposal for the founding of a learned society. A second endeavor to establish a Hungarian learned society was made in 1771. This one, too, was initiated in Slovakia. This time the proposition was presented to Maria Theresa anonymously although it is generally surmised that is was formulated by Kollar, Trstiansky and Count Teleki. The proposed body was to be called Academia Augusta and was to consist of four departments: philosophy, history, political economy and education. In May, 1774, 18 SLOVAKIA the court counselor authorized Adam Kollar and Maximilian Hell to draft the charter and the by-laws of the projected association. For a long time Hell had given much thought to the prospects of organizing scientific thought and activities. He had his own preconceptions about the nature and objectives of a learned body, and unhappily his ideas did not square with Kalla.r's. Hell envisioned niceties of distinction between the university as a pedagogical institution and the learned academy as a scientific institute. He believed that: It is the function of a lecturer or a professor in a given discipline to present the subject matter of a course within its current context and degree of development together with all available findings that are related to it at that time and in such a manner that it will be readily comprehended and assimilated by the average student in attendance ... An active member of the learned society, on the other hand, is responsible not only for demonstrating professional mastery in his specialized field, but he likewise bears the responsibility of bring,i ng the fruits and findings of personal study, eocperimentation and research, the responsibility of making new contribution to the general store of data already available in that field. Members of a learned institute bring discovery and enrichment to science and learning; professors, by contrast, present to their classes and audiences facts and explanations bearing on the findings made by learned societies in order to enlarge and expand knowledge that is already available. By Hell's definition then, the essential scientist is intrinsically a discoverer of new facts or new ideas. For this reason, Hell was convinced that this unique aspect of science scholarship had to be a characteristic and integral feature of the authentic academy of sciences. There is fundamental truth in the perceptive thinking of Hell but this was thoroughly radical thinking in his day. It was also truly radical, for example, to consider Hell's exclusion of the hwnanities from the academy. His philosophy of thinking out the structure of the academy ruled out history, law, linguistics, the fine arts and related disciplines. It is not surprising then that Hell's plan was vigorously opposed by the humanists. As a matter of fact, Kollar himself came to take a stand against Hell and his unrelenting position. Hell also had ideas of his own concerning the financial SLOVAKIA 19 security of the proposed academy. He proposed that it be supported by the publication of scientific almanacs that would be promoted throughout all the countries of the Habsburg empire. Officialdom in Hungary did not endorse this plan but offered the counter-proposal that the academy be established with headquarters in Trnava, where the University of Trnava would see to its functioning. This time it was Hell's proposal that was relegated ad acta. But his hopes and his efforts to organize scientific thought and activities in home reasonable way were not entirely in vain. The international science institute which was founded in Sklene Teplice in 1786 never would have been established in Slovakia had its establishment not been proceded by the hopeful plans and efforts of scientists like Hell and Kollar. A significant contribution of Maximilian Hell to the Slovak world of science was his construction of an observatory at the University of Trnava. At this time in the history of learning and education, an observatory had more than scientific value exclusively; it also satisfied academic and practical roles. Hell's peculiar genius lay in his ability to combine scientific theory with practical application. His scientific almanacs were sought not only by specialists in astronomy but by geographers, mariners, travelers and military strategists as well. He was proficient in using scientific knowledge to good purpose for many practical uses. Danish astronomers and sailors were especially eager to have his publications. One year after his accession to the throne, the young King Christian officially invited Hell to come to Denmark and offered him a commission to take charge of astronomic observation on Warde Island in the icy North Sea during the eclipse of the sun on June 3, 1769. With the consent of Maria Theresa, Hell accepted the King's offer and made necessary preparations for the journey and for the observation study. He chose for his companion a fellow-Jesuit John sajnowho was his junior by thirteen years. Sajnovic had experience as an assistant at the Trnava University observatory which Hell had founded. Both men were natives of the same region, they were of compatible disposition and vic 20 SLOVAKIA had many interests in common. The younger man was entrusted with all the details of the journey by land and by sea, and he was to prepare the physical features of the observation station on Warde Island. Hell was to look after the essentially scientific details connected with the task of observation and with the keeping of a scientific diary and official records. A secondary assignment for sajnovic was to study the flora and fauna of Lapland as well as the native Laplanders, the Eskimos and the Finns; their language, customs and culture-truly a formidable and responsible task. Hell added to his main objectives a study of the aurora borealis, the magnetic needle and the Gulf Stream-its influence on storms, etc. On April 28, 1768 Hell and sajnovic set out on the long expedition from Vienna to the Arctic Circle. The journey was long and taxing, requiring all of five months. On October 1, they finally reached their destination, Warde Island in the frozen North Sea. The work to which they set themselves there was even more strenuous than their journey had been. Their new surroundings were utterly strange, strange beyond all expectations. The polar summer was chilling, the sky was usually overcast, and the entire landscape and seascape were shrouded in fog. They set to work energetically building their research station and made eager preparation for June 3, the date of the eclipse when Venus was to pass between the sun and the earth, blotting out the sun's light. Hell's scientific log, his astute observations together with his scientific notations and calculations made in connection with this phenomenon became a substantial contribution to the composite fund of world facts in astronomy. On returning from this expedition, Hell presented himself before a session convoked by the Academy of Sciences at Copenhagen and delivered a thorough report on his journey, his observations and his conclusions. He promised to send a copy of this report to the Danish king. As a token of gratitude, Christian II granted Hell an annual pension of a thousand gulden but Hell graciously declined the bounty of the King. SLOVAKIA 21 When Hell reached Vienna, he worked out some of his notes in greater detail and an account of his research and observation was published in a 1771 annual devoted to astronomy. Shortly afterwards he prepared another work on this subject. It was published as a French study in Journal des savants in 1776. Hell had set himself the further task of preparing a meticulously detailed account which was to be published in three comprehensive volumes but this scholarly work was never completed because the suppression of the Society of Jesus brought it to a halt. This unfortunate dissolution of the Jesuits also caused Hell to lose all his faithful associates and co-workers of long standing. Besides, he was burdened with an overwhelming multiplicity of pressing duties that prevented his application to the projected volumes. Another obstacle was the lack of financial resources to defray the expenses that would be entailed by such a publication. John sajnovic, Hell's companion and associate on the expedition to the Arctic for the solar eclipse observations, also produced a valuable work. It was published under the sponsorship of the University of Trnava. One feature of it was the linguistic study in which sajnovic pointed out various elements that the Lapp, the Finnish and the Chinese languages have in common with Magyar. Because Hell's long promised three-volume account of the Arctic project with all its scientific implications never went to print, differences of opinion on the merits of Hell's contribution began to appear among some groups of interested scientists. De la Lande and Encke were among the astronomers who cast doubts on Hell's time and date calculations in the researching of the solar eclipse as well as in his data relevant to general observations from this expedition. Much later, however, the American astronomer Newcomb made an exhaustive study of Hell's records in Vienna and he confirmed the findings of the polar expedition as Hell had reported them. Closer to our day the Danish astronomer Nielsen painstakingly reviewed Hell's calculations and reaffirmed their correctness and reliability in the light of modern scientific methods and theories. 22 SLOVAKIA CONCLUDING SUMMARY Maximilian Hell was an outstanding scholar and scientist whom Slovakia gave to the world. His major interest was in astronomy but he was also an authority in related branches of science, mainly in mathematics, physics, meteorology, physical geography, and mining geodesy and geodynamics. As a young man in his prime, he established and conducted astronomic observatories in Trnava, Kluz, Jager and Budapest. When we realize that in Hell's day astronomical observatories were the foremost of scientific institutes, and that physics and natural science laboratories came into being at a later time, we begin to appreciate more fully the fact that Hell's achievements were of prime significance not only within the borders of his own country but in all Europe as well. Hell himself was not-and he did not attempt to be-the kind of scientific research scholar who opens new fields of study on the basis of revolutionary or daring hypothetic premises; he was the characteristically patient, painstaking, persistant scholar whose whole life and achievement was grounded in diligent and unmitigated devotion to work and in dogged perseverance in a task. Too great a portion of Hell's scientific endeavor still remains unexamined and inadequately appraised. Much of his correspondence which deals with scientific interests is practically untouched. Pinzger published a monograph on Hell in which he included some samplings of this correspondence but his sources were not truly representative, for he limited himself to Austrian and Hungarian sources exclusively. The bulk of Hell's corr~spondence is reserved in the Academy of Sciences and in the archives of the observatory at the University of Vienna which is also official guardian of a special fund or trust in Hell's memory. Besides meriting recognition as a research scholar in various branches of science, Hell also deserves to be remembered as an educator of note. He was a renowned teacher and a distinguished lecturer at the University of Vienna. It is generally agreed that in the entire realm there was not at that time a scholar who was his equal, much less any one who could have performed or continued Hell's commit- SLOVAKIA 23 ments more creditably or more satisfactorily. Because he was always a leader who was greatly involved in the scientific movements and activities of all Europe, he was offered membership in many notable scientific societies and associations. A further achievement of Maximilian Hell was his detailed mapping of the surface of the moon. The International Union of Astronomers recognized the value of this project and honored it by naming one of the moon's craters in honor of Hell. The life and achievements of this Jesuit scholar testify to the fact that Slovakia has much in her past that reflects glory upon the Slovaks as a nation. This should inspire a sense of wholesome pride and ambition in today's generation of descendants of Slovak families at home and .abroad. Translated by Barbara F t ci c n i k and Sister Martina T y b o r THE EASTERN SLOVAK CITY of Presov, historic market-town for centuries, is expanding its industrial facilities . Last year a modern super chicken-farm was established and put into operation. Moreover, a special auto-service with a daily capacity for approximately 500 autos was inaugurated. The center covering an area of 30,000 sq. meters was built at a cost of almost 50 million crowns (about $10,000,000.00). ALTHOUGH EACH YEAR the Slovak shipbuilders in Koma.mo, Slovakia, make scores of vessels for the Soviet Union which employs them on the Danube, Slovak shipping is limited to a pair of ships, the Slavin and Trnava, and three small craft.  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Maximilian Hell, S.J.: Slovak Scientest of World Renown, 1720-1792 Description An account of the resource Stephen Šenčík, S.J. Slovakia, Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974 pp. 5-23 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Senčík, Štefan, 1920-2001 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 SNK https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/436cfdbe28d3ca6197b94353de0d98d1.pdf bab154704793155f65b6031dabfeeee9 PDF Text Text 24 SLOVAKIA --- -------- Tiso' s Formative Years and Early Political Career Anthony X. Sutherland, Ph.D. Dr. Jozef Tiso, like most Slovaks who attained national prominence, had very simple, humble beginnings. Tiso was born on October 13, 1887 of peasant stock in the small Slovak town of Vel'ka Bytca. Two days later he was christened a Roman Catholic with the name Jozef Gaspar. With regard to the origin of the name Tiso there is no agreement, but most likely it was derived from the Slavic word, tis, meaning yew tree. The name Tiso in Vel'ka Bytca has been traced back to 1525. Several individuals of that name achieved some distinction in Slovak history. One of them, a priest, Mikulas Tiso, was active in the Slovak national movement during the 19th century. 1 Most of Jozef Tiso's ancestors, however, were simple peasants or tradesmen. His grandfather, Jozef Tiso, also of Vel'ka Bytca, was born on August 11, 1838. In 1860 he married Veronica Fundarek, who bore him a son in 1862; he was Gaspar Tiso, father of the future leader of Slovakia. Gaspar Tiso during most of his adult life operated a butcher business in Vel'ka Bytca. He was a nationally conscious Slovak and active during most of his adult life in Slovak national and political organizations. In 1894 he founded a Catholic Circle in Vel'ka Bytca, which was dissolved by the Hungarian government in 1901 but later revived. Even after 1918 Gaspar Tiso represented the Slovak People's Party in his town. 2 On September 2, 1882 Gaspar married Terezia Budiska, a member of a well-known family of potters from Vel'ka Bytca. From this union seven children were born: Pavol, Jozef, Maria, Jan, Hanna, Jozefka, and Terezia. Gaspar and Terezia Tiso were simple people who instilled in their children the simple peasant virtues: the value of hard work and a firm belief in God. Their family mottos were: "Pray and work," and "Fellow strive and God will bless you." 3 �SLOVAKIA 25 Dr. Jozef Tiso spent most of his formative years in the town of Vel'ka Bytca. Situated in the northwest corner of Slovakia, it was that area which was a traditional stronghold of Slovak nationalism. Vel'ka Bytca had withstood the onslaught of Magyarization and survived as a nationally conscious town. Reminiscing many years later Tiso said of Bytca: I am a Bytcan. If tinkers have a kingdom, well now Bytca would certainly be the chief city of this kingdom. Well, if you will, I am also a descendant of tinkers. Among us there are no differences between artisans and farmers and workers. A tinker is an artisan, but also a worker and the poorest salaried, working on a patch of land which is more rock than soil-in a word also ·a farmer.4 Tiso's family was not especially poor nor was it a rich one: it can be classified as a middle peasant family. Regarding his family's situation Tiso said: We had a decent roof over our heads, we had a clean, nice village home and always a loaf of bread on a table covered with a cloth. Thus we had what a man needs for a decent life. This was our wealth. And what we had was from work.5 Tiso began his formal education in the lower school in Bytca in 1894. At that time the Bytca school was a three language one. During the first year Slovak and Magyar were taught; in the second year, German; and in the third year all three languages were alternated. Subjects included in the curriculum were the natural scie?ces, Hungarian history, and geography. Although the purpose of the curriculum was to Magyarize, there were several nationally conscious Slovak instructors in the Bytca school: one of these, Pavel Trusina, taught Tiso the Slovak language.6 Jozef Tiso during these years of study in Bytca proved to be a good student; therefore in 1898 after the completion of his fourth year he was sent to the middle school in nearby Zilina. Gaspar and Terezia Tiso had originally planned to educate their eldest son, Pavel, but he dropped out after one year at the Zilina school to take up the family butcher trade in Bytca. Jozef Tiso soon proved to be a much better student than his brother. He won the admiration of all his professors. He did well in all his subjects and showed a special talent in mastering foreign languages. Magyar and German were mere playthings to him according to the recollections of one of his classmates.7 One professor named Bicovsky referring to Tiso allegedly told the class, �26 SLOVAKIA "You will see this boy one day will be a great man." 8 Jozef Tiso was also well liked by his fellow classmates. He was remembered as being humble, pleasant, and easygoing, always demonstrating an uncommon interest in helping his classmates with their work. 9 While in zilina Tiso lived with Anton Sturm, a friend of the family, who remembered him as a conscientious student who never had to be forced to prepare his school assignments.10 It was in zilina that Tiso made the decision to enter the priesthood. This was not an uncommon choice for Slovaks peasants. Many Slovak peasant families had a son or daughter in the Church. A clerical career was one of the few ways a Slovak peasant could raise his social status or acquire an education. Having made the decision, Tiso set off in 1902 after the completion of his fourth year at zilina for the Nitra Gymnasium. The Nitra school was much more a Magyar institution than the zilina one had been. The Nitra faculty, moreover, had a low opinion of the zilina school, regarding its curriculum in Magyar subjects particularly inferior to its ow~. Young students there were frequently ridiculed, but Tiso was not for he proved to be an exceptional student. He mastered with little difficulty the most difficult assignments in Latin and German, and remained there four years. 11 The outstanding theological students of the time were sent to Vienna to the Pazmaneum, the leading Catholic seminary in the Habsburg Empire. Tiso in 1906 was one of those chosen to complete his theological studies there. Once at the Pazmaneum, he continued his good scholastic record and came into contact with some of the leading clerics of the Empire. He received lectures from Franz Martin Schindler12 and Ignaz Seipel, leaders of the Austrian Christian Social movement. During Tiso's years of study at the Pazmaneum Pope Leo's social encyclical, Rerum Novarum was receiving wide attention. Many seminars were devoted to it and came to form an important part of Tiso's social philosophy. Tiso's training was otherwise in traditional Catholic theology and Thomistic philosophy. According to the confidential files of the Pazmaneum Tiso was an exemplary seminarian. Concerning Tiso the psychological-moral profile stated: "Natural behavior: serious; morals : exemplary; mode of conversation with superiors: �SLOVAKIA 27 humble, with equals: affable; character: oustanding; application: indefatigable . Observations : behaves with a mature character." 13 The intellectual atmosphere of Vienna was very dif. ferent from what Tiso was accustomed to in Nitra and zilina. There were Socialists, Christian Socials, liberals, and others, some of them hostile to the Catholic world view that Tiso espoused. It was in Vienna in fact that Tiso had his first contact with the progressive wing of the Slovak intelligentsia, the Hlasists. Tiso opposed Hlasists thought even then; he regarded it a threat to the conservative Catholic view. Friction between Tiso and a Hlasist even took place in Tiso's home town of Bytca where he spent the holidays. The medical doctor in Bytca, Minarik, a Hlasist, accused Tiso of not being a real Slovak, when Tiso supported the parish priest, Teselsky, a member of the Hungarian People's Party and a known Magyarone. There were differences between Tiso and Teselsky, but Tiso preferred the Magyarone to the progressive minded Minarik. 14 Dr. Jozef Tiso was ordained a priest on July 14, 1910 by Bishop August Fischer-Colbr ie, and shortly thereafter said his first mass in his home parish church in Vel'ka Bytca. A year later he was awarded a doctorate in theology. Tiso's first assignment as a priest was to the small remote village of Oscadnica, a poor Slovak village. Tiso was not only concerned with the spiritual welfare of the people of Oscadnica, but also became very interested in their economic standard, their health, sanitation, and dietary habits. He organized self-help associations and tackled the problem of alcoholism which was so widespread in Slovak villages. Tiso referred to his experience in Oscadnica as his second university. 15 After about a year in Oscadnica, Tiso was transferred to another village, Rajec, where he continued his work. In Rajec he founded a Slovak peasant bank designed to strengthen the financial resources of the village and free the peasant from debts.16 Dr. Tiso was not in Rajec long before he was again transferred, this time to a larger town, Banovce nad Bebravou, located about 70 miles northwest of Bratislava. He was appointed chaplain there and in 1924 promoted to pastor, a post he held until 1945. Tiso, during the many years of his pastorate in Banovce did much for the improve- �28 SLOVAKIA ment of the town. He undertook the pavement of the town's streets and the regulation of the Bebrava River and Radisla Creek which ran near Banovce. To further the interests of the town's noted cabinet makers he organized a cooperative. He worked, too, with the city council and founded a bank to finance a sewer system and water supply. Tiso formu• lated other plans for the modernization of Banovce, such as electrification and pavement of roads to every village in the district, but these remained only in the planning stage. His primary goal remained the industrialization of Banovce. 17 Alarmed by the spread of secularism and progressive thought, Tiso also set out to strengthen Catholic education in Banovce. He revived the Catholic educational society Orol and he founded both a Catholic teachers' college and a Catholic cultural house. 18 All Tiso's work did much to make him popular in the Banovce area and to make it the center of his political strength. In 1914 Tiso was called up by the government to serve as chaplain in the Austrian army. Toward the end of 1914 he was sent to Maribor in Styria. There he became acquainted with Slovene priests and their work in organizing peasant cooperatives. He later applied some of their ideas in his work for the economic development of Banovce.19 After a year in the military service, Tiso contracted nephritis and had to be recalled from the front. Following his recovery he was appointed spiritual director at the Nitra seminary, later professor of theology, and personal secretary to the Bishop of Nitra. Tiso maintained these posts throughout the reminder of the war. Tiso was later attacked for his activity during the war and during the Slovak National Revolution, when Slovakia seceded from Hungary to join with the Czechs in the new Czecho-Slovakia (1918-19 ). His political opponents charged him with having had pro-Magyar sympathies at the time. These charges resulted from the fact that Tiso contributed to Nytramegyei Szemle, a Magyar journal in Nitra, articles glorifying Hungary's war efforts. Ivan Derer, Social Democratic Minister of Education in Czecho-Slovakia in the 1920's, largely responsible for such charges, also maintained that Tiso before 1918 spelled his Name, Tiszo, in the Magyar fashion, and that Tiso had supported the integrity of the Hungarian state. Derer wrote that Tiso, moreover, was �SLOVAKIA 29 opposed to the Martin Declaration and had even served on the Magyar Nitra Council. 20 Tiso came naturally under suspicion since he served during the war as personal secretary to the Bishop, Viliam Batthanyi, of Nitra, a notorious advocate of Magyarization. Labeling a Populist a Magyarone was a favorite device of Czech and Slovak centralists used to discredit the idea of Slovak autonomy. It was done repeatedly in the twenty years of the Czecho-Slovak Republic. Sometimes the charges were appropriate while at other times, as with Tiso, they had little basis in fact. Whatever pro-Magyar feelings Tiso may have had before 1918 were gone by the time the Czecho-Slovak army approached Nitra. Before 1918 Tiso belonged to the politically passive Slovak majority. He was active before October, 1918 but mainly with welfare and town improvement projects. Prior to 1918 he had neither planned to enter politics nor was he trained for such a career. 21 Tiso's rather sudden involvement in politics is difficult to explain, but very likely, much like Hlinka, Tiso was drawn into the Populist movement by the revolutionary anti-clerical character of the new state. Indeed soon after the National Revolution Tiso joined the Slovak People's Party and began to work for it in Nitra. He was largely responsible for making the whole south Nitra district a party stronghold.22 Nitra in 1918 was very much a Magyar town with only two educated Slovak leaders, Dr. Eugen Filkorn and Dr. Jozef Tiso. Both worked hard in Nitra to obliterate its Magyar character and make it Slovak once wore. They published a Slovak newspaper entitled, Nitra and organized a Slovak National Council. Meanwhile Slovak Populists under Hlinka's direction prepared themselves for the first legislative election scheduled for April, 1920. In this election Hlinka formed a common front with the Czech Populists, led by Msgr. Jan Sramek; it was known as the "Czechoslovak People's Party." The election was a great disappointment to the Slovak Populists who secured only twelve seats out of fifty-seven assigned to Slovakia in the Prague Parliament.23 The Social Democrats were the big winners there with twenty-three mandates. The revolutionary wave that swept Slovakia after the war was mainly responsible for the Social Democratic victory, though the fact that there was little in the Populist platform to attract the peasant masses of Slovakia also �30 SLOVAKIA partly explains the vote. Hlinka's main concern at the time was the progressive, anti-clerical character of the new government, not the social and economic condition of peasants. This is clear from Hlinka's decision to present a common front with Czech Catholics. Tiso in a newspaper editorial of the time attributed the success of the Social Democrats to the fact that some 200,000 Czech soldiers and officials had voted for the Social Democrats and other Czecho-Slovak parties. This gave the world a false picture of true political feelings of the Slovaks. 24 In that election Tiso won in the Trnava district but turned his post over to another candidate. Tiso remained in Nitra dividing his time between teaching and his work for the Populists. He delivered speeches, organized party activities, and contributed articles to the party's leading organ, Slovak. In 1921 he was appointed personal secretary to the new bishop in Nitra, Karol Kmet'ko, a former member of the Czecho-Slovak Revolutionary Council. For the next few years both worked together in building up the party strength in Nitra. But while Kmet'ko preferred peaceful discussion, Tiso felt the Slovak cause benefited more by demonstrations. As a result, a certain coolness developed between the two men. Even worse, Tiso's inflammatory speeches soon got him into trouble with the authorities. In 1923 Tiso was sentenced to six weeks imprisonment; of which he served two, because he delivered a fiery speech in Nitra, which was said to have incited the people. Following this episode Tiso felt it best to resign his post as secretary to Kmet'ko, knowing the bishop's feeling with regard to such activity. Tiso then in 1924 left Nitra to become pastor of the Catholic Church in Banovce.25 Meanwhile the Slovak Populists were making their recovery from the election disappointment of 1920. The fruitless union with the Czech Lidaks 26 was ended in 1921. A year later the Slovak People's Party name was changed to the Hlinka's Slovak People's Party (HSUS). The Centralistic policies of Prague and the economic problems in Slovakia contributed to the growth of the HSUS. Within three or four years it became a broad-based mass party. By 1923 the party could claim 876 city organiza- �SLOVAKIA 31 tions, 1065 village organizations and nine newspapers. 27 But not all were content with the party's leadership. Many of the radical members in the party were displeased with what they considered Hlinka's conciliatory position toward the government. The party had approved the Constitution of 1920 and supported Masaryk in the first presidential election. But on the other hand Hlinka did keep the party in opposition throughout the first legislature, and in 1922 presented to the Prague Parliament the first proposal for Slovak autonomy. Accordingly, Czecho-Slovakia would be divided into three parts: Bohemia-Moravia-Silesia, Slovakia, and Ruthe• nia, each with its own diet having authority over local administration, school, churches, justice, public welfare, and finances. 28 The proposal was rejected. In the next election in 1925 the HS~S scored its greatest success receiving 489,111 votes 29 and 23 seats in Prague. Tiso was elected deputy again and took up his seat in Parliament. At this time Tiso was not yet a leading member of the Populist party, but nevertheless one of the party's rising young stars. Much of the leadership still belonged to the predprevratovd group, those from the pre-1918 era which included besides Hlinka, Ferdis Juriga, Jozef Buday,3° Florian Tomanek to name a few. Tiso belonged to the younger group of party deputies, those between 30 and 40 years of age. Tiso was young and inexperienced when he walked into the Prague Parliament, yet within a few years had gained the reputation of being one of the most skillful representatives in the Slovak Club. Hlinka soon came to appreciate his parliamentary ability and his capacity for long, tedious work. There were considerable differences though between Tiso and Hlinka. Tiso was not as impulsive nor romantically oriented toward politics as was Hlinka; he was more a hard, cold realist when it came to appraising political situations.31 Though Tiso became frequently impassioned while speaking, his ideas always conformed to a logical pattern and were argued from a philosophical or historical point of view. In 1925-1926 the new central government of Anton �32 SLOVAKIA Svehla, in face of a renewed campaign of Hungarian revisionists, set out to broaden the government coalition by bringing in German and Slovak opposition parties. Tiso favored participating in the government. He felt something could be gained by it for Slovakia. At this critical time Hlinka departed for the United States to attend an Eucharistic Congress in Chicago. In his absence a directory of five, including Tiso, ran the party. Also, before Hlinka left he designated Tiso president of the Slovak Club in Prague to manage party affairs in the parliament. Soon after Hlinka was gone a struggle developed between the old predprevratovi Populists and the younger generation. Juriga and Tomanek were offended by Hlinka's passing over them in favor of the younger Tiso to head the Slovak Club.32 The friction, however, was mild since Hlinka's authority was strong enough to prevent such inter-party squabbles from becoming serious. In Hlinka's absence it was left to Tiso to take up the whole question of HSES position with regard to the government coalition. Tiso led the negotiations with Svehla, but felt unqualified to make a final decision alone. In July, 1926 Tiso sent a letter to Hlinka urging him to return quickly from the United States so that a decision could be made.33 Hlinka at first opposed the idea of entering a coalition, but during the course of his visit to the United States he was urged by American Slovaks to try cooperation with the government. Hlinka arrived in Slovakia in October, negotiations were immediately accelerated and an agreement concluded for HSES participation in the coalition. Tiso had hoped to obtain some concessions for Slovakia as a condition for the party's participation in the government, but the party was disappointed, especially the radicals. The hated zupa law of 1923 which had centralized government administration was removed and the country was divided into three administrative units: Bohemia-Moravia-Silesia, Slovakia, and Ruthenia, each with krajinsky (regional) president and a council with powers to handle cultural, educational, and humanitarian affairs. The powers of the council were, however, limited, since the krajinsky president, who was nominated by the central government, had power to veto any resolution passed by the council. Furthermore, the �SLOVAKIA 33 central government had powers in the selection of the council's members. 34 Tiso at first spoke out against the law, but after its passage defended it to a degree. At least, he said, with the new law there was recognition of a Slovak krajina and from this, autonomy could be built.35 The People's Party officially entered the government in January, 1927, with Tiso as Minister of Health and Marko Gazik as Minister of Unification. Tiso in his capacity accomplished much. His greatest efforts were turned toward the modernization of the health spas of Polianka, strbske Pleso, Tatranska Lomnica, Cerveny Klastor and Sliac in Slovakia. Due to Tiso's work, Sliac became the most wellknown and most frequented of all Slovak spas.36 Tiso's support of the government during these years was regarded by the radical Populists as a betrayal of party principles. These extremists, moreover, disliked the new administration law of 1928 which had replaced the 1923 one. Tiso at this time together with Jozef Buday belonged to the moderate wing of the party, while the radicals gathered around their leader, Vojtech Tuka. On January 1, 1928 Tuka published a sensational article which claimed that the declaration signed in Martin in 1918 contained a secret clause, (Vacuum Juris) stating that after ten years the Slovaks could reconsider their union with the Czechs. Tuka was subsequently put on trial and sentenced to fifteen years in prison. The whole Tuka affair caused great turmoil in the country. To the opponents of Slovak autonomy Tuka was proof that the Slovak People's Party had dangerous Magyarone elements in it. Many Populists, on the other hand, made the Tuka trial into a cause celebre, regarding Tuka a martyr for the Slovak cause. Hlinka refused to condemn Tuka, and, in a gesture of disapproval at Tuka's imprisonment, pulled the party out of the government and once again put it into opposition. It lost some 85,000 votes and five seats in the Parliament in the 1929 elections.37 With the removal of Tuka from the scene, Tiso's importance and influence in the party in the next few years climbed steadily. At a Populist meeting in Ruzomberok in January, 1930, Tiso was chosen, along with Karol Mederly,38 �34 SLOVAKIA one of the party's vice-presidents.39 By this time, too, Tiso had established himself as the leading ideologist in the party and one of the most articulate spokesmen for the Slovak cause. Tiso was well on his way to becoming successor to Andrej Hlinka as leader of the Slovak Populist movement. FOOTNOTES 1) Most of the biographical information on Tiso's family and early life is taken from Konstantin l:ulen Po Sviitoplukovi druha nasa hlava (Cleveland: Prva Katolicka Slovenska Jednota, 1947) and "Z bohateho zivota nasho prveho prezidenta": Slovak, XX:1/248 (Bratislava), October 27, 1939. 2) "Smutok pana prezidenta," Katolicke noviny (Bratislava), February 14, 1943. 3) Jozef K. Hrabovsky, "U Tisovcov vo Vel'kej Bytci," Slovak, XXXI/24, January 29, 1939. 4) Quoted in l:ulen, Po Sviitoplukovi • . . , p. 24. 5) Quoted in Ibid. , p. 29. 6) "Z bohateho zivota . . . " Slovak, October 27, 1939. 7) J., "Za Boha a narod: Spomienky na skolske roky prezidenta Jozefa Tisu," Slovak, XX:1/248, October 27, 1939. 8) Quoted in Ibid. 9) Tido Gaspar, Der Praesident der Slowakischen Repubiik (Pressburg: Johann 0. Petreas, 1943), p. 6. 10) "Z bohateho zivota . . . " Slovak, October 27, 1939. 11) "Za Boha a narod .. ." Slovak, October 27, 1939. 12) Franz Martin Schindler ( 1847-1922) was professor of moral theology in Vienna. He was one of the ideologists of the Christian Social movement. 13) Quoted in Milan S. f:lurica, Die slowakische Politik 1938/39 im Lichte der Staatslehre Tisos (Bonn: Emil Semmel Verlag, 1967), p. 21. 14) l:ulen, Po Svatoplukovi ... , pp. 33-34. 15) Ibid., p. 36. 16) Ibid- , pp. 37-38. 17) Albert Mistina, "Tiso-clovek," Slovenska otcina, Vol. III (Hamilton, Ontario: Franti§ek Fuga, 1967), pp. 9-12. 18) Ibid., Dr. Jan Gleiman, "Tisovo mesto," Slovenska otcina, Vol. III, pp. 20-25. 19) Jozef Tiso, Tiso o sebe, ed. Jozef Pauco (Passaic, New Jersey: Slovensky Katolicky Sokol, 1952), pp. 101-102. 20) Dr. Ivan Derer, Slovensky vyvoj a l'udacka zrada (Praha: Kvasnicka a Hampl, 1946), pp. 347-348. Imrich Stanek, Zrada a pad, Hlinkovsti separatiste a tak zvan11 siovensky stat (Praha, 1956) pp. 387-388. �SLOVAKIA 35 21) Tiso o sebe, p. 122. 22) Gaspar, p. 11. Culen, Po Sviitoplukovi ••. , pp. 63-66. 23) Joseph Mikus, Slovakia: A Political History, 1918-1950 (Milwaukee: The Marquette University Press, 1963), p. 16. 24) Karol Sidor, Andrej Hlinka (1864-1926) (Bratislava, 1934), p. 438. 25) Culen, Po Sviitoplukovi ... , pp. 66-67. "Z bohateho zivota . . . ," Slovak, October 27, 1939. 26) Lida.ks were the members of Sramek's "Czechoslovak People's Party." 27 ) Juraj Kramer, Slovenske autonomisticke hnutie v rokoch 1918-1929 (Bratislava: Slovenska akademia vied, 1962), pp. 263-266. 28) See Karol Sidor, Slovenska politika na pode prazskeho snemu (19181938), Vol. I (Bratislava: 1943), p. 87. 29) C. A. Macar,tney, Hungary and her Successors (London: Oxford University Press, 1965), p. 118. 30) Jozef Buday was born in 1877 in Trencin and ordained a priest in 1899. During Hlinka's imprisonment 1919-1920 he served as acting president of the party. He was deputy and senator in 1920's and 1930's. He was a leader of the Society of St. Adalbert and author of several Catholic books. He died in 1939. Jan Mest'ancik, "Jozef Buday v sluzbach cirkvi a naroda," Literarny Almanach (1970), pp. 89-106. 31) Frantisek Vnuk, Dr. Jozef Tiso (Sidney: The Association of Australian Slovaks, 1967), p. 12. 32) Sidor, Andrej Hlinka, p. 550. 33) Ibid-, pp. 550-551. 34) Sidor, Slovenska politika, I, pp. 303-304. 35) Ibid., p. 314. 36) "Z bohateho zivota .. ." Slovak, October 27, 1929. 37) Macartney, p. 118. Juriga and Tomanek left the party in protest to Hlinka's defense of Tuka and formed their own party, Juriga's People's Party. It got about 5,000 votes in the 1929 election. 38) Karol Mederly (b. 1887) - was the party's legal expert and was responsible for drawing up proposals for autonomy. He was also director of Populist press works. From 1929 he served as a party deputy and senator, and after November, 1938 vice-president of the Slovak Parliament. He was a member of the party Paesidium and the party's central court. On October 18, 1947 he was sentenced by the pro-Communist National Tribunal to six years imprisonment. Jozef Chreno, Maly slovnik slovenskeho st<itu, 1918-1945 (Bratislava, 1965), pp. 122-123. 39) L. G. Fagul'a, Andrej Hlinka (Bratislava : Generalny sekretariat HSUS, 1943) , p. 120. SLOVAKIA'S best known thermal spa (natural mineral springs), Piest'any, dedicated a new summer swimmingpooL � 24 SLOVAKIA --- -------- Tiso' s Formative Years and Early Political Career Anthony X. Sutherland, Ph.D. Dr. Jozef Tiso, like most Slovaks who attained national prominence, had very simple, humble beginnings. Tiso was born on October 13, 1887 of peasant stock in the small Slovak town of Vel'ka Bytca. Two days later he was christened a Roman Catholic with the name Jozef Gaspar. With regard to the origin of the name Tiso there is no agreement, but most likely it was derived from the Slavic word, tis, meaning yew tree. The name Tiso in Vel'ka Bytca has been traced back to 1525. Several individuals of that name achieved some distinction in Slovak history. One of them, a priest, Mikulas Tiso, was active in the Slovak national movement during the 19th century. 1 Most of Jozef Tiso's ancestors, however, were simple peasants or tradesmen. His grandfather, Jozef Tiso, also of Vel'ka Bytca, was born on August 11, 1838. In 1860 he married Veronica Fundarek, who bore him a son in 1862; he was Gaspar Tiso, father of the future leader of Slovakia. Gaspar Tiso during most of his adult life operated a butcher business in Vel'ka Bytca. He was a nationally conscious Slovak and active during most of his adult life in Slovak national and political organizations. In 1894 he founded a Catholic Circle in Vel'ka Bytca, which was dissolved by the Hungarian government in 1901 but later revived. Even after 1918 Gaspar Tiso represented the Slovak People's Party in his town. 2 On September 2, 1882 Gaspar married Terezia Budiska, a member of a well-known family of potters from Vel'ka Bytca. From this union seven children were born: Pavol, Jozef, Maria, Jan, Hanna, Jozefka, and Terezia. Gaspar and Terezia Tiso were simple people who instilled in their children the simple peasant virtues: the value of hard work and a firm belief in God. Their family mottos were: "Pray and work," and "Fellow strive and God will bless you." 3 �SLOVAKIA 25 Dr. Jozef Tiso spent most of his formative years in the town of Vel'ka Bytca. Situated in the northwest corner of Slovakia, it was that area which was a traditional stronghold of Slovak nationalism. Vel'ka Bytca had withstood the onslaught of Magyarization and survived as a nationally conscious town. Reminiscing many years later Tiso said of Bytca: I am a Bytcan. If tinkers have a kingdom, well now Bytca would certainly be the chief city of this kingdom. Well, if you will, I am also a descendant of tinkers. Among us there are no differences between artisans and farmers and workers. A tinker is an artisan, but also a worker and the poorest salaried, working on a patch of land which is more rock than soil-in a word also ·a farmer.4 Tiso's family was not especially poor nor was it a rich one: it can be classified as a middle peasant family. Regarding his family's situation Tiso said: We had a decent roof over our heads, we had a clean, nice village home and always a loaf of bread on a table covered with a cloth. Thus we had what a man needs for a decent life. This was our wealth. And what we had was from work.5 Tiso began his formal education in the lower school in Bytca in 1894. At that time the Bytca school was a three language one. During the first year Slovak and Magyar were taught; in the second year, German; and in the third year all three languages were alternated. Subjects included in the curriculum were the natural scie?ces, Hungarian history, and geography. Although the purpose of the curriculum was to Magyarize, there were several nationally conscious Slovak instructors in the Bytca school: one of these, Pavel Trusina, taught Tiso the Slovak language.6 Jozef Tiso during these years of study in Bytca proved to be a good student; therefore in 1898 after the completion of his fourth year he was sent to the middle school in nearby Zilina. Gaspar and Terezia Tiso had originally planned to educate their eldest son, Pavel, but he dropped out after one year at the Zilina school to take up the family butcher trade in Bytca. Jozef Tiso soon proved to be a much better student than his brother. He won the admiration of all his professors. He did well in all his subjects and showed a special talent in mastering foreign languages. Magyar and German were mere playthings to him according to the recollections of one of his classmates.7 One professor named Bicovsky referring to Tiso allegedly told the class, �26 SLOVAKIA "You will see this boy one day will be a great man." 8 Jozef Tiso was also well liked by his fellow classmates. He was remembered as being humble, pleasant, and easygoing, always demonstrating an uncommon interest in helping his classmates with their work. 9 While in zilina Tiso lived with Anton Sturm, a friend of the family, who remembered him as a conscientious student who never had to be forced to prepare his school assignments.10 It was in zilina that Tiso made the decision to enter the priesthood. This was not an uncommon choice for Slovaks peasants. Many Slovak peasant families had a son or daughter in the Church. A clerical career was one of the few ways a Slovak peasant could raise his social status or acquire an education. Having made the decision, Tiso set off in 1902 after the completion of his fourth year at zilina for the Nitra Gymnasium. The Nitra school was much more a Magyar institution than the zilina one had been. The Nitra faculty, moreover, had a low opinion of the zilina school, regarding its curriculum in Magyar subjects particularly inferior to its ow~. Young students there were frequently ridiculed, but Tiso was not for he proved to be an exceptional student. He mastered with little difficulty the most difficult assignments in Latin and German, and remained there four years. 11 The outstanding theological students of the time were sent to Vienna to the Pazmaneum, the leading Catholic seminary in the Habsburg Empire. Tiso in 1906 was one of those chosen to complete his theological studies there. Once at the Pazmaneum, he continued his good scholastic record and came into contact with some of the leading clerics of the Empire. He received lectures from Franz Martin Schindler12 and Ignaz Seipel, leaders of the Austrian Christian Social movement. During Tiso's years of study at the Pazmaneum Pope Leo's social encyclical, Rerum Novarum was receiving wide attention. Many seminars were devoted to it and came to form an important part of Tiso's social philosophy. Tiso's training was otherwise in traditional Catholic theology and Thomistic philosophy. According to the confidential files of the Pazmaneum Tiso was an exemplary seminarian. Concerning Tiso the psychological-moral profile stated: "Natural behavior: serious; morals : exemplary; mode of conversation with superiors: �SLOVAKIA 27 humble, with equals: affable; character: oustanding; application: indefatigable . Observations : behaves with a mature character." 13 The intellectual atmosphere of Vienna was very dif. ferent from what Tiso was accustomed to in Nitra and zilina. There were Socialists, Christian Socials, liberals, and others, some of them hostile to the Catholic world view that Tiso espoused. It was in Vienna in fact that Tiso had his first contact with the progressive wing of the Slovak intelligentsia, the Hlasists. Tiso opposed Hlasists thought even then; he regarded it a threat to the conservative Catholic view. Friction between Tiso and a Hlasist even took place in Tiso's home town of Bytca where he spent the holidays. The medical doctor in Bytca, Minarik, a Hlasist, accused Tiso of not being a real Slovak, when Tiso supported the parish priest, Teselsky, a member of the Hungarian People's Party and a known Magyarone. There were differences between Tiso and Teselsky, but Tiso preferred the Magyarone to the progressive minded Minarik. 14 Dr. Jozef Tiso was ordained a priest on July 14, 1910 by Bishop August Fischer-Colbr ie, and shortly thereafter said his first mass in his home parish church in Vel'ka Bytca. A year later he was awarded a doctorate in theology. Tiso's first assignment as a priest was to the small remote village of Oscadnica, a poor Slovak village. Tiso was not only concerned with the spiritual welfare of the people of Oscadnica, but also became very interested in their economic standard, their health, sanitation, and dietary habits. He organized self-help associations and tackled the problem of alcoholism which was so widespread in Slovak villages. Tiso referred to his experience in Oscadnica as his second university. 15 After about a year in Oscadnica, Tiso was transferred to another village, Rajec, where he continued his work. In Rajec he founded a Slovak peasant bank designed to strengthen the financial resources of the village and free the peasant from debts.16 Dr. Tiso was not in Rajec long before he was again transferred, this time to a larger town, Banovce nad Bebravou, located about 70 miles northwest of Bratislava. He was appointed chaplain there and in 1924 promoted to pastor, a post he held until 1945. Tiso, during the many years of his pastorate in Banovce did much for the improve- �28 SLOVAKIA ment of the town. He undertook the pavement of the town's streets and the regulation of the Bebrava River and Radisla Creek which ran near Banovce. To further the interests of the town's noted cabinet makers he organized a cooperative. He worked, too, with the city council and founded a bank to finance a sewer system and water supply. Tiso formu• lated other plans for the modernization of Banovce, such as electrification and pavement of roads to every village in the district, but these remained only in the planning stage. His primary goal remained the industrialization of Banovce. 17 Alarmed by the spread of secularism and progressive thought, Tiso also set out to strengthen Catholic education in Banovce. He revived the Catholic educational society Orol and he founded both a Catholic teachers' college and a Catholic cultural house. 18 All Tiso's work did much to make him popular in the Banovce area and to make it the center of his political strength. In 1914 Tiso was called up by the government to serve as chaplain in the Austrian army. Toward the end of 1914 he was sent to Maribor in Styria. There he became acquainted with Slovene priests and their work in organizing peasant cooperatives. He later applied some of their ideas in his work for the economic development of Banovce.19 After a year in the military service, Tiso contracted nephritis and had to be recalled from the front. Following his recovery he was appointed spiritual director at the Nitra seminary, later professor of theology, and personal secretary to the Bishop of Nitra. Tiso maintained these posts throughout the reminder of the war. Tiso was later attacked for his activity during the war and during the Slovak National Revolution, when Slovakia seceded from Hungary to join with the Czechs in the new Czecho-Slovakia (1918-19 ). His political opponents charged him with having had pro-Magyar sympathies at the time. These charges resulted from the fact that Tiso contributed to Nytramegyei Szemle, a Magyar journal in Nitra, articles glorifying Hungary's war efforts. Ivan Derer, Social Democratic Minister of Education in Czecho-Slovakia in the 1920's, largely responsible for such charges, also maintained that Tiso before 1918 spelled his Name, Tiszo, in the Magyar fashion, and that Tiso had supported the integrity of the Hungarian state. Derer wrote that Tiso, moreover, was �SLOVAKIA 29 opposed to the Martin Declaration and had even served on the Magyar Nitra Council. 20 Tiso came naturally under suspicion since he served during the war as personal secretary to the Bishop, Viliam Batthanyi, of Nitra, a notorious advocate of Magyarization. Labeling a Populist a Magyarone was a favorite device of Czech and Slovak centralists used to discredit the idea of Slovak autonomy. It was done repeatedly in the twenty years of the Czecho-Slovak Republic. Sometimes the charges were appropriate while at other times, as with Tiso, they had little basis in fact. Whatever pro-Magyar feelings Tiso may have had before 1918 were gone by the time the Czecho-Slovak army approached Nitra. Before 1918 Tiso belonged to the politically passive Slovak majority. He was active before October, 1918 but mainly with welfare and town improvement projects. Prior to 1918 he had neither planned to enter politics nor was he trained for such a career. 21 Tiso's rather sudden involvement in politics is difficult to explain, but very likely, much like Hlinka, Tiso was drawn into the Populist movement by the revolutionary anti-clerical character of the new state. Indeed soon after the National Revolution Tiso joined the Slovak People's Party and began to work for it in Nitra. He was largely responsible for making the whole south Nitra district a party stronghold.22 Nitra in 1918 was very much a Magyar town with only two educated Slovak leaders, Dr. Eugen Filkorn and Dr. Jozef Tiso. Both worked hard in Nitra to obliterate its Magyar character and make it Slovak once wore. They published a Slovak newspaper entitled, Nitra and organized a Slovak National Council. Meanwhile Slovak Populists under Hlinka's direction prepared themselves for the first legislative election scheduled for April, 1920. In this election Hlinka formed a common front with the Czech Populists, led by Msgr. Jan Sramek; it was known as the "Czechoslovak People's Party." The election was a great disappointment to the Slovak Populists who secured only twelve seats out of fifty-seven assigned to Slovakia in the Prague Parliament.23 The Social Democrats were the big winners there with twenty-three mandates. The revolutionary wave that swept Slovakia after the war was mainly responsible for the Social Democratic victory, though the fact that there was little in the Populist platform to attract the peasant masses of Slovakia also �30 SLOVAKIA partly explains the vote. Hlinka's main concern at the time was the progressive, anti-clerical character of the new government, not the social and economic condition of peasants. This is clear from Hlinka's decision to present a common front with Czech Catholics. Tiso in a newspaper editorial of the time attributed the success of the Social Democrats to the fact that some 200,000 Czech soldiers and officials had voted for the Social Democrats and other Czecho-Slovak parties. This gave the world a false picture of true political feelings of the Slovaks. 24 In that election Tiso won in the Trnava district but turned his post over to another candidate. Tiso remained in Nitra dividing his time between teaching and his work for the Populists. He delivered speeches, organized party activities, and contributed articles to the party's leading organ, Slovak. In 1921 he was appointed personal secretary to the new bishop in Nitra, Karol Kmet'ko, a former member of the Czecho-Slovak Revolutionary Council. For the next few years both worked together in building up the party strength in Nitra. But while Kmet'ko preferred peaceful discussion, Tiso felt the Slovak cause benefited more by demonstrations. As a result, a certain coolness developed between the two men. Even worse, Tiso's inflammatory speeches soon got him into trouble with the authorities. In 1923 Tiso was sentenced to six weeks imprisonment; of which he served two, because he delivered a fiery speech in Nitra, which was said to have incited the people. Following this episode Tiso felt it best to resign his post as secretary to Kmet'ko, knowing the bishop's feeling with regard to such activity. Tiso then in 1924 left Nitra to become pastor of the Catholic Church in Banovce.25 Meanwhile the Slovak Populists were making their recovery from the election disappointment of 1920. The fruitless union with the Czech Lidaks 26 was ended in 1921. A year later the Slovak People's Party name was changed to the Hlinka's Slovak People's Party (HSUS). The Centralistic policies of Prague and the economic problems in Slovakia contributed to the growth of the HSUS. Within three or four years it became a broad-based mass party. By 1923 the party could claim 876 city organiza- �SLOVAKIA 31 tions, 1065 village organizations and nine newspapers. 27 But not all were content with the party's leadership. Many of the radical members in the party were displeased with what they considered Hlinka's conciliatory position toward the government. The party had approved the Constitution of 1920 and supported Masaryk in the first presidential election. But on the other hand Hlinka did keep the party in opposition throughout the first legislature, and in 1922 presented to the Prague Parliament the first proposal for Slovak autonomy. Accordingly, Czecho-Slovakia would be divided into three parts: Bohemia-Moravia-Silesia, Slovakia, and Ruthe• nia, each with its own diet having authority over local administration, school, churches, justice, public welfare, and finances. 28 The proposal was rejected. In the next election in 1925 the HS~S scored its greatest success receiving 489,111 votes 29 and 23 seats in Prague. Tiso was elected deputy again and took up his seat in Parliament. At this time Tiso was not yet a leading member of the Populist party, but nevertheless one of the party's rising young stars. Much of the leadership still belonged to the predprevratovd group, those from the pre-1918 era which included besides Hlinka, Ferdis Juriga, Jozef Buday,3° Florian Tomanek to name a few. Tiso belonged to the younger group of party deputies, those between 30 and 40 years of age. Tiso was young and inexperienced when he walked into the Prague Parliament, yet within a few years had gained the reputation of being one of the most skillful representatives in the Slovak Club. Hlinka soon came to appreciate his parliamentary ability and his capacity for long, tedious work. There were considerable differences though between Tiso and Hlinka. Tiso was not as impulsive nor romantically oriented toward politics as was Hlinka; he was more a hard, cold realist when it came to appraising political situations.31 Though Tiso became frequently impassioned while speaking, his ideas always conformed to a logical pattern and were argued from a philosophical or historical point of view. In 1925-1926 the new central government of Anton �32 SLOVAKIA Svehla, in face of a renewed campaign of Hungarian revisionists, set out to broaden the government coalition by bringing in German and Slovak opposition parties. Tiso favored participating in the government. He felt something could be gained by it for Slovakia. At this critical time Hlinka departed for the United States to attend an Eucharistic Congress in Chicago. In his absence a directory of five, including Tiso, ran the party. Also, before Hlinka left he designated Tiso president of the Slovak Club in Prague to manage party affairs in the parliament. Soon after Hlinka was gone a struggle developed between the old predprevratovi Populists and the younger generation. Juriga and Tomanek were offended by Hlinka's passing over them in favor of the younger Tiso to head the Slovak Club.32 The friction, however, was mild since Hlinka's authority was strong enough to prevent such inter-party squabbles from becoming serious. In Hlinka's absence it was left to Tiso to take up the whole question of HSES position with regard to the government coalition. Tiso led the negotiations with Svehla, but felt unqualified to make a final decision alone. In July, 1926 Tiso sent a letter to Hlinka urging him to return quickly from the United States so that a decision could be made.33 Hlinka at first opposed the idea of entering a coalition, but during the course of his visit to the United States he was urged by American Slovaks to try cooperation with the government. Hlinka arrived in Slovakia in October, negotiations were immediately accelerated and an agreement concluded for HSES participation in the coalition. Tiso had hoped to obtain some concessions for Slovakia as a condition for the party's participation in the government, but the party was disappointed, especially the radicals. The hated zupa law of 1923 which had centralized government administration was removed and the country was divided into three administrative units: Bohemia-Moravia-Silesia, Slovakia, and Ruthenia, each with krajinsky (regional) president and a council with powers to handle cultural, educational, and humanitarian affairs. The powers of the council were, however, limited, since the krajinsky president, who was nominated by the central government, had power to veto any resolution passed by the council. Furthermore, the �SLOVAKIA 33 central government had powers in the selection of the council's members. 34 Tiso at first spoke out against the law, but after its passage defended it to a degree. At least, he said, with the new law there was recognition of a Slovak krajina and from this, autonomy could be built.35 The People's Party officially entered the government in January, 1927, with Tiso as Minister of Health and Marko Gazik as Minister of Unification. Tiso in his capacity accomplished much. His greatest efforts were turned toward the modernization of the health spas of Polianka, strbske Pleso, Tatranska Lomnica, Cerveny Klastor and Sliac in Slovakia. Due to Tiso's work, Sliac became the most wellknown and most frequented of all Slovak spas.36 Tiso's support of the government during these years was regarded by the radical Populists as a betrayal of party principles. These extremists, moreover, disliked the new administration law of 1928 which had replaced the 1923 one. Tiso at this time together with Jozef Buday belonged to the moderate wing of the party, while the radicals gathered around their leader, Vojtech Tuka. On January 1, 1928 Tuka published a sensational article which claimed that the declaration signed in Martin in 1918 contained a secret clause, (Vacuum Juris) stating that after ten years the Slovaks could reconsider their union with the Czechs. Tuka was subsequently put on trial and sentenced to fifteen years in prison. The whole Tuka affair caused great turmoil in the country. To the opponents of Slovak autonomy Tuka was proof that the Slovak People's Party had dangerous Magyarone elements in it. Many Populists, on the other hand, made the Tuka trial into a cause celebre, regarding Tuka a martyr for the Slovak cause. Hlinka refused to condemn Tuka, and, in a gesture of disapproval at Tuka's imprisonment, pulled the party out of the government and once again put it into opposition. It lost some 85,000 votes and five seats in the Parliament in the 1929 elections.37 With the removal of Tuka from the scene, Tiso's importance and influence in the party in the next few years climbed steadily. At a Populist meeting in Ruzomberok in January, 1930, Tiso was chosen, along with Karol Mederly,38 �34 SLOVAKIA one of the party's vice-presidents.39 By this time, too, Tiso had established himself as the leading ideologist in the party and one of the most articulate spokesmen for the Slovak cause. Tiso was well on his way to becoming successor to Andrej Hlinka as leader of the Slovak Populist movement. FOOTNOTES 1) Most of the biographical information on Tiso's family and early life is taken from Konstantin l:ulen Po Sviitoplukovi druha nasa hlava (Cleveland: Prva Katolicka Slovenska Jednota, 1947) and "Z bohateho zivota nasho prveho prezidenta": Slovak, XX:1/248 (Bratislava), October 27, 1939. 2) "Smutok pana prezidenta," Katolicke noviny (Bratislava), February 14, 1943. 3) Jozef K. Hrabovsky, "U Tisovcov vo Vel'kej Bytci," Slovak, XXXI/24, January 29, 1939. 4) Quoted in l:ulen, Po Sviitoplukovi • . . , p. 24. 5) Quoted in Ibid. , p. 29. 6) "Z bohateho zivota . . . " Slovak, October 27, 1939. 7) J., "Za Boha a narod: Spomienky na skolske roky prezidenta Jozefa Tisu," Slovak, XX:1/248, October 27, 1939. 8) Quoted in Ibid. 9) Tido Gaspar, Der Praesident der Slowakischen Repubiik (Pressburg: Johann 0. Petreas, 1943), p. 6. 10) "Z bohateho zivota . . . " Slovak, October 27, 1939. 11) "Za Boha a narod .. ." Slovak, October 27, 1939. 12) Franz Martin Schindler ( 1847-1922) was professor of moral theology in Vienna. He was one of the ideologists of the Christian Social movement. 13) Quoted in Milan S. f:lurica, Die slowakische Politik 1938/39 im Lichte der Staatslehre Tisos (Bonn: Emil Semmel Verlag, 1967), p. 21. 14) l:ulen, Po Svatoplukovi ... , pp. 33-34. 15) Ibid., p. 36. 16) Ibid- , pp. 37-38. 17) Albert Mistina, "Tiso-clovek," Slovenska otcina, Vol. III (Hamilton, Ontario: Franti§ek Fuga, 1967), pp. 9-12. 18) Ibid., Dr. Jan Gleiman, "Tisovo mesto," Slovenska otcina, Vol. III, pp. 20-25. 19) Jozef Tiso, Tiso o sebe, ed. Jozef Pauco (Passaic, New Jersey: Slovensky Katolicky Sokol, 1952), pp. 101-102. 20) Dr. Ivan Derer, Slovensky vyvoj a l'udacka zrada (Praha: Kvasnicka a Hampl, 1946), pp. 347-348. Imrich Stanek, Zrada a pad, Hlinkovsti separatiste a tak zvan11 siovensky stat (Praha, 1956) pp. 387-388. �SLOVAKIA 35 21) Tiso o sebe, p. 122. 22) Gaspar, p. 11. Culen, Po Sviitoplukovi ••. , pp. 63-66. 23) Joseph Mikus, Slovakia: A Political History, 1918-1950 (Milwaukee: The Marquette University Press, 1963), p. 16. 24) Karol Sidor, Andrej Hlinka (1864-1926) (Bratislava, 1934), p. 438. 25) Culen, Po Sviitoplukovi ... , pp. 66-67. "Z bohateho zivota . . . ," Slovak, October 27, 1939. 26) Lida.ks were the members of Sramek's "Czechoslovak People's Party." 27 ) Juraj Kramer, Slovenske autonomisticke hnutie v rokoch 1918-1929 (Bratislava: Slovenska akademia vied, 1962), pp. 263-266. 28) See Karol Sidor, Slovenska politika na pode prazskeho snemu (19181938), Vol. I (Bratislava: 1943), p. 87. 29) C. A. Macar,tney, Hungary and her Successors (London: Oxford University Press, 1965), p. 118. 30) Jozef Buday was born in 1877 in Trencin and ordained a priest in 1899. During Hlinka's imprisonment 1919-1920 he served as acting president of the party. He was deputy and senator in 1920's and 1930's. He was a leader of the Society of St. Adalbert and author of several Catholic books. He died in 1939. Jan Mest'ancik, "Jozef Buday v sluzbach cirkvi a naroda," Literarny Almanach (1970), pp. 89-106. 31) Frantisek Vnuk, Dr. Jozef Tiso (Sidney: The Association of Australian Slovaks, 1967), p. 12. 32) Sidor, Andrej Hlinka, p. 550. 33) Ibid-, pp. 550-551. 34) Sidor, Slovenska politika, I, pp. 303-304. 35) Ibid., p. 314. 36) "Z bohateho zivota .. ." Slovak, October 27, 1929. 37) Macartney, p. 118. Juriga and Tomanek left the party in protest to Hlinka's defense of Tuka and formed their own party, Juriga's People's Party. It got about 5,000 votes in the 1929 election. 38) Karol Mederly (b. 1887) - was the party's legal expert and was responsible for drawing up proposals for autonomy. He was also director of Populist press works. From 1929 he served as a party deputy and senator, and after November, 1938 vice-president of the Slovak Parliament. He was a member of the party Paesidium and the party's central court. On October 18, 1947 he was sentenced by the pro-Communist National Tribunal to six years imprisonment. Jozef Chreno, Maly slovnik slovenskeho st<itu, 1918-1945 (Bratislava, 1965), pp. 122-123. 39) L. G. Fagul'a, Andrej Hlinka (Bratislava : Generalny sekretariat HSUS, 1943) , p. 120. SLOVAKIA'S best known thermal spa (natural mineral springs), Piest'any, dedicated a new summer swimmingpooL � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1974, Vol. 24 Description An account of the resource Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document 24 SLOVAKIA --- -------- Tiso' s Formative Years and Early Political Career Anthony X. Sutherland, Ph.D. Dr. Jozef Tiso, like most Slovaks who attained national prominence, had very simple, humble beginnings. Tiso was born on October 13, 1887 of peasant stock in the small Slovak town of Vel'ka Bytca. Two days later he was christened a Roman Catholic with the name Jozef Gaspar. With regard to the origin of the name Tiso there is no agreement, but most likely it was derived from the Slavic word, tis, meaning yew tree. The name Tiso in Vel'ka Bytca has been traced back to 1525. Several individuals of that name achieved some distinction in Slovak history. One of them, a priest, Mikulas Tiso, was active in the Slovak national movement during the 19th century. 1 Most of Jozef Tiso's ancestors, however, were simple peasants or tradesmen. His grandfather, Jozef Tiso, also of Vel'ka Bytca, was born on August 11, 1838. In 1860 he married Veronica Fundarek, who bore him a son in 1862; he was Gaspar Tiso, father of the future leader of Slovakia. Gaspar Tiso during most of his adult life operated a butcher business in Vel'ka Bytca. He was a nationally conscious Slovak and active during most of his adult life in Slovak national and political organizations. In 1894 he founded a Catholic Circle in Vel'ka Bytca, which was dissolved by the Hungarian government in 1901 but later revived. Even after 1918 Gaspar Tiso represented the Slovak People's Party in his town. 2 On September 2, 1882 Gaspar married Terezia Budiska, a member of a well-known family of potters from Vel'ka Bytca. From this union seven children were born: Pavol, Jozef, Maria, Jan, Hanna, Jozefka, and Terezia. Gaspar and Terezia Tiso were simple people who instilled in their children the simple peasant virtues: the value of hard work and a firm belief in God. Their family mottos were: "Pray and work," and "Fellow strive and God will bless you." 3 SLOVAKIA 25 Dr. Jozef Tiso spent most of his formative years in the town of Vel'ka Bytca. Situated in the northwest corner of Slovakia, it was that area which was a traditional stronghold of Slovak nationalism. Vel'ka Bytca had withstood the onslaught of Magyarization and survived as a nationally conscious town. Reminiscing many years later Tiso said of Bytca: I am a Bytcan. If tinkers have a kingdom, well now Bytca would certainly be the chief city of this kingdom. Well, if you will, I am also a descendant of tinkers. Among us there are no differences between artisans and farmers and workers. A tinker is an artisan, but also a worker and the poorest salaried, working on a patch of land which is more rock than soil-in a word also ·a farmer.4 Tiso's family was not especially poor nor was it a rich one: it can be classified as a middle peasant family. Regarding his family's situation Tiso said: We had a decent roof over our heads, we had a clean, nice village home and always a loaf of bread on a table covered with a cloth. Thus we had what a man needs for a decent life. This was our wealth. And what we had was from work.5 Tiso began his formal education in the lower school in Bytca in 1894. At that time the Bytca school was a three language one. During the first year Slovak and Magyar were taught; in the second year, German; and in the third year all three languages were alternated. Subjects included in the curriculum were the natural scie?ces, Hungarian history, and geography. Although the purpose of the curriculum was to Magyarize, there were several nationally conscious Slovak instructors in the Bytca school: one of these, Pavel Trusina, taught Tiso the Slovak language.6 Jozef Tiso during these years of study in Bytca proved to be a good student; therefore in 1898 after the completion of his fourth year he was sent to the middle school in nearby Zilina. Gaspar and Terezia Tiso had originally planned to educate their eldest son, Pavel, but he dropped out after one year at the Zilina school to take up the family butcher trade in Bytca. Jozef Tiso soon proved to be a much better student than his brother. He won the admiration of all his professors. He did well in all his subjects and showed a special talent in mastering foreign languages. Magyar and German were mere playthings to him according to the recollections of one of his classmates.7 One professor named Bicovsky referring to Tiso allegedly told the class, 26 SLOVAKIA "You will see this boy one day will be a great man." 8 Jozef Tiso was also well liked by his fellow classmates. He was remembered as being humble, pleasant, and easygoing, always demonstrating an uncommon interest in helping his classmates with their work. 9 While in zilina Tiso lived with Anton Sturm, a friend of the family, who remembered him as a conscientious student who never had to be forced to prepare his school assignments.10 It was in zilina that Tiso made the decision to enter the priesthood. This was not an uncommon choice for Slovaks peasants. Many Slovak peasant families had a son or daughter in the Church. A clerical career was one of the few ways a Slovak peasant could raise his social status or acquire an education. Having made the decision, Tiso set off in 1902 after the completion of his fourth year at zilina for the Nitra Gymnasium. The Nitra school was much more a Magyar institution than the zilina one had been. The Nitra faculty, moreover, had a low opinion of the zilina school, regarding its curriculum in Magyar subjects particularly inferior to its ow~. Young students there were frequently ridiculed, but Tiso was not for he proved to be an exceptional student. He mastered with little difficulty the most difficult assignments in Latin and German, and remained there four years. 11 The outstanding theological students of the time were sent to Vienna to the Pazmaneum, the leading Catholic seminary in the Habsburg Empire. Tiso in 1906 was one of those chosen to complete his theological studies there. Once at the Pazmaneum, he continued his good scholastic record and came into contact with some of the leading clerics of the Empire. He received lectures from Franz Martin Schindler12 and Ignaz Seipel, leaders of the Austrian Christian Social movement. During Tiso's years of study at the Pazmaneum Pope Leo's social encyclical, Rerum Novarum was receiving wide attention. Many seminars were devoted to it and came to form an important part of Tiso's social philosophy. Tiso's training was otherwise in traditional Catholic theology and Thomistic philosophy. According to the confidential files of the Pazmaneum Tiso was an exemplary seminarian. Concerning Tiso the psychological-moral profile stated: "Natural behavior: serious; morals : exemplary; mode of conversation with superiors: SLOVAKIA 27 humble, with equals: affable; character: oustanding; application: indefatigable . Observations : behaves with a mature character." 13 The intellectual atmosphere of Vienna was very dif. ferent from what Tiso was accustomed to in Nitra and zilina. There were Socialists, Christian Socials, liberals, and others, some of them hostile to the Catholic world view that Tiso espoused. It was in Vienna in fact that Tiso had his first contact with the progressive wing of the Slovak intelligentsia, the Hlasists. Tiso opposed Hlasists thought even then; he regarded it a threat to the conservative Catholic view. Friction between Tiso and a Hlasist even took place in Tiso's home town of Bytca where he spent the holidays. The medical doctor in Bytca, Minarik, a Hlasist, accused Tiso of not being a real Slovak, when Tiso supported the parish priest, Teselsky, a member of the Hungarian People's Party and a known Magyarone. There were differences between Tiso and Teselsky, but Tiso preferred the Magyarone to the progressive minded Minarik. 14 Dr. Jozef Tiso was ordained a priest on July 14, 1910 by Bishop August Fischer-Colbr ie, and shortly thereafter said his first mass in his home parish church in Vel'ka Bytca. A year later he was awarded a doctorate in theology. Tiso's first assignment as a priest was to the small remote village of Oscadnica, a poor Slovak village. Tiso was not only concerned with the spiritual welfare of the people of Oscadnica, but also became very interested in their economic standard, their health, sanitation, and dietary habits. He organized self-help associations and tackled the problem of alcoholism which was so widespread in Slovak villages. Tiso referred to his experience in Oscadnica as his second university. 15 After about a year in Oscadnica, Tiso was transferred to another village, Rajec, where he continued his work. In Rajec he founded a Slovak peasant bank designed to strengthen the financial resources of the village and free the peasant from debts.16 Dr. Tiso was not in Rajec long before he was again transferred, this time to a larger town, Banovce nad Bebravou, located about 70 miles northwest of Bratislava. He was appointed chaplain there and in 1924 promoted to pastor, a post he held until 1945. Tiso, during the many years of his pastorate in Banovce did much for the improve- 28 SLOVAKIA ment of the town. He undertook the pavement of the town's streets and the regulation of the Bebrava River and Radisla Creek which ran near Banovce. To further the interests of the town's noted cabinet makers he organized a cooperative. He worked, too, with the city council and founded a bank to finance a sewer system and water supply. Tiso formu• lated other plans for the modernization of Banovce, such as electrification and pavement of roads to every village in the district, but these remained only in the planning stage. His primary goal remained the industrialization of Banovce. 17 Alarmed by the spread of secularism and progressive thought, Tiso also set out to strengthen Catholic education in Banovce. He revived the Catholic educational society Orol and he founded both a Catholic teachers' college and a Catholic cultural house. 18 All Tiso's work did much to make him popular in the Banovce area and to make it the center of his political strength. In 1914 Tiso was called up by the government to serve as chaplain in the Austrian army. Toward the end of 1914 he was sent to Maribor in Styria. There he became acquainted with Slovene priests and their work in organizing peasant cooperatives. He later applied some of their ideas in his work for the economic development of Banovce.19 After a year in the military service, Tiso contracted nephritis and had to be recalled from the front. Following his recovery he was appointed spiritual director at the Nitra seminary, later professor of theology, and personal secretary to the Bishop of Nitra. Tiso maintained these posts throughout the reminder of the war. Tiso was later attacked for his activity during the war and during the Slovak National Revolution, when Slovakia seceded from Hungary to join with the Czechs in the new Czecho-Slovakia (1918-19 ). His political opponents charged him with having had pro-Magyar sympathies at the time. These charges resulted from the fact that Tiso contributed to Nytramegyei Szemle, a Magyar journal in Nitra, articles glorifying Hungary's war efforts. Ivan Derer, Social Democratic Minister of Education in Czecho-Slovakia in the 1920's, largely responsible for such charges, also maintained that Tiso before 1918 spelled his Name, Tiszo, in the Magyar fashion, and that Tiso had supported the integrity of the Hungarian state. Derer wrote that Tiso, moreover, was SLOVAKIA 29 opposed to the Martin Declaration and had even served on the Magyar Nitra Council. 20 Tiso came naturally under suspicion since he served during the war as personal secretary to the Bishop, Viliam Batthanyi, of Nitra, a notorious advocate of Magyarization. Labeling a Populist a Magyarone was a favorite device of Czech and Slovak centralists used to discredit the idea of Slovak autonomy. It was done repeatedly in the twenty years of the Czecho-Slovak Republic. Sometimes the charges were appropriate while at other times, as with Tiso, they had little basis in fact. Whatever pro-Magyar feelings Tiso may have had before 1918 were gone by the time the Czecho-Slovak army approached Nitra. Before 1918 Tiso belonged to the politically passive Slovak majority. He was active before October, 1918 but mainly with welfare and town improvement projects. Prior to 1918 he had neither planned to enter politics nor was he trained for such a career. 21 Tiso's rather sudden involvement in politics is difficult to explain, but very likely, much like Hlinka, Tiso was drawn into the Populist movement by the revolutionary anti-clerical character of the new state. Indeed soon after the National Revolution Tiso joined the Slovak People's Party and began to work for it in Nitra. He was largely responsible for making the whole south Nitra district a party stronghold.22 Nitra in 1918 was very much a Magyar town with only two educated Slovak leaders, Dr. Eugen Filkorn and Dr. Jozef Tiso. Both worked hard in Nitra to obliterate its Magyar character and make it Slovak once wore. They published a Slovak newspaper entitled, Nitra and organized a Slovak National Council. Meanwhile Slovak Populists under Hlinka's direction prepared themselves for the first legislative election scheduled for April, 1920. In this election Hlinka formed a common front with the Czech Populists, led by Msgr. Jan Sramek; it was known as the "Czechoslovak People's Party." The election was a great disappointment to the Slovak Populists who secured only twelve seats out of fifty-seven assigned to Slovakia in the Prague Parliament.23 The Social Democrats were the big winners there with twenty-three mandates. The revolutionary wave that swept Slovakia after the war was mainly responsible for the Social Democratic victory, though the fact that there was little in the Populist platform to attract the peasant masses of Slovakia also 30 SLOVAKIA partly explains the vote. Hlinka's main concern at the time was the progressive, anti-clerical character of the new government, not the social and economic condition of peasants. This is clear from Hlinka's decision to present a common front with Czech Catholics. Tiso in a newspaper editorial of the time attributed the success of the Social Democrats to the fact that some 200,000 Czech soldiers and officials had voted for the Social Democrats and other Czecho-Slovak parties. This gave the world a false picture of true political feelings of the Slovaks. 24 In that election Tiso won in the Trnava district but turned his post over to another candidate. Tiso remained in Nitra dividing his time between teaching and his work for the Populists. He delivered speeches, organized party activities, and contributed articles to the party's leading organ, Slovak. In 1921 he was appointed personal secretary to the new bishop in Nitra, Karol Kmet'ko, a former member of the Czecho-Slovak Revolutionary Council. For the next few years both worked together in building up the party strength in Nitra. But while Kmet'ko preferred peaceful discussion, Tiso felt the Slovak cause benefited more by demonstrations. As a result, a certain coolness developed between the two men. Even worse, Tiso's inflammatory speeches soon got him into trouble with the authorities. In 1923 Tiso was sentenced to six weeks imprisonment; of which he served two, because he delivered a fiery speech in Nitra, which was said to have incited the people. Following this episode Tiso felt it best to resign his post as secretary to Kmet'ko, knowing the bishop's feeling with regard to such activity. Tiso then in 1924 left Nitra to become pastor of the Catholic Church in Banovce.25 Meanwhile the Slovak Populists were making their recovery from the election disappointment of 1920. The fruitless union with the Czech Lidaks 26 was ended in 1921. A year later the Slovak People's Party name was changed to the Hlinka's Slovak People's Party (HSUS). The Centralistic policies of Prague and the economic problems in Slovakia contributed to the growth of the HSUS. Within three or four years it became a broad-based mass party. By 1923 the party could claim 876 city organiza- SLOVAKIA 31 tions, 1065 village organizations and nine newspapers. 27 But not all were content with the party's leadership. Many of the radical members in the party were displeased with what they considered Hlinka's conciliatory position toward the government. The party had approved the Constitution of 1920 and supported Masaryk in the first presidential election. But on the other hand Hlinka did keep the party in opposition throughout the first legislature, and in 1922 presented to the Prague Parliament the first proposal for Slovak autonomy. Accordingly, Czecho-Slovakia would be divided into three parts: Bohemia-Moravia-Silesia, Slovakia, and Ruthe• nia, each with its own diet having authority over local administration, school, churches, justice, public welfare, and finances. 28 The proposal was rejected. In the next election in 1925 the HS~S scored its greatest success receiving 489,111 votes 29 and 23 seats in Prague. Tiso was elected deputy again and took up his seat in Parliament. At this time Tiso was not yet a leading member of the Populist party, but nevertheless one of the party's rising young stars. Much of the leadership still belonged to the predprevratovd group, those from the pre-1918 era which included besides Hlinka, Ferdis Juriga, Jozef Buday,3° Florian Tomanek to name a few. Tiso belonged to the younger group of party deputies, those between 30 and 40 years of age. Tiso was young and inexperienced when he walked into the Prague Parliament, yet within a few years had gained the reputation of being one of the most skillful representatives in the Slovak Club. Hlinka soon came to appreciate his parliamentary ability and his capacity for long, tedious work. There were considerable differences though between Tiso and Hlinka. Tiso was not as impulsive nor romantically oriented toward politics as was Hlinka; he was more a hard, cold realist when it came to appraising political situations.31 Though Tiso became frequently impassioned while speaking, his ideas always conformed to a logical pattern and were argued from a philosophical or historical point of view. In 1925-1926 the new central government of Anton 32 SLOVAKIA Svehla, in face of a renewed campaign of Hungarian revisionists, set out to broaden the government coalition by bringing in German and Slovak opposition parties. Tiso favored participating in the government. He felt something could be gained by it for Slovakia. At this critical time Hlinka departed for the United States to attend an Eucharistic Congress in Chicago. In his absence a directory of five, including Tiso, ran the party. Also, before Hlinka left he designated Tiso president of the Slovak Club in Prague to manage party affairs in the parliament. Soon after Hlinka was gone a struggle developed between the old predprevratovi Populists and the younger generation. Juriga and Tomanek were offended by Hlinka's passing over them in favor of the younger Tiso to head the Slovak Club.32 The friction, however, was mild since Hlinka's authority was strong enough to prevent such inter-party squabbles from becoming serious. In Hlinka's absence it was left to Tiso to take up the whole question of HSES position with regard to the government coalition. Tiso led the negotiations with Svehla, but felt unqualified to make a final decision alone. In July, 1926 Tiso sent a letter to Hlinka urging him to return quickly from the United States so that a decision could be made.33 Hlinka at first opposed the idea of entering a coalition, but during the course of his visit to the United States he was urged by American Slovaks to try cooperation with the government. Hlinka arrived in Slovakia in October, negotiations were immediately accelerated and an agreement concluded for HSES participation in the coalition. Tiso had hoped to obtain some concessions for Slovakia as a condition for the party's participation in the government, but the party was disappointed, especially the radicals. The hated zupa law of 1923 which had centralized government administration was removed and the country was divided into three administrative units: Bohemia-Moravia-Silesia, Slovakia, and Ruthenia, each with krajinsky (regional) president and a council with powers to handle cultural, educational, and humanitarian affairs. The powers of the council were, however, limited, since the krajinsky president, who was nominated by the central government, had power to veto any resolution passed by the council. Furthermore, the SLOVAKIA 33 central government had powers in the selection of the council's members. 34 Tiso at first spoke out against the law, but after its passage defended it to a degree. At least, he said, with the new law there was recognition of a Slovak krajina and from this, autonomy could be built.35 The People's Party officially entered the government in January, 1927, with Tiso as Minister of Health and Marko Gazik as Minister of Unification. Tiso in his capacity accomplished much. His greatest efforts were turned toward the modernization of the health spas of Polianka, strbske Pleso, Tatranska Lomnica, Cerveny Klastor and Sliac in Slovakia. Due to Tiso's work, Sliac became the most wellknown and most frequented of all Slovak spas.36 Tiso's support of the government during these years was regarded by the radical Populists as a betrayal of party principles. These extremists, moreover, disliked the new administration law of 1928 which had replaced the 1923 one. Tiso at this time together with Jozef Buday belonged to the moderate wing of the party, while the radicals gathered around their leader, Vojtech Tuka. On January 1, 1928 Tuka published a sensational article which claimed that the declaration signed in Martin in 1918 contained a secret clause, (Vacuum Juris) stating that after ten years the Slovaks could reconsider their union with the Czechs. Tuka was subsequently put on trial and sentenced to fifteen years in prison. The whole Tuka affair caused great turmoil in the country. To the opponents of Slovak autonomy Tuka was proof that the Slovak People's Party had dangerous Magyarone elements in it. Many Populists, on the other hand, made the Tuka trial into a cause celebre, regarding Tuka a martyr for the Slovak cause. Hlinka refused to condemn Tuka, and, in a gesture of disapproval at Tuka's imprisonment, pulled the party out of the government and once again put it into opposition. It lost some 85,000 votes and five seats in the Parliament in the 1929 elections.37 With the removal of Tuka from the scene, Tiso's importance and influence in the party in the next few years climbed steadily. At a Populist meeting in Ruzomberok in January, 1930, Tiso was chosen, along with Karol Mederly,38 34 SLOVAKIA one of the party's vice-presidents.39 By this time, too, Tiso had established himself as the leading ideologist in the party and one of the most articulate spokesmen for the Slovak cause. Tiso was well on his way to becoming successor to Andrej Hlinka as leader of the Slovak Populist movement. FOOTNOTES 1) Most of the biographical information on Tiso's family and early life is taken from Konstantin l:ulen Po Sviitoplukovi druha nasa hlava (Cleveland: Prva Katolicka Slovenska Jednota, 1947) and "Z bohateho zivota nasho prveho prezidenta": Slovak, XX:1/248 (Bratislava), October 27, 1939. 2) "Smutok pana prezidenta," Katolicke noviny (Bratislava), February 14, 1943. 3) Jozef K. Hrabovsky, "U Tisovcov vo Vel'kej Bytci," Slovak, XXXI/24, January 29, 1939. 4) Quoted in l:ulen, Po Sviitoplukovi • . . , p. 24. 5) Quoted in Ibid. , p. 29. 6) "Z bohateho zivota . . . " Slovak, October 27, 1939. 7) J., "Za Boha a narod: Spomienky na skolske roky prezidenta Jozefa Tisu," Slovak, XX:1/248, October 27, 1939. 8) Quoted in Ibid. 9) Tido Gaspar, Der Praesident der Slowakischen Repubiik (Pressburg: Johann 0. Petreas, 1943), p. 6. 10) "Z bohateho zivota . . . " Slovak, October 27, 1939. 11) "Za Boha a narod .. ." Slovak, October 27, 1939. 12) Franz Martin Schindler ( 1847-1922) was professor of moral theology in Vienna. He was one of the ideologists of the Christian Social movement. 13) Quoted in Milan S. f:lurica, Die slowakische Politik 1938/39 im Lichte der Staatslehre Tisos (Bonn: Emil Semmel Verlag, 1967), p. 21. 14) l:ulen, Po Svatoplukovi ... , pp. 33-34. 15) Ibid., p. 36. 16) Ibid- , pp. 37-38. 17) Albert Mistina, "Tiso-clovek," Slovenska otcina, Vol. III (Hamilton, Ontario: Franti§ek Fuga, 1967), pp. 9-12. 18) Ibid., Dr. Jan Gleiman, "Tisovo mesto," Slovenska otcina, Vol. III, pp. 20-25. 19) Jozef Tiso, Tiso o sebe, ed. Jozef Pauco (Passaic, New Jersey: Slovensky Katolicky Sokol, 1952), pp. 101-102. 20) Dr. Ivan Derer, Slovensky vyvoj a l'udacka zrada (Praha: Kvasnicka a Hampl, 1946), pp. 347-348. Imrich Stanek, Zrada a pad, Hlinkovsti separatiste a tak zvan11 siovensky stat (Praha, 1956) pp. 387-388. SLOVAKIA 35 21) Tiso o sebe, p. 122. 22) Gaspar, p. 11. Culen, Po Sviitoplukovi ••. , pp. 63-66. 23) Joseph Mikus, Slovakia: A Political History, 1918-1950 (Milwaukee: The Marquette University Press, 1963), p. 16. 24) Karol Sidor, Andrej Hlinka (1864-1926) (Bratislava, 1934), p. 438. 25) Culen, Po Sviitoplukovi ... , pp. 66-67. "Z bohateho zivota . . . ," Slovak, October 27, 1939. 26) Lida.ks were the members of Sramek's "Czechoslovak People's Party." 27 ) Juraj Kramer, Slovenske autonomisticke hnutie v rokoch 1918-1929 (Bratislava: Slovenska akademia vied, 1962), pp. 263-266. 28) See Karol Sidor, Slovenska politika na pode prazskeho snemu (19181938), Vol. I (Bratislava: 1943), p. 87. 29) C. A. Macar,tney, Hungary and her Successors (London: Oxford University Press, 1965), p. 118. 30) Jozef Buday was born in 1877 in Trencin and ordained a priest in 1899. During Hlinka's imprisonment 1919-1920 he served as acting president of the party. He was deputy and senator in 1920's and 1930's. He was a leader of the Society of St. Adalbert and author of several Catholic books. He died in 1939. Jan Mest'ancik, "Jozef Buday v sluzbach cirkvi a naroda," Literarny Almanach (1970), pp. 89-106. 31) Frantisek Vnuk, Dr. Jozef Tiso (Sidney: The Association of Australian Slovaks, 1967), p. 12. 32) Sidor, Andrej Hlinka, p. 550. 33) Ibid-, pp. 550-551. 34) Sidor, Slovenska politika, I, pp. 303-304. 35) Ibid., p. 314. 36) "Z bohateho zivota .. ." Slovak, October 27, 1929. 37) Macartney, p. 118. Juriga and Tomanek left the party in protest to Hlinka's defense of Tuka and formed their own party, Juriga's People's Party. It got about 5,000 votes in the 1929 election. 38) Karol Mederly (b. 1887) - was the party's legal expert and was responsible for drawing up proposals for autonomy. He was also director of Populist press works. From 1929 he served as a party deputy and senator, and after November, 1938 vice-president of the Slovak Parliament. He was a member of the party Paesidium and the party's central court. On October 18, 1947 he was sentenced by the pro-Communist National Tribunal to six years imprisonment. Jozef Chreno, Maly slovnik slovenskeho st<itu, 1918-1945 (Bratislava, 1965), pp. 122-123. 39) L. G. Fagul'a, Andrej Hlinka (Bratislava : Generalny sekretariat HSUS, 1943) , p. 120. SLOVAKIA'S best known thermal spa (natural mineral springs), Piest'any, dedicated a new summer swimmingpooL  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Tiso's Formative Years and Early Political Career Description An account of the resource Anthony X. Sutherland, Ph.D. Slovakia, Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974 pp. 24-35 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Sutherland, Anthony X. (Anthony Xavier) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 LCNAF https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/17b7ca1d231920a27cc633036a53e854.pdf 299806ede12f42cac45ebfcebe34b2b3 PDF Text Text 36 SLOVAKIA Phiiip A. Hrobak (1904-1964) Generally the biographical facts of a man's life can be assembled without great difficulty. Cold facts of this kind, however, do not give us the complete or satisfying image of an individual. They lack the true lineaments of his character, the appreciable measure of his stature and the contributions of his lifetime of striving and achieving. Simplistically we can gather the key dates that marked the life span of Philip A. Hrobak, one of our American Slovak "greats" who would have reached his seventieth birthday in 1974 had not death cut him down in his life's prime. The bare data would include these statistics: Philip Anthony Hrobak was born in Cleveland, Ohio on May 1, 1904. Michael and Mary Hrobak, his parents, were Slovak immigrants from the Spis region who had sought and found a kindlier way of life in the American mid-West. On May 6, 1914, just a few days after Philip's tenth birthday, his widowed mother brought Philip and his four year old sister Mary to the Immaculate Conception Home in Middletown, Pa. They were the first children received into the newly established home for children which the Jednota organization founded under the guiding spirit of Father Furdek. The children had lost their father in February of that year and their mother was concerned about providing for their care, for she too was in poor health. When a merciless blood malady ended her life a few months later, the Hrobak children had no one to look after them but the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius to whose care the Jednota had entrusted this home. Philip continued the studies that he had begun in St. Wendelin's parochial school in Cleveland and as soon as she was ready for school, Mary also attended classes. On completing his elementary education at Jednota Home, Philip went on to high school and college at St. �SLOVAKIA 37 Procopius in Lisle, Ill. From 1924 to 1927 he taught at St. Procopius and then accepted an assistantship as he pursued advanced studies in the department of chemistry at New York University. By the fall of 1929 he was again in his native city Cleveland where he taught a varied program of classes and coached the football team at the flourishing Benedictine High. For nine years he was a very successful teacher here, distinguishing himself especially in his chemistry, history and language classes as well as in his relationship with high school students. From all appearances, he seemed to be destined for a brilliant carrer as an educator. In August 1931 he married Rose Jasko and they became the devoted parents of nine children. His school work and parental cares could have absorbed all his time and talent yet his eager mind together with his vital interest in life and in his fellow man prompted him to cultivate an active concern in the issues and problems of those around him as well as the world at large. From time to time he gave expression to some of his thinking through contributions to various publications. Problems of youth and education as well as Slovak history ranked among his prime interests. In the matter of Slovak history he found not merely a static record of the past but also an on-going chain of direction and a development of history in his own day. He could not look upon man's interaction with man or nation with nation and remain a detached spectator. He was both an observer and a maker of history. Out of his experiences as a teacher, Philip Hrobak came to the realization that he could do more than just use books as tools of learning; he authored a practical and comprehensive Slovak grammar for the use of English speaking persons. He also compiled a sizable English-Slovak dictionary. Both served as important adjuncts in learning the Slovak language. Even today there are many who value his revised dictionary as a very useful reference. In 1937 when Joseph Husek yielded his Jednota editorship in order to seek the presidency of the Jednota organization, Philip Hrobak was elected editor of the weekly organ. No better replacement could have been made. From �38 SLOVAKIA this time on, Hrobak became a formidable force in Slovak and Slovak-American public life. His position was further strengthened when he became vice president of the Slovak League of America in 1949, and it was additionally confirmed when he assumed the presidency of Slovak League of America in 1950. For twelve years he gave this office distinctively dynamic force and singular meaningfulness. Hrobak's role in public life as well as the magnetism of his gifts and personality brought him into close contact and association with distinguished expatriated Slovak leaders and intellectuals. One of his closest co-workers was Dr. Joseph Pauco who continues to work in the same editorial office that he once shared with Philip Hrobak. Among other notable associates from abroad were Constantine Culen, Francis Hrusovsky, Joseph Kirschbaum, Joseph Mikus and Karol Sidor. An outstanding achievement of Hrobak's career in the Slovak League of America was the establishment of a highly desirable and eminently successful Office of Information functioning in Washington, D. C. under the distinguished chairmanship of the Slovak diplomat Dr. Joseph Mikus. This professional department became a vital public relations center as well as a liason agency in American-Slovak life. The journalistic genius of Philip Hrobak expressed itself not only through the Jednota weekly and the Jednota annual almanac which are the official publications of the Jednota organization and which even then served the need for both information and inspiration on behalf of its membership but he further initiated and sponsored other valuable publications as well. In 1949, for example, he began the Slovak Newsletter, a bulletin for public information. In 1951 he undertook a Slovak politico-cultural quarterly Slovakia, the voice of the Slovak League of America. In 1961 he launched another project, Furdek, an annual which became an English counterpart to the long established Jednota Kalendar. He gave this new work a content and style of its own, directing its appeal largely to readers who were not able to read the Slovak Kalendar. When Father Lach entrusted in 1959 the newspaper Slovak v Amerike to Philip Hrobak, the new publisher �39 SLOVAKIA collaborated on this weekly with Dr. Joseph Pauco and expanded his publishing scope to include the annual Literdrny Almanach Slovdka v Amerike as well as an affiliated series of book publications through which he often provided a public to well seasoned writers as well as to capable aspiring novices in journalism. With unbounded vigor and zeal Philip Hrobak worked from his Middletown office, serving the cause of God and man to his dying day. When illness struck him down it was hard to accept the fact that this was a mortal ailment. Although those who were close to him hoped against hope that he would recover, he ended his life on January 10, 1964 in Harrisburg, Pa. and was buried in Cleveland, Ohio. These are some of the essential facts in the life story of Philip Hrobak. * * When one undertakes the task of evaluating the stature of this leader Philip Hrobak and his literary output, the impressive factor becomes not only the quantity of his excellent published writings but also the quality of the man that shows through his works and the temper of his thought. Hrobak was above all a writer with a message. He was purposeful and dedicated, for he had a cause that was rooted in conscience. His personal integrity and Christian philosophy of life inspired him with a profound sense of honesty and justice which could not be confined to private life but clamored for redress even in the market place and public forum. With him morality and the full impact of the Ten Commandments had a place before God and man. For this reason he was intolerant of oppression and he championed the rights of man. This included basic justice and freedom in private life, within all levels of the social structure and within national and international relationships. Hrobak was gifted with a clarity of inner vision that penetrated surface appearances and subtle diplomatic maneuverings. He had an inborn alertness that was adroit and discriminating in dealing with political smooth talk, long standing inequities that tried to stay covered up, and outward niceties. He was not one to be easily deceived. And he had the courage of his convictions as well as the �40 SLOVAKIA ability to deal incisively with critical issues and difficult problems. He not only propagated the slogan Za Boha a ndrod! he lived the ideal, for all his life and energy, all his purpose and dedication was to translate into real life the spirit of devotion to God and abiding patriotism to the United States as well as to Slovakia, the ancestral homeland of American Slovaks. And as he set himself to these tasks, he was fully conscious of the duty that, as an officer and a leader in American Slovak fraternalism, he was to inspire others with a zeal for truth and right action. Circumscribi ng this study to a close review of the first fourteen volumes of Slovakia (1951-1964) which Philip Hrobak compiled and edited, we find even within this representativ e range of his work enough tangibles to assess the caliber of Hrobak's journalism, Christian philosophy and leadership. Like much of his journalistic output, these volumes of Hrobak's Slovakia were devoted largely to political content. We see in them Philip Hrobak the American patriot, the champion of Slovak statehood and a first class editor. His objective is truth and justice. For this reason he is a persistent and merciless fact-finder and incidentally he becomes an ideal publicist. He does not avoid issues or pretend that he does not see them and he does not feel that he can afford to be an overly fastidious respecter of persons. He was not an unfeeling individual and he knew how to cherish and express profound deference for constituted authority and public office but when he sensed that "Something is rotten in the state ... " he was relentless in uncovering the festering realities that were lurking under misleading outward appearances. His Christian uprightness, his idealism and sense of fairness bound him to flay inequity and to denounce oppression of every kind. Hrobak did not produce his 35 issues of Slovakia singlehandedl y. He opened his colums to Slovak diplomats, statesmen, historians and leaders as well as to thinking Americans who also championed the cause of freedom, justice and truth, especially the concept of historical truth. His formal objective was openly published in a number of issues of Slovakia: �SLOVAKIA 41 The chief purpose of Slovakia is to promote a better under standing and appreciation of the Slovak nation and its long struggle for freedom and independence. As Americans, members of the Slovak League of America believe that the Slovak nation, like all nations, has an interest and God-given right to freedom and independence. They are dedicated to the cause of the American way of life, Slovak freedom and world peace, and are determined to oppose the plague of communism and all other totalitarian political systems. Because this periodical was a vehicle of information to both a Slovak and a non-Slovak readership of serious intent, especially to American scholars, public officials, diplomats and university people, Hrobak made every effort to give it the widest possible dissemination into the homes and offices of American and foreign diplomats, politicians and public leaders as well as the libraries and departments of history and political science in many American colleges and universities. Of course, many average readers who sought to be well-informed also subscribed to it. Under Hrobak's gifted editorship and management, the circulation of Slovakia increased steadily. To provide the information and understanding that he had in mind, Hrobak attracted the most highly qualified of contributors to bring their works to Slovakia. Some of them were expatriated Slovak leaders and makers of Slovak history; some of them were scholars and historians of Slovak as well as non-Slovak origin; some were critics and analysts of political thought and nationalism; some were American legislators. Dr. Joseph M. Kirschbaum, a Slavistic scholar who taught and lectured at the University of Montreal in Canada produced a substantial article for practically every issue (30 articles in 37 issues, to be precise) . In the main, he examines the historical theses that warrant the existence of an autonomous Slovak state, basic principles and circumstances on which federation could be structured in central Europe, the subject of Slovakia and international relationships, the underlying causes of incompatability with Czech pretensions, the matter of Czech duplicity and oppressive arrogance, and Slovak politics past and present. His gifts, however, are multifaceted and out of the diversity of his �42 SLOVAKIA broad interests he also prepared papers on cultural topics such as: Slovak literature under the Soviet impact (VI, 2/ 19, pp. 34-51) , Mickiewicz in Slovak poetry and translations (VII, 1/22, pp. 32-41) , Universi ty traditions in Slovakia (VIII, 2/ 27, pp. 18-30), Contemporary tendencies in Slovak philology (X, 7/ 32, pp. 25-32) , The Canadian translator of Slovak poetry: Professor Watson Kirkconnell (XIV, 37, pp. 9-18). Dr. Kirschbaum consistently provided book reviews as well. Dr. Joseph Pauco has always been a faithful contributor also. He is a professional writer with a rich background in publishing and journalism. For a number of years he was editor-in-chief of the daily Slovak published in Bratislava. He lived through many a promising and too many a tragic experience in Slovak national life. He has tasted prosperity and good fortune as well as much disappointment at home and abroad. He is a journalist with the conviction that the editor, the reporter, the columnist is called to serve the people by illuminating facts, defending truth, and inspiring to action. These principles are embodied throughout his articles in Slovakia, most of which are devoted to political analysis and historical report; e.g. The practical aspect of federation (III, 2, pp. 26-36), The failures of communist politics in Slovakia (V, 4/ 17, pp. 3-20), The 1944 communist rebellion in Slovakia (VII, 3-4, 24/ 25, pp. 28-34) , and Slovakia under communism--which was serialized in three issues (IX, 30; X, 31 ; XI, 33 ). Among other significant contributors who brought enrichment to the early issues of Slovakia these must be mentioned: culen, Hrusovsky, Vnuk, Mikus, Sidor, Grebert, Cieker, t>urcansky, Murin, Rekem and Kruzliak. Their works are marked with the authority of those who had witnessed this history of Slovakia in the making and with the conviction of those who knew only too well what absolutes and what cause they were defending. Contributions on the scholarly level are thoroughly researched and documented; they are singularly important for their cultural value. With the aid of national figures like these, Philip Hrobak made of Slovakia a unique journal that analyzed �SLOVAKIA 43 Slovak and Czech politics and exposed the truth and the falsity behind the facade of the Czecho-Slovak state. Still other contributors also expressed themselves in Slovakia. We meet on its pages, for example, a critical examination which Kurt Glaser made of Radio Free Europe: How free is Radio Free Europe-The Voice of Doubletalk? (II, 2, pp. 25-28) and The " Russia First" Boys in Radio Free Europe. (III, I, pp. 31-38) as well as several of his other articles. Edward L. Delaney also wrote incisively and perceptively on The Betrayal of Slovakia (I, 2, pp. 1-7), on Tiso, Horthy and Benes as well as his personal experiences I was in Slovakia (II, 1, pp. 25-45). Hrobak further drew upon American public officials to express their views in Slovakia also. He published their patriotic addresses and expressions of concern and sympathy for minority groups as well as related matters from diplomatic circles for the interest of readers of Slovakia. As one reviews back issues, one cannot help noting the contributions of congressmen and persons like Michael A. Feighan, Edward J. Bonin, Charles J. Kersten, B. Carroll Reece, Lieut. Col. F. 0. Miksche, Ray J. Madden. In volume one, no. two, we find some thoughts of Prince Adolf zu Schwarzenberg, head of one of the oldest families of Bohemia. Interestingly, his contribution is on Czech Double Dealing. By way of balancing this heavy concentration on political fare, Hrobak took pains to offer other reading matter too. Occasionally he would publish something as different as the English translation of a treasured Slovak folk tale. He also ran a series on castles in Slovakia as well as occasional articles on other cultural topics like Slovak museums, the natural beauty of the Slovak countryside, the national folk hero Janosik, a study in contrasting ~vejk vs. Janosik, the natural springs and the spas of Slovakia, considerations on semantics and philology, Slovak university life and traditions, insights into Slovak church music, various types of Slovak customs, historical essays, thumbnail biographies. He also presented a serialization of Slovak history that he himself wrote and a serious study Slovak Nationalism which was researched by B. S. Bue. Applicable excerpts from American journalism were �SLOVAKIA 44 intended to provoke thought or reaction, and for this kind of prodding Hrobak quoted from The Washington Post, New York Times, the Cleveland Press, The Chicago Sun, the Brooklyn Daily Eagle, The Slavonic Monthly. He also culled from the Osservatore Romano, the Eudovy dennik of Chicago, cas (the official organ of Lettrich's Democratic Party and the Benes mouthpiece) as well as from other likely and unlikely sources. The personal trademark of Hrobak in these earlier issues of Slovakia was the filler feature titled Who Said It? Invariably these items were either ironic or revealing or they were couched in the full glow of patriotic ardor, depending on their portent. Hrobak felt that as a journalist he could not afford to be blandly genteel. He was dealing with subject matter that made demands on him to be ruthless rather that ineffectively mild. He knew that he had to be uncompromising rather than deferential. He was committed to the consideration of callous inequities and rank duplicity, and he needed the keenest of scalpels directed to the root of the issue. The Who Said It? feature was especially effective in quoting from Masaryk and Benes, Stransky and Lettrich, Peroutka and Ripka, Sramek and Gottwald. It held a full beam of light up to their pronouncements and exposed their ideas to re-evaluation. On the other hand, Hrobak also featured positive thinking from persons like Senator Robert A. Taft, Edward R. Murrow, H. W. Kaltenborn as well as from Dean Acheson, R. W. Seton-Watson, Congressman Daniel Flood and Alvin E. O'Konski. Readers found the material quoted in these fillers very apt, rather questionable, witty, thought-provoking or bitter. It was meant to be entertaining although an element of entertainment might sometimes develop out of it as a kind of byproduct. We present some samplings: "Some pussy-footing ostriches criticize the treaty between Soviet Russia and Czechoslovakia. Our close collaboration with the Soviet Union needs no explanation. We do not want anything from the Russians except protection from the Germans, and the Russians want nothing whatsoever from us." - Jan Masaryk in Business Week, May 13, 1944. (Slovakia vn, 2, p. 64). "The Slovak nation, one of the oldest Christian nations in �SLOVAKIA 45 central Europe is distinct ethnic unit. Just as the Czechs are and want to remain Czechs, just so the Slovaks are and want to remain Slovaks. The history, culture and national traditions of the Slovak nation are distinct from the history, culture and national traditions of the Czechs. The Slovaks never were, nor are they now, a part of the Czech nation. Slovaks here and abroad resent being called Czechoslovaks." - P.A. Hrobak, Detroit, Mich., November 18, 1951 ( Slovakia IV, 3-4, p. 58) . RED GEOGRAPHY: The news service of the Central Slovak Catholic Bureau in Rome recently published a story about a certain school inspector of the Trnava district in Slovakia who gave directives to teachers on how to teach. Among other things he said that if nuns we:re able to interest children in a non-existe nt being, God, then the teachers certainly should be able to interest children in Stalin who actually exists. "The Marx-Lenin doctrines of our Stalin," he continued, "must be applied in all classes. For example, in geog:raphy you teach the children about the East and the West. Now you could say: The sun rises in the East; there is our g:reat Stalin, the sun of all the nations which enlightens all nations with his knowledge. The sun sets in the West; thel'le you find decayed capitalism, the treacherous bourgeoisie and murderous imperialism." -But most of the Slovak teachers and pupils prefer the advice of Horace Gre eley: Go West, young man! (Slovakia II, 2, p. 19) . No assignment that came to Philip Hrobak was too demanding or time consuming. As a journalist and as an American Slovak leader, Philip Hrobak was a fully committed person. After the University of California Press released a new printing of a 504 page book Czechoslovakia, edited by Robert J . Kerner, which was represented as "an honest, unprejudiced, and frank appraisal of the important contribution which the Czechoslovak nation made to the history of our time in its two decades of independence between two world wars," Philip Hrobak took the book under close scrutiny in order to examine its merits. Characteristically, he read it with balanced judgment and undertook a detailed search into the allegations that were made in the volume by the twenty collaborators who wrote their ideas into it. He made pertinent notes, comments and a record of his explanations and refutations. Subsequently, every issue of Slovakia from v. V., 2-3 (15-16) June-Sept. 1955 to v. VII, 3-4 (24-25) Sept.-Dec 1957 carried part of Hrobak's chapter by chapter analysis (through all 23 chapters) under the heading: "Professor �46 SLOVAKIA Kerner's CZECHOSLOVAKIA: History or Propaganda?" He granted, in all fairness, that the twenty writers who had contributed to the composite work were not necessarily dishonest or prejudiced but he did not yield the point that they had become Czech propagandists exporting established Masaryk-Benes theories at the expense of the Slovaks and their national history. In pointing out the errors and misconceptions of these writers and in refuting their specious theses, Hrobak could hardly help becoming occasionally vehement. It was in his very nature to be less than tolerant of that long standing tendency to relegate the Slovaks to second place or to no place at all, and this bias had again appeared through the pages of Kerner's work. It was part of Hrobak's scholarly conditioning that made him at least impatient with inept history that distorted authentic records and shaped a narrative fashioned to its own devising. In his refutations of error, both in this case and on other occasions, Hrobak set the record right by controverting claims that were all too easily made for an easy and ready acceptance. He did this by tracing his facts to prime sources for reference and documentation: He was especially skillful in drawing upon arguments and statements from Czech sources and authorities and he was often able to use this matter in order to substantiate his arguments and to confound some contemporary writers of history who had a way of misrepresentating facts. Nor was he above ridicule when the conditions were patently offered to invite ridicule. He had an instinct for examining promises made and conditions underscoring events that transpired in order to contrast them with promises honored and promises forgotten as well as with the aftermath of events that were shaped by the hard realities of circumstances. Summing it all up, he was a fearless and formidable adversary in the arena of fact vs. fiction, truth vs. deception. And in this encounter he did not shrink from handling the rhetoric and the claims of an entire collective force of writers not merely a single author. This was his consistent line of action. When it came to dealing with a denial of truth or with historic distortions, he did not stop to assess the odds. With him there were no �SLOVAKIA 47 prohibitive odds when truth and justice were to be vindicated. There was only a matter of conscience and professional ethics to be heeded. Fired with this spirit and singlemindedness of purpose, Hrobak worked on tirelessly. From his editorial office in Middletown he steadfastly waged his crusade in the press. One can see why he indefatigably set out to flay injustice and denounce "the synthetic Czechoslovak state," why he castigated the execution of President Tiso as political murder and judicial murder, why he was preoccupied with the cause "history or propaganda?" as well as with the futility of efforts to fuse the Slovak and the Czech nations into one impossible amalgam, why he was concerned with matters of Church and state. Very often the choice of expression that appears either in his own work or in the writing of his contributors reflects the depth of his own feeling and betrays its real measure of intensity. Note these phrases by way of example: Benes "King of political cheats;" the " Russia first" boys in RFE; how the Czechs deceived us; intrigues and t he entrapment of individuals; Czechoslovak pseudo-democracy; the machinations of Czech Socialists . . . But Hrobak was by no means a hidden away recluse of some kind bound to his editorial desk. Besides being a gifted journalist and editor, he was also a dynamic fraternalist and a forceful lecturer. Through outstanding personal participation he became the soul of many a significant national movement especially through the Slovak League of America, the Matica Skolskd (Foundation to promote schooling and education) and the Priatelia slovenskej slobody (Friends of Slovak freedom). He distinguished himself as the motivating force in the Slovak League and, if figures are telling indicators of any kind, it is worth noting that within two years after he accepted the presidency of this organization, its membership increased by two thousand. After the guiding leadership of Hrobak had succeeded in establishing the Washington Office of Information, Dr. Joseph Mikus, the talented diplomat who headed this agency, made of it an invaluable department for public relations. Further, a notable program of sixty film showings �48 SLOVAKIA was received with widespread appreciation. More importantly still, various committees of the U.S. Congress charged with investigating the denial of rights under totalitarian aggression heard the testimony and an exposition of Slovak history from Philip Hrobak and gave attentive hearing to the testimony.of a number of Slovak witnesses who appealed against the situation behind the iron curtain. This series of sessions gave American officials in Washington a realistic representation of the sufferings to which a number of countries were being subjected in central Europe. It also provided a formal documentation of tactics that were enslaving the Slovak people. There was a special American subcommittee before which depositions were made about conditions in Slovakia and after these hearings, the full reports were printed in a publication titled Investigation of Communist Takeover and Occupation of Poland, Lithuania and Slovakia. Through the Washington Office of Information and the dynamism of Philip Hrobak excellent rapport was established with a number of American congressmen and statesmen who came to understand and feel for the plight of the Slovak people in their homeland. In 1954 Congressmen Kersten and Bentley openly manifested their interest in the Slovak cause. In 1955 Vice President Nixon expressed the sympathetic feeling of the administration in a written message that was addressed to the 34th congress of the Slovak League of America. In 1956 Secretary of State Dulles received an eight-member delegation of the Slovak League led by Philip Hrobak and engaged in animated discussion of vital topics with them. Philip Hrobak worked on and on with boundless devotion. It was very fitting then, that this dedication and wholehearted service was recognized when a public presentation of honor was made to him in 1957 in the course of the golden jubilee of the founding of the League. A special committee of Slovak leaders singled him out for the award designated as the Hlinka Cup. This was an unusually high honor, for the Hlinka Cup was a trophy which had never before been bestowed upon American soil. The address of presentation was made by Dr. Joseph M. Kirschbaum in recognition of Hrobak's merits as president �SLOVAKIA 49 of the Slovak League of America, as an eminent and intrepid editor of Jednota and Slovakia, as an outstanding champion in American Slovak life, as the compiler of a grammar and a dictionary and "because with his aggressive elan, his perseverance and fearlessness both as a journalist and as an organizer, he personifies the finest qualities that had endowed not only :Cudovit stur (a leading patriot), but also the first recipient of the cup, Andrew Hlinka." In 1961 another public honor was conferred on Philip Hrobak. This was the Charles IV Award or Karl's Prize that was presented to him by the Sudeten German Council of West Germany. It is a recognition that is awarded annually to a political leader, scientist or publicist who has made an outstanding contribution to the concept of a United Europe. The ceremonies were held in Cologne on Sudeten German Day, May 20, with over 200,000 Sudeten German expellees participating. Mr. Hrobak responded to the honor with a glowing address titled "Self Determination for All." His words bespoke the aspirations and the innermost feelings of Sudeten Germans as well as of the Slovak people and other victims of self-rule denied under the crushing force of communism. Among other Americans who participated in this observance were U.S. Congressmen Morgan D. Moulder, Gordon H. Scherer, Roy A. Taylor, and Henry C. Schadeberg. Willy Brandt, the mayor of Berlin, and several other Sudeten German leaders also delivered addresses. In these numberless events and situations we cannot fail to see the greatness of Philip Hrobak as an American and Slovak patriot, as a man of ideals and of forceful action, as a fraternalist and an organizer but we must not overlook his stature as a man of God also. It must never be forgotten that Hrobak served God at least as well as he served his nation and his fellow man. Religious principles and obligations had first place in his life and his life style. All his zeal and purpose was rooted in the law and the love of God; his spending of self on behalf of others was within the Christian concept. He was as ready to promote and defend Christian virtue and idealism as he was to crusade for national honor and welfare. Although his days were incredibly crowded with constant activity, �50 SLOVAKIA he did not put God in second place in his personal life. As a teacher and educator, he was aware of the importance of Catholic schools. As a parent, he was solicitous about a genuinely Christian atmosphere in the home and true religious training in the family. As a journalist, he faithfully promoted the interests of the Church and ethical principles. That was the reason why he combated the atheistic and the Away-from-Rome! attitude that was being sponsored by some leaders in Czecho-Slovakia. As 1963 was moving in on the calendar, Philip Hrobak prepared copy for a special issue of Slovakia and for the Jednota publications that he managed and edited. Out of regard for the Christian heritage of the Slovak people, he began to prepare to honor the 1100th anniversary of the mission of SS. Cyril and Methodius to Great Moravia and the Christianization of the Slovak nation. The annuals that he prepared for this occasion became a kind of crown of excellence that climaxed his literary and scholarly output and gave singular expression to his religious devotion as well. Truly, as we review the life and the accomplishments of Philip Hrobak who would have been seventy years old this year, we have reason to thank God for his idealism and example, and we are impressed and inspired by this great man's patriotism, his scholarship, his leadership and his personal dynamism. Sr. Martina Tybor, SS.C.M. THE FAMOUS Slovak folk-dance group, "Lucnica," from Bratislava returned from a 6-weeks' tour of several South American. countries. The 47-member company represented the current silver jubilee ensemble. Lucnica was organized in 1948. THE HIGH TATRAS in Slovakia last year attracted 2 and ½ million tourists. An even larger number was expected in 1974. � 36 SLOVAKIA Phiiip A. Hrobak (1904-1964) Generally the biographical facts of a man's life can be assembled without great difficulty. Cold facts of this kind, however, do not give us the complete or satisfying image of an individual. They lack the true lineaments of his character, the appreciable measure of his stature and the contributions of his lifetime of striving and achieving. Simplistically we can gather the key dates that marked the life span of Philip A. Hrobak, one of our American Slovak "greats" who would have reached his seventieth birthday in 1974 had not death cut him down in his life's prime. The bare data would include these statistics: Philip Anthony Hrobak was born in Cleveland, Ohio on May 1, 1904. Michael and Mary Hrobak, his parents, were Slovak immigrants from the Spis region who had sought and found a kindlier way of life in the American mid-West. On May 6, 1914, just a few days after Philip's tenth birthday, his widowed mother brought Philip and his four year old sister Mary to the Immaculate Conception Home in Middletown, Pa. They were the first children received into the newly established home for children which the Jednota organization founded under the guiding spirit of Father Furdek. The children had lost their father in February of that year and their mother was concerned about providing for their care, for she too was in poor health. When a merciless blood malady ended her life a few months later, the Hrobak children had no one to look after them but the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius to whose care the Jednota had entrusted this home. Philip continued the studies that he had begun in St. Wendelin's parochial school in Cleveland and as soon as she was ready for school, Mary also attended classes. On completing his elementary education at Jednota Home, Philip went on to high school and college at St. �SLOVAKIA 37 Procopius in Lisle, Ill. From 1924 to 1927 he taught at St. Procopius and then accepted an assistantship as he pursued advanced studies in the department of chemistry at New York University. By the fall of 1929 he was again in his native city Cleveland where he taught a varied program of classes and coached the football team at the flourishing Benedictine High. For nine years he was a very successful teacher here, distinguishing himself especially in his chemistry, history and language classes as well as in his relationship with high school students. From all appearances, he seemed to be destined for a brilliant carrer as an educator. In August 1931 he married Rose Jasko and they became the devoted parents of nine children. His school work and parental cares could have absorbed all his time and talent yet his eager mind together with his vital interest in life and in his fellow man prompted him to cultivate an active concern in the issues and problems of those around him as well as the world at large. From time to time he gave expression to some of his thinking through contributions to various publications. Problems of youth and education as well as Slovak history ranked among his prime interests. In the matter of Slovak history he found not merely a static record of the past but also an on-going chain of direction and a development of history in his own day. He could not look upon man's interaction with man or nation with nation and remain a detached spectator. He was both an observer and a maker of history. Out of his experiences as a teacher, Philip Hrobak came to the realization that he could do more than just use books as tools of learning; he authored a practical and comprehensive Slovak grammar for the use of English speaking persons. He also compiled a sizable English-Slovak dictionary. Both served as important adjuncts in learning the Slovak language. Even today there are many who value his revised dictionary as a very useful reference. In 1937 when Joseph Husek yielded his Jednota editorship in order to seek the presidency of the Jednota organization, Philip Hrobak was elected editor of the weekly organ. No better replacement could have been made. From �38 SLOVAKIA this time on, Hrobak became a formidable force in Slovak and Slovak-American public life. His position was further strengthened when he became vice president of the Slovak League of America in 1949, and it was additionally confirmed when he assumed the presidency of Slovak League of America in 1950. For twelve years he gave this office distinctively dynamic force and singular meaningfulness. Hrobak's role in public life as well as the magnetism of his gifts and personality brought him into close contact and association with distinguished expatriated Slovak leaders and intellectuals. One of his closest co-workers was Dr. Joseph Pauco who continues to work in the same editorial office that he once shared with Philip Hrobak. Among other notable associates from abroad were Constantine Culen, Francis Hrusovsky, Joseph Kirschbaum, Joseph Mikus and Karol Sidor. An outstanding achievement of Hrobak's career in the Slovak League of America was the establishment of a highly desirable and eminently successful Office of Information functioning in Washington, D. C. under the distinguished chairmanship of the Slovak diplomat Dr. Joseph Mikus. This professional department became a vital public relations center as well as a liason agency in American-Slovak life. The journalistic genius of Philip Hrobak expressed itself not only through the Jednota weekly and the Jednota annual almanac which are the official publications of the Jednota organization and which even then served the need for both information and inspiration on behalf of its membership but he further initiated and sponsored other valuable publications as well. In 1949, for example, he began the Slovak Newsletter, a bulletin for public information. In 1951 he undertook a Slovak politico-cultural quarterly Slovakia, the voice of the Slovak League of America. In 1961 he launched another project, Furdek, an annual which became an English counterpart to the long established Jednota Kalendar. He gave this new work a content and style of its own, directing its appeal largely to readers who were not able to read the Slovak Kalendar. When Father Lach entrusted in 1959 the newspaper Slovak v Amerike to Philip Hrobak, the new publisher �39 SLOVAKIA collaborated on this weekly with Dr. Joseph Pauco and expanded his publishing scope to include the annual Literdrny Almanach Slovdka v Amerike as well as an affiliated series of book publications through which he often provided a public to well seasoned writers as well as to capable aspiring novices in journalism. With unbounded vigor and zeal Philip Hrobak worked from his Middletown office, serving the cause of God and man to his dying day. When illness struck him down it was hard to accept the fact that this was a mortal ailment. Although those who were close to him hoped against hope that he would recover, he ended his life on January 10, 1964 in Harrisburg, Pa. and was buried in Cleveland, Ohio. These are some of the essential facts in the life story of Philip Hrobak. * * When one undertakes the task of evaluating the stature of this leader Philip Hrobak and his literary output, the impressive factor becomes not only the quantity of his excellent published writings but also the quality of the man that shows through his works and the temper of his thought. Hrobak was above all a writer with a message. He was purposeful and dedicated, for he had a cause that was rooted in conscience. His personal integrity and Christian philosophy of life inspired him with a profound sense of honesty and justice which could not be confined to private life but clamored for redress even in the market place and public forum. With him morality and the full impact of the Ten Commandments had a place before God and man. For this reason he was intolerant of oppression and he championed the rights of man. This included basic justice and freedom in private life, within all levels of the social structure and within national and international relationships. Hrobak was gifted with a clarity of inner vision that penetrated surface appearances and subtle diplomatic maneuverings. He had an inborn alertness that was adroit and discriminating in dealing with political smooth talk, long standing inequities that tried to stay covered up, and outward niceties. He was not one to be easily deceived. And he had the courage of his convictions as well as the �40 SLOVAKIA ability to deal incisively with critical issues and difficult problems. He not only propagated the slogan Za Boha a ndrod! he lived the ideal, for all his life and energy, all his purpose and dedication was to translate into real life the spirit of devotion to God and abiding patriotism to the United States as well as to Slovakia, the ancestral homeland of American Slovaks. And as he set himself to these tasks, he was fully conscious of the duty that, as an officer and a leader in American Slovak fraternalism, he was to inspire others with a zeal for truth and right action. Circumscribi ng this study to a close review of the first fourteen volumes of Slovakia (1951-1964) which Philip Hrobak compiled and edited, we find even within this representativ e range of his work enough tangibles to assess the caliber of Hrobak's journalism, Christian philosophy and leadership. Like much of his journalistic output, these volumes of Hrobak's Slovakia were devoted largely to political content. We see in them Philip Hrobak the American patriot, the champion of Slovak statehood and a first class editor. His objective is truth and justice. For this reason he is a persistent and merciless fact-finder and incidentally he becomes an ideal publicist. He does not avoid issues or pretend that he does not see them and he does not feel that he can afford to be an overly fastidious respecter of persons. He was not an unfeeling individual and he knew how to cherish and express profound deference for constituted authority and public office but when he sensed that "Something is rotten in the state ... " he was relentless in uncovering the festering realities that were lurking under misleading outward appearances. His Christian uprightness, his idealism and sense of fairness bound him to flay inequity and to denounce oppression of every kind. Hrobak did not produce his 35 issues of Slovakia singlehandedl y. He opened his colums to Slovak diplomats, statesmen, historians and leaders as well as to thinking Americans who also championed the cause of freedom, justice and truth, especially the concept of historical truth. His formal objective was openly published in a number of issues of Slovakia: �SLOVAKIA 41 The chief purpose of Slovakia is to promote a better under standing and appreciation of the Slovak nation and its long struggle for freedom and independence. As Americans, members of the Slovak League of America believe that the Slovak nation, like all nations, has an interest and God-given right to freedom and independence. They are dedicated to the cause of the American way of life, Slovak freedom and world peace, and are determined to oppose the plague of communism and all other totalitarian political systems. Because this periodical was a vehicle of information to both a Slovak and a non-Slovak readership of serious intent, especially to American scholars, public officials, diplomats and university people, Hrobak made every effort to give it the widest possible dissemination into the homes and offices of American and foreign diplomats, politicians and public leaders as well as the libraries and departments of history and political science in many American colleges and universities. Of course, many average readers who sought to be well-informed also subscribed to it. Under Hrobak's gifted editorship and management, the circulation of Slovakia increased steadily. To provide the information and understanding that he had in mind, Hrobak attracted the most highly qualified of contributors to bring their works to Slovakia. Some of them were expatriated Slovak leaders and makers of Slovak history; some of them were scholars and historians of Slovak as well as non-Slovak origin; some were critics and analysts of political thought and nationalism; some were American legislators. Dr. Joseph M. Kirschbaum, a Slavistic scholar who taught and lectured at the University of Montreal in Canada produced a substantial article for practically every issue (30 articles in 37 issues, to be precise) . In the main, he examines the historical theses that warrant the existence of an autonomous Slovak state, basic principles and circumstances on which federation could be structured in central Europe, the subject of Slovakia and international relationships, the underlying causes of incompatability with Czech pretensions, the matter of Czech duplicity and oppressive arrogance, and Slovak politics past and present. His gifts, however, are multifaceted and out of the diversity of his �42 SLOVAKIA broad interests he also prepared papers on cultural topics such as: Slovak literature under the Soviet impact (VI, 2/ 19, pp. 34-51) , Mickiewicz in Slovak poetry and translations (VII, 1/22, pp. 32-41) , Universi ty traditions in Slovakia (VIII, 2/ 27, pp. 18-30), Contemporary tendencies in Slovak philology (X, 7/ 32, pp. 25-32) , The Canadian translator of Slovak poetry: Professor Watson Kirkconnell (XIV, 37, pp. 9-18). Dr. Kirschbaum consistently provided book reviews as well. Dr. Joseph Pauco has always been a faithful contributor also. He is a professional writer with a rich background in publishing and journalism. For a number of years he was editor-in-chief of the daily Slovak published in Bratislava. He lived through many a promising and too many a tragic experience in Slovak national life. He has tasted prosperity and good fortune as well as much disappointment at home and abroad. He is a journalist with the conviction that the editor, the reporter, the columnist is called to serve the people by illuminating facts, defending truth, and inspiring to action. These principles are embodied throughout his articles in Slovakia, most of which are devoted to political analysis and historical report; e.g. The practical aspect of federation (III, 2, pp. 26-36), The failures of communist politics in Slovakia (V, 4/ 17, pp. 3-20), The 1944 communist rebellion in Slovakia (VII, 3-4, 24/ 25, pp. 28-34) , and Slovakia under communism--which was serialized in three issues (IX, 30; X, 31 ; XI, 33 ). Among other significant contributors who brought enrichment to the early issues of Slovakia these must be mentioned: culen, Hrusovsky, Vnuk, Mikus, Sidor, Grebert, Cieker, t>urcansky, Murin, Rekem and Kruzliak. Their works are marked with the authority of those who had witnessed this history of Slovakia in the making and with the conviction of those who knew only too well what absolutes and what cause they were defending. Contributions on the scholarly level are thoroughly researched and documented; they are singularly important for their cultural value. With the aid of national figures like these, Philip Hrobak made of Slovakia a unique journal that analyzed �SLOVAKIA 43 Slovak and Czech politics and exposed the truth and the falsity behind the facade of the Czecho-Slovak state. Still other contributors also expressed themselves in Slovakia. We meet on its pages, for example, a critical examination which Kurt Glaser made of Radio Free Europe: How free is Radio Free Europe-The Voice of Doubletalk? (II, 2, pp. 25-28) and The " Russia First" Boys in Radio Free Europe. (III, I, pp. 31-38) as well as several of his other articles. Edward L. Delaney also wrote incisively and perceptively on The Betrayal of Slovakia (I, 2, pp. 1-7), on Tiso, Horthy and Benes as well as his personal experiences I was in Slovakia (II, 1, pp. 25-45). Hrobak further drew upon American public officials to express their views in Slovakia also. He published their patriotic addresses and expressions of concern and sympathy for minority groups as well as related matters from diplomatic circles for the interest of readers of Slovakia. As one reviews back issues, one cannot help noting the contributions of congressmen and persons like Michael A. Feighan, Edward J. Bonin, Charles J. Kersten, B. Carroll Reece, Lieut. Col. F. 0. Miksche, Ray J. Madden. In volume one, no. two, we find some thoughts of Prince Adolf zu Schwarzenberg, head of one of the oldest families of Bohemia. Interestingly, his contribution is on Czech Double Dealing. By way of balancing this heavy concentration on political fare, Hrobak took pains to offer other reading matter too. Occasionally he would publish something as different as the English translation of a treasured Slovak folk tale. He also ran a series on castles in Slovakia as well as occasional articles on other cultural topics like Slovak museums, the natural beauty of the Slovak countryside, the national folk hero Janosik, a study in contrasting ~vejk vs. Janosik, the natural springs and the spas of Slovakia, considerations on semantics and philology, Slovak university life and traditions, insights into Slovak church music, various types of Slovak customs, historical essays, thumbnail biographies. He also presented a serialization of Slovak history that he himself wrote and a serious study Slovak Nationalism which was researched by B. S. Bue. Applicable excerpts from American journalism were �SLOVAKIA 44 intended to provoke thought or reaction, and for this kind of prodding Hrobak quoted from The Washington Post, New York Times, the Cleveland Press, The Chicago Sun, the Brooklyn Daily Eagle, The Slavonic Monthly. He also culled from the Osservatore Romano, the Eudovy dennik of Chicago, cas (the official organ of Lettrich's Democratic Party and the Benes mouthpiece) as well as from other likely and unlikely sources. The personal trademark of Hrobak in these earlier issues of Slovakia was the filler feature titled Who Said It? Invariably these items were either ironic or revealing or they were couched in the full glow of patriotic ardor, depending on their portent. Hrobak felt that as a journalist he could not afford to be blandly genteel. He was dealing with subject matter that made demands on him to be ruthless rather that ineffectively mild. He knew that he had to be uncompromising rather than deferential. He was committed to the consideration of callous inequities and rank duplicity, and he needed the keenest of scalpels directed to the root of the issue. The Who Said It? feature was especially effective in quoting from Masaryk and Benes, Stransky and Lettrich, Peroutka and Ripka, Sramek and Gottwald. It held a full beam of light up to their pronouncements and exposed their ideas to re-evaluation. On the other hand, Hrobak also featured positive thinking from persons like Senator Robert A. Taft, Edward R. Murrow, H. W. Kaltenborn as well as from Dean Acheson, R. W. Seton-Watson, Congressman Daniel Flood and Alvin E. O'Konski. Readers found the material quoted in these fillers very apt, rather questionable, witty, thought-provoking or bitter. It was meant to be entertaining although an element of entertainment might sometimes develop out of it as a kind of byproduct. We present some samplings: "Some pussy-footing ostriches criticize the treaty between Soviet Russia and Czechoslovakia. Our close collaboration with the Soviet Union needs no explanation. We do not want anything from the Russians except protection from the Germans, and the Russians want nothing whatsoever from us." - Jan Masaryk in Business Week, May 13, 1944. (Slovakia vn, 2, p. 64). "The Slovak nation, one of the oldest Christian nations in �SLOVAKIA 45 central Europe is distinct ethnic unit. Just as the Czechs are and want to remain Czechs, just so the Slovaks are and want to remain Slovaks. The history, culture and national traditions of the Slovak nation are distinct from the history, culture and national traditions of the Czechs. The Slovaks never were, nor are they now, a part of the Czech nation. Slovaks here and abroad resent being called Czechoslovaks." - P.A. Hrobak, Detroit, Mich., November 18, 1951 ( Slovakia IV, 3-4, p. 58) . RED GEOGRAPHY: The news service of the Central Slovak Catholic Bureau in Rome recently published a story about a certain school inspector of the Trnava district in Slovakia who gave directives to teachers on how to teach. Among other things he said that if nuns we:re able to interest children in a non-existe nt being, God, then the teachers certainly should be able to interest children in Stalin who actually exists. "The Marx-Lenin doctrines of our Stalin," he continued, "must be applied in all classes. For example, in geog:raphy you teach the children about the East and the West. Now you could say: The sun rises in the East; there is our g:reat Stalin, the sun of all the nations which enlightens all nations with his knowledge. The sun sets in the West; thel'le you find decayed capitalism, the treacherous bourgeoisie and murderous imperialism." -But most of the Slovak teachers and pupils prefer the advice of Horace Gre eley: Go West, young man! (Slovakia II, 2, p. 19) . No assignment that came to Philip Hrobak was too demanding or time consuming. As a journalist and as an American Slovak leader, Philip Hrobak was a fully committed person. After the University of California Press released a new printing of a 504 page book Czechoslovakia, edited by Robert J . Kerner, which was represented as "an honest, unprejudiced, and frank appraisal of the important contribution which the Czechoslovak nation made to the history of our time in its two decades of independence between two world wars," Philip Hrobak took the book under close scrutiny in order to examine its merits. Characteristically, he read it with balanced judgment and undertook a detailed search into the allegations that were made in the volume by the twenty collaborators who wrote their ideas into it. He made pertinent notes, comments and a record of his explanations and refutations. Subsequently, every issue of Slovakia from v. V., 2-3 (15-16) June-Sept. 1955 to v. VII, 3-4 (24-25) Sept.-Dec 1957 carried part of Hrobak's chapter by chapter analysis (through all 23 chapters) under the heading: "Professor �46 SLOVAKIA Kerner's CZECHOSLOVAKIA: History or Propaganda?" He granted, in all fairness, that the twenty writers who had contributed to the composite work were not necessarily dishonest or prejudiced but he did not yield the point that they had become Czech propagandists exporting established Masaryk-Benes theories at the expense of the Slovaks and their national history. In pointing out the errors and misconceptions of these writers and in refuting their specious theses, Hrobak could hardly help becoming occasionally vehement. It was in his very nature to be less than tolerant of that long standing tendency to relegate the Slovaks to second place or to no place at all, and this bias had again appeared through the pages of Kerner's work. It was part of Hrobak's scholarly conditioning that made him at least impatient with inept history that distorted authentic records and shaped a narrative fashioned to its own devising. In his refutations of error, both in this case and on other occasions, Hrobak set the record right by controverting claims that were all too easily made for an easy and ready acceptance. He did this by tracing his facts to prime sources for reference and documentation: He was especially skillful in drawing upon arguments and statements from Czech sources and authorities and he was often able to use this matter in order to substantiate his arguments and to confound some contemporary writers of history who had a way of misrepresentating facts. Nor was he above ridicule when the conditions were patently offered to invite ridicule. He had an instinct for examining promises made and conditions underscoring events that transpired in order to contrast them with promises honored and promises forgotten as well as with the aftermath of events that were shaped by the hard realities of circumstances. Summing it all up, he was a fearless and formidable adversary in the arena of fact vs. fiction, truth vs. deception. And in this encounter he did not shrink from handling the rhetoric and the claims of an entire collective force of writers not merely a single author. This was his consistent line of action. When it came to dealing with a denial of truth or with historic distortions, he did not stop to assess the odds. With him there were no �SLOVAKIA 47 prohibitive odds when truth and justice were to be vindicated. There was only a matter of conscience and professional ethics to be heeded. Fired with this spirit and singlemindedness of purpose, Hrobak worked on tirelessly. From his editorial office in Middletown he steadfastly waged his crusade in the press. One can see why he indefatigably set out to flay injustice and denounce "the synthetic Czechoslovak state," why he castigated the execution of President Tiso as political murder and judicial murder, why he was preoccupied with the cause "history or propaganda?" as well as with the futility of efforts to fuse the Slovak and the Czech nations into one impossible amalgam, why he was concerned with matters of Church and state. Very often the choice of expression that appears either in his own work or in the writing of his contributors reflects the depth of his own feeling and betrays its real measure of intensity. Note these phrases by way of example: Benes "King of political cheats;" the " Russia first" boys in RFE; how the Czechs deceived us; intrigues and t he entrapment of individuals; Czechoslovak pseudo-democracy; the machinations of Czech Socialists . . . But Hrobak was by no means a hidden away recluse of some kind bound to his editorial desk. Besides being a gifted journalist and editor, he was also a dynamic fraternalist and a forceful lecturer. Through outstanding personal participation he became the soul of many a significant national movement especially through the Slovak League of America, the Matica Skolskd (Foundation to promote schooling and education) and the Priatelia slovenskej slobody (Friends of Slovak freedom). He distinguished himself as the motivating force in the Slovak League and, if figures are telling indicators of any kind, it is worth noting that within two years after he accepted the presidency of this organization, its membership increased by two thousand. After the guiding leadership of Hrobak had succeeded in establishing the Washington Office of Information, Dr. Joseph Mikus, the talented diplomat who headed this agency, made of it an invaluable department for public relations. Further, a notable program of sixty film showings �48 SLOVAKIA was received with widespread appreciation. More importantly still, various committees of the U.S. Congress charged with investigating the denial of rights under totalitarian aggression heard the testimony and an exposition of Slovak history from Philip Hrobak and gave attentive hearing to the testimony.of a number of Slovak witnesses who appealed against the situation behind the iron curtain. This series of sessions gave American officials in Washington a realistic representation of the sufferings to which a number of countries were being subjected in central Europe. It also provided a formal documentation of tactics that were enslaving the Slovak people. There was a special American subcommittee before which depositions were made about conditions in Slovakia and after these hearings, the full reports were printed in a publication titled Investigation of Communist Takeover and Occupation of Poland, Lithuania and Slovakia. Through the Washington Office of Information and the dynamism of Philip Hrobak excellent rapport was established with a number of American congressmen and statesmen who came to understand and feel for the plight of the Slovak people in their homeland. In 1954 Congressmen Kersten and Bentley openly manifested their interest in the Slovak cause. In 1955 Vice President Nixon expressed the sympathetic feeling of the administration in a written message that was addressed to the 34th congress of the Slovak League of America. In 1956 Secretary of State Dulles received an eight-member delegation of the Slovak League led by Philip Hrobak and engaged in animated discussion of vital topics with them. Philip Hrobak worked on and on with boundless devotion. It was very fitting then, that this dedication and wholehearted service was recognized when a public presentation of honor was made to him in 1957 in the course of the golden jubilee of the founding of the League. A special committee of Slovak leaders singled him out for the award designated as the Hlinka Cup. This was an unusually high honor, for the Hlinka Cup was a trophy which had never before been bestowed upon American soil. The address of presentation was made by Dr. Joseph M. Kirschbaum in recognition of Hrobak's merits as president �SLOVAKIA 49 of the Slovak League of America, as an eminent and intrepid editor of Jednota and Slovakia, as an outstanding champion in American Slovak life, as the compiler of a grammar and a dictionary and "because with his aggressive elan, his perseverance and fearlessness both as a journalist and as an organizer, he personifies the finest qualities that had endowed not only :Cudovit stur (a leading patriot), but also the first recipient of the cup, Andrew Hlinka." In 1961 another public honor was conferred on Philip Hrobak. This was the Charles IV Award or Karl's Prize that was presented to him by the Sudeten German Council of West Germany. It is a recognition that is awarded annually to a political leader, scientist or publicist who has made an outstanding contribution to the concept of a United Europe. The ceremonies were held in Cologne on Sudeten German Day, May 20, with over 200,000 Sudeten German expellees participating. Mr. Hrobak responded to the honor with a glowing address titled "Self Determination for All." His words bespoke the aspirations and the innermost feelings of Sudeten Germans as well as of the Slovak people and other victims of self-rule denied under the crushing force of communism. Among other Americans who participated in this observance were U.S. Congressmen Morgan D. Moulder, Gordon H. Scherer, Roy A. Taylor, and Henry C. Schadeberg. Willy Brandt, the mayor of Berlin, and several other Sudeten German leaders also delivered addresses. In these numberless events and situations we cannot fail to see the greatness of Philip Hrobak as an American and Slovak patriot, as a man of ideals and of forceful action, as a fraternalist and an organizer but we must not overlook his stature as a man of God also. It must never be forgotten that Hrobak served God at least as well as he served his nation and his fellow man. Religious principles and obligations had first place in his life and his life style. All his zeal and purpose was rooted in the law and the love of God; his spending of self on behalf of others was within the Christian concept. He was as ready to promote and defend Christian virtue and idealism as he was to crusade for national honor and welfare. Although his days were incredibly crowded with constant activity, �50 SLOVAKIA he did not put God in second place in his personal life. As a teacher and educator, he was aware of the importance of Catholic schools. As a parent, he was solicitous about a genuinely Christian atmosphere in the home and true religious training in the family. As a journalist, he faithfully promoted the interests of the Church and ethical principles. That was the reason why he combated the atheistic and the Away-from-Rome! attitude that was being sponsored by some leaders in Czecho-Slovakia. As 1963 was moving in on the calendar, Philip Hrobak prepared copy for a special issue of Slovakia and for the Jednota publications that he managed and edited. Out of regard for the Christian heritage of the Slovak people, he began to prepare to honor the 1100th anniversary of the mission of SS. Cyril and Methodius to Great Moravia and the Christianization of the Slovak nation. The annuals that he prepared for this occasion became a kind of crown of excellence that climaxed his literary and scholarly output and gave singular expression to his religious devotion as well. Truly, as we review the life and the accomplishments of Philip Hrobak who would have been seventy years old this year, we have reason to thank God for his idealism and example, and we are impressed and inspired by this great man's patriotism, his scholarship, his leadership and his personal dynamism. Sr. Martina Tybor, SS.C.M. THE FAMOUS Slovak folk-dance group, "Lucnica," from Bratislava returned from a 6-weeks' tour of several South American. countries. The 47-member company represented the current silver jubilee ensemble. Lucnica was organized in 1948. THE HIGH TATRAS in Slovakia last year attracted 2 and ½ million tourists. An even larger number was expected in 1974. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1974, Vol. 24 Description An account of the resource Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document 36 SLOVAKIA Phiiip A. Hrobak (1904-1964) Generally the biographical facts of a man's life can be assembled without great difficulty. Cold facts of this kind, however, do not give us the complete or satisfying image of an individual. They lack the true lineaments of his character, the appreciable measure of his stature and the contributions of his lifetime of striving and achieving. Simplistically we can gather the key dates that marked the life span of Philip A. Hrobak, one of our American Slovak "greats" who would have reached his seventieth birthday in 1974 had not death cut him down in his life's prime. The bare data would include these statistics: Philip Anthony Hrobak was born in Cleveland, Ohio on May 1, 1904. Michael and Mary Hrobak, his parents, were Slovak immigrants from the Spis region who had sought and found a kindlier way of life in the American mid-West. On May 6, 1914, just a few days after Philip's tenth birthday, his widowed mother brought Philip and his four year old sister Mary to the Immaculate Conception Home in Middletown, Pa. They were the first children received into the newly established home for children which the Jednota organization founded under the guiding spirit of Father Furdek. The children had lost their father in February of that year and their mother was concerned about providing for their care, for she too was in poor health. When a merciless blood malady ended her life a few months later, the Hrobak children had no one to look after them but the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius to whose care the Jednota had entrusted this home. Philip continued the studies that he had begun in St. Wendelin's parochial school in Cleveland and as soon as she was ready for school, Mary also attended classes. On completing his elementary education at Jednota Home, Philip went on to high school and college at St. SLOVAKIA 37 Procopius in Lisle, Ill. From 1924 to 1927 he taught at St. Procopius and then accepted an assistantship as he pursued advanced studies in the department of chemistry at New York University. By the fall of 1929 he was again in his native city Cleveland where he taught a varied program of classes and coached the football team at the flourishing Benedictine High. For nine years he was a very successful teacher here, distinguishing himself especially in his chemistry, history and language classes as well as in his relationship with high school students. From all appearances, he seemed to be destined for a brilliant carrer as an educator. In August 1931 he married Rose Jasko and they became the devoted parents of nine children. His school work and parental cares could have absorbed all his time and talent yet his eager mind together with his vital interest in life and in his fellow man prompted him to cultivate an active concern in the issues and problems of those around him as well as the world at large. From time to time he gave expression to some of his thinking through contributions to various publications. Problems of youth and education as well as Slovak history ranked among his prime interests. In the matter of Slovak history he found not merely a static record of the past but also an on-going chain of direction and a development of history in his own day. He could not look upon man's interaction with man or nation with nation and remain a detached spectator. He was both an observer and a maker of history. Out of his experiences as a teacher, Philip Hrobak came to the realization that he could do more than just use books as tools of learning; he authored a practical and comprehensive Slovak grammar for the use of English speaking persons. He also compiled a sizable English-Slovak dictionary. Both served as important adjuncts in learning the Slovak language. Even today there are many who value his revised dictionary as a very useful reference. In 1937 when Joseph Husek yielded his Jednota editorship in order to seek the presidency of the Jednota organization, Philip Hrobak was elected editor of the weekly organ. No better replacement could have been made. From 38 SLOVAKIA this time on, Hrobak became a formidable force in Slovak and Slovak-American public life. His position was further strengthened when he became vice president of the Slovak League of America in 1949, and it was additionally confirmed when he assumed the presidency of Slovak League of America in 1950. For twelve years he gave this office distinctively dynamic force and singular meaningfulness. Hrobak's role in public life as well as the magnetism of his gifts and personality brought him into close contact and association with distinguished expatriated Slovak leaders and intellectuals. One of his closest co-workers was Dr. Joseph Pauco who continues to work in the same editorial office that he once shared with Philip Hrobak. Among other notable associates from abroad were Constantine Culen, Francis Hrusovsky, Joseph Kirschbaum, Joseph Mikus and Karol Sidor. An outstanding achievement of Hrobak's career in the Slovak League of America was the establishment of a highly desirable and eminently successful Office of Information functioning in Washington, D. C. under the distinguished chairmanship of the Slovak diplomat Dr. Joseph Mikus. This professional department became a vital public relations center as well as a liason agency in American-Slovak life. The journalistic genius of Philip Hrobak expressed itself not only through the Jednota weekly and the Jednota annual almanac which are the official publications of the Jednota organization and which even then served the need for both information and inspiration on behalf of its membership but he further initiated and sponsored other valuable publications as well. In 1949, for example, he began the Slovak Newsletter, a bulletin for public information. In 1951 he undertook a Slovak politico-cultural quarterly Slovakia, the voice of the Slovak League of America. In 1961 he launched another project, Furdek, an annual which became an English counterpart to the long established Jednota Kalendar. He gave this new work a content and style of its own, directing its appeal largely to readers who were not able to read the Slovak Kalendar. When Father Lach entrusted in 1959 the newspaper Slovak v Amerike to Philip Hrobak, the new publisher 39 SLOVAKIA collaborated on this weekly with Dr. Joseph Pauco and expanded his publishing scope to include the annual Literdrny Almanach Slovdka v Amerike as well as an affiliated series of book publications through which he often provided a public to well seasoned writers as well as to capable aspiring novices in journalism. With unbounded vigor and zeal Philip Hrobak worked from his Middletown office, serving the cause of God and man to his dying day. When illness struck him down it was hard to accept the fact that this was a mortal ailment. Although those who were close to him hoped against hope that he would recover, he ended his life on January 10, 1964 in Harrisburg, Pa. and was buried in Cleveland, Ohio. These are some of the essential facts in the life story of Philip Hrobak. * * When one undertakes the task of evaluating the stature of this leader Philip Hrobak and his literary output, the impressive factor becomes not only the quantity of his excellent published writings but also the quality of the man that shows through his works and the temper of his thought. Hrobak was above all a writer with a message. He was purposeful and dedicated, for he had a cause that was rooted in conscience. His personal integrity and Christian philosophy of life inspired him with a profound sense of honesty and justice which could not be confined to private life but clamored for redress even in the market place and public forum. With him morality and the full impact of the Ten Commandments had a place before God and man. For this reason he was intolerant of oppression and he championed the rights of man. This included basic justice and freedom in private life, within all levels of the social structure and within national and international relationships. Hrobak was gifted with a clarity of inner vision that penetrated surface appearances and subtle diplomatic maneuverings. He had an inborn alertness that was adroit and discriminating in dealing with political smooth talk, long standing inequities that tried to stay covered up, and outward niceties. He was not one to be easily deceived. And he had the courage of his convictions as well as the 40 SLOVAKIA ability to deal incisively with critical issues and difficult problems. He not only propagated the slogan Za Boha a ndrod! he lived the ideal, for all his life and energy, all his purpose and dedication was to translate into real life the spirit of devotion to God and abiding patriotism to the United States as well as to Slovakia, the ancestral homeland of American Slovaks. And as he set himself to these tasks, he was fully conscious of the duty that, as an officer and a leader in American Slovak fraternalism, he was to inspire others with a zeal for truth and right action. Circumscribi ng this study to a close review of the first fourteen volumes of Slovakia (1951-1964) which Philip Hrobak compiled and edited, we find even within this representativ e range of his work enough tangibles to assess the caliber of Hrobak's journalism, Christian philosophy and leadership. Like much of his journalistic output, these volumes of Hrobak's Slovakia were devoted largely to political content. We see in them Philip Hrobak the American patriot, the champion of Slovak statehood and a first class editor. His objective is truth and justice. For this reason he is a persistent and merciless fact-finder and incidentally he becomes an ideal publicist. He does not avoid issues or pretend that he does not see them and he does not feel that he can afford to be an overly fastidious respecter of persons. He was not an unfeeling individual and he knew how to cherish and express profound deference for constituted authority and public office but when he sensed that "Something is rotten in the state ... " he was relentless in uncovering the festering realities that were lurking under misleading outward appearances. His Christian uprightness, his idealism and sense of fairness bound him to flay inequity and to denounce oppression of every kind. Hrobak did not produce his 35 issues of Slovakia singlehandedl y. He opened his colums to Slovak diplomats, statesmen, historians and leaders as well as to thinking Americans who also championed the cause of freedom, justice and truth, especially the concept of historical truth. His formal objective was openly published in a number of issues of Slovakia: SLOVAKIA 41 The chief purpose of Slovakia is to promote a better under standing and appreciation of the Slovak nation and its long struggle for freedom and independence. As Americans, members of the Slovak League of America believe that the Slovak nation, like all nations, has an interest and God-given right to freedom and independence. They are dedicated to the cause of the American way of life, Slovak freedom and world peace, and are determined to oppose the plague of communism and all other totalitarian political systems. Because this periodical was a vehicle of information to both a Slovak and a non-Slovak readership of serious intent, especially to American scholars, public officials, diplomats and university people, Hrobak made every effort to give it the widest possible dissemination into the homes and offices of American and foreign diplomats, politicians and public leaders as well as the libraries and departments of history and political science in many American colleges and universities. Of course, many average readers who sought to be well-informed also subscribed to it. Under Hrobak's gifted editorship and management, the circulation of Slovakia increased steadily. To provide the information and understanding that he had in mind, Hrobak attracted the most highly qualified of contributors to bring their works to Slovakia. Some of them were expatriated Slovak leaders and makers of Slovak history; some of them were scholars and historians of Slovak as well as non-Slovak origin; some were critics and analysts of political thought and nationalism; some were American legislators. Dr. Joseph M. Kirschbaum, a Slavistic scholar who taught and lectured at the University of Montreal in Canada produced a substantial article for practically every issue (30 articles in 37 issues, to be precise) . In the main, he examines the historical theses that warrant the existence of an autonomous Slovak state, basic principles and circumstances on which federation could be structured in central Europe, the subject of Slovakia and international relationships, the underlying causes of incompatability with Czech pretensions, the matter of Czech duplicity and oppressive arrogance, and Slovak politics past and present. His gifts, however, are multifaceted and out of the diversity of his 42 SLOVAKIA broad interests he also prepared papers on cultural topics such as: Slovak literature under the Soviet impact (VI, 2/ 19, pp. 34-51) , Mickiewicz in Slovak poetry and translations (VII, 1/22, pp. 32-41) , Universi ty traditions in Slovakia (VIII, 2/ 27, pp. 18-30), Contemporary tendencies in Slovak philology (X, 7/ 32, pp. 25-32) , The Canadian translator of Slovak poetry: Professor Watson Kirkconnell (XIV, 37, pp. 9-18). Dr. Kirschbaum consistently provided book reviews as well. Dr. Joseph Pauco has always been a faithful contributor also. He is a professional writer with a rich background in publishing and journalism. For a number of years he was editor-in-chief of the daily Slovak published in Bratislava. He lived through many a promising and too many a tragic experience in Slovak national life. He has tasted prosperity and good fortune as well as much disappointment at home and abroad. He is a journalist with the conviction that the editor, the reporter, the columnist is called to serve the people by illuminating facts, defending truth, and inspiring to action. These principles are embodied throughout his articles in Slovakia, most of which are devoted to political analysis and historical report; e.g. The practical aspect of federation (III, 2, pp. 26-36), The failures of communist politics in Slovakia (V, 4/ 17, pp. 3-20), The 1944 communist rebellion in Slovakia (VII, 3-4, 24/ 25, pp. 28-34) , and Slovakia under communism--which was serialized in three issues (IX, 30; X, 31 ; XI, 33 ). Among other significant contributors who brought enrichment to the early issues of Slovakia these must be mentioned: culen, Hrusovsky, Vnuk, Mikus, Sidor, Grebert, Cieker, t>urcansky, Murin, Rekem and Kruzliak. Their works are marked with the authority of those who had witnessed this history of Slovakia in the making and with the conviction of those who knew only too well what absolutes and what cause they were defending. Contributions on the scholarly level are thoroughly researched and documented; they are singularly important for their cultural value. With the aid of national figures like these, Philip Hrobak made of Slovakia a unique journal that analyzed SLOVAKIA 43 Slovak and Czech politics and exposed the truth and the falsity behind the facade of the Czecho-Slovak state. Still other contributors also expressed themselves in Slovakia. We meet on its pages, for example, a critical examination which Kurt Glaser made of Radio Free Europe: How free is Radio Free Europe-The Voice of Doubletalk? (II, 2, pp. 25-28) and The " Russia First" Boys in Radio Free Europe. (III, I, pp. 31-38) as well as several of his other articles. Edward L. Delaney also wrote incisively and perceptively on The Betrayal of Slovakia (I, 2, pp. 1-7), on Tiso, Horthy and Benes as well as his personal experiences I was in Slovakia (II, 1, pp. 25-45). Hrobak further drew upon American public officials to express their views in Slovakia also. He published their patriotic addresses and expressions of concern and sympathy for minority groups as well as related matters from diplomatic circles for the interest of readers of Slovakia. As one reviews back issues, one cannot help noting the contributions of congressmen and persons like Michael A. Feighan, Edward J. Bonin, Charles J. Kersten, B. Carroll Reece, Lieut. Col. F. 0. Miksche, Ray J. Madden. In volume one, no. two, we find some thoughts of Prince Adolf zu Schwarzenberg, head of one of the oldest families of Bohemia. Interestingly, his contribution is on Czech Double Dealing. By way of balancing this heavy concentration on political fare, Hrobak took pains to offer other reading matter too. Occasionally he would publish something as different as the English translation of a treasured Slovak folk tale. He also ran a series on castles in Slovakia as well as occasional articles on other cultural topics like Slovak museums, the natural beauty of the Slovak countryside, the national folk hero Janosik, a study in contrasting ~vejk vs. Janosik, the natural springs and the spas of Slovakia, considerations on semantics and philology, Slovak university life and traditions, insights into Slovak church music, various types of Slovak customs, historical essays, thumbnail biographies. He also presented a serialization of Slovak history that he himself wrote and a serious study Slovak Nationalism which was researched by B. S. Bue. Applicable excerpts from American journalism were SLOVAKIA 44 intended to provoke thought or reaction, and for this kind of prodding Hrobak quoted from The Washington Post, New York Times, the Cleveland Press, The Chicago Sun, the Brooklyn Daily Eagle, The Slavonic Monthly. He also culled from the Osservatore Romano, the Eudovy dennik of Chicago, cas (the official organ of Lettrich's Democratic Party and the Benes mouthpiece) as well as from other likely and unlikely sources. The personal trademark of Hrobak in these earlier issues of Slovakia was the filler feature titled Who Said It? Invariably these items were either ironic or revealing or they were couched in the full glow of patriotic ardor, depending on their portent. Hrobak felt that as a journalist he could not afford to be blandly genteel. He was dealing with subject matter that made demands on him to be ruthless rather that ineffectively mild. He knew that he had to be uncompromising rather than deferential. He was committed to the consideration of callous inequities and rank duplicity, and he needed the keenest of scalpels directed to the root of the issue. The Who Said It? feature was especially effective in quoting from Masaryk and Benes, Stransky and Lettrich, Peroutka and Ripka, Sramek and Gottwald. It held a full beam of light up to their pronouncements and exposed their ideas to re-evaluation. On the other hand, Hrobak also featured positive thinking from persons like Senator Robert A. Taft, Edward R. Murrow, H. W. Kaltenborn as well as from Dean Acheson, R. W. Seton-Watson, Congressman Daniel Flood and Alvin E. O'Konski. Readers found the material quoted in these fillers very apt, rather questionable, witty, thought-provoking or bitter. It was meant to be entertaining although an element of entertainment might sometimes develop out of it as a kind of byproduct. We present some samplings: "Some pussy-footing ostriches criticize the treaty between Soviet Russia and Czechoslovakia. Our close collaboration with the Soviet Union needs no explanation. We do not want anything from the Russians except protection from the Germans, and the Russians want nothing whatsoever from us." - Jan Masaryk in Business Week, May 13, 1944. (Slovakia vn, 2, p. 64). "The Slovak nation, one of the oldest Christian nations in SLOVAKIA 45 central Europe is distinct ethnic unit. Just as the Czechs are and want to remain Czechs, just so the Slovaks are and want to remain Slovaks. The history, culture and national traditions of the Slovak nation are distinct from the history, culture and national traditions of the Czechs. The Slovaks never were, nor are they now, a part of the Czech nation. Slovaks here and abroad resent being called Czechoslovaks." - P.A. Hrobak, Detroit, Mich., November 18, 1951 ( Slovakia IV, 3-4, p. 58) . RED GEOGRAPHY: The news service of the Central Slovak Catholic Bureau in Rome recently published a story about a certain school inspector of the Trnava district in Slovakia who gave directives to teachers on how to teach. Among other things he said that if nuns we:re able to interest children in a non-existe nt being, God, then the teachers certainly should be able to interest children in Stalin who actually exists. "The Marx-Lenin doctrines of our Stalin," he continued, "must be applied in all classes. For example, in geog:raphy you teach the children about the East and the West. Now you could say: The sun rises in the East; there is our g:reat Stalin, the sun of all the nations which enlightens all nations with his knowledge. The sun sets in the West; thel'le you find decayed capitalism, the treacherous bourgeoisie and murderous imperialism." -But most of the Slovak teachers and pupils prefer the advice of Horace Gre eley: Go West, young man! (Slovakia II, 2, p. 19) . No assignment that came to Philip Hrobak was too demanding or time consuming. As a journalist and as an American Slovak leader, Philip Hrobak was a fully committed person. After the University of California Press released a new printing of a 504 page book Czechoslovakia, edited by Robert J . Kerner, which was represented as "an honest, unprejudiced, and frank appraisal of the important contribution which the Czechoslovak nation made to the history of our time in its two decades of independence between two world wars," Philip Hrobak took the book under close scrutiny in order to examine its merits. Characteristically, he read it with balanced judgment and undertook a detailed search into the allegations that were made in the volume by the twenty collaborators who wrote their ideas into it. He made pertinent notes, comments and a record of his explanations and refutations. Subsequently, every issue of Slovakia from v. V., 2-3 (15-16) June-Sept. 1955 to v. VII, 3-4 (24-25) Sept.-Dec 1957 carried part of Hrobak's chapter by chapter analysis (through all 23 chapters) under the heading: "Professor 46 SLOVAKIA Kerner's CZECHOSLOVAKIA: History or Propaganda?" He granted, in all fairness, that the twenty writers who had contributed to the composite work were not necessarily dishonest or prejudiced but he did not yield the point that they had become Czech propagandists exporting established Masaryk-Benes theories at the expense of the Slovaks and their national history. In pointing out the errors and misconceptions of these writers and in refuting their specious theses, Hrobak could hardly help becoming occasionally vehement. It was in his very nature to be less than tolerant of that long standing tendency to relegate the Slovaks to second place or to no place at all, and this bias had again appeared through the pages of Kerner's work. It was part of Hrobak's scholarly conditioning that made him at least impatient with inept history that distorted authentic records and shaped a narrative fashioned to its own devising. In his refutations of error, both in this case and on other occasions, Hrobak set the record right by controverting claims that were all too easily made for an easy and ready acceptance. He did this by tracing his facts to prime sources for reference and documentation: He was especially skillful in drawing upon arguments and statements from Czech sources and authorities and he was often able to use this matter in order to substantiate his arguments and to confound some contemporary writers of history who had a way of misrepresentating facts. Nor was he above ridicule when the conditions were patently offered to invite ridicule. He had an instinct for examining promises made and conditions underscoring events that transpired in order to contrast them with promises honored and promises forgotten as well as with the aftermath of events that were shaped by the hard realities of circumstances. Summing it all up, he was a fearless and formidable adversary in the arena of fact vs. fiction, truth vs. deception. And in this encounter he did not shrink from handling the rhetoric and the claims of an entire collective force of writers not merely a single author. This was his consistent line of action. When it came to dealing with a denial of truth or with historic distortions, he did not stop to assess the odds. With him there were no SLOVAKIA 47 prohibitive odds when truth and justice were to be vindicated. There was only a matter of conscience and professional ethics to be heeded. Fired with this spirit and singlemindedness of purpose, Hrobak worked on tirelessly. From his editorial office in Middletown he steadfastly waged his crusade in the press. One can see why he indefatigably set out to flay injustice and denounce "the synthetic Czechoslovak state," why he castigated the execution of President Tiso as political murder and judicial murder, why he was preoccupied with the cause "history or propaganda?" as well as with the futility of efforts to fuse the Slovak and the Czech nations into one impossible amalgam, why he was concerned with matters of Church and state. Very often the choice of expression that appears either in his own work or in the writing of his contributors reflects the depth of his own feeling and betrays its real measure of intensity. Note these phrases by way of example: Benes "King of political cheats;" the " Russia first" boys in RFE; how the Czechs deceived us; intrigues and t he entrapment of individuals; Czechoslovak pseudo-democracy; the machinations of Czech Socialists . . . But Hrobak was by no means a hidden away recluse of some kind bound to his editorial desk. Besides being a gifted journalist and editor, he was also a dynamic fraternalist and a forceful lecturer. Through outstanding personal participation he became the soul of many a significant national movement especially through the Slovak League of America, the Matica Skolskd (Foundation to promote schooling and education) and the Priatelia slovenskej slobody (Friends of Slovak freedom). He distinguished himself as the motivating force in the Slovak League and, if figures are telling indicators of any kind, it is worth noting that within two years after he accepted the presidency of this organization, its membership increased by two thousand. After the guiding leadership of Hrobak had succeeded in establishing the Washington Office of Information, Dr. Joseph Mikus, the talented diplomat who headed this agency, made of it an invaluable department for public relations. Further, a notable program of sixty film showings 48 SLOVAKIA was received with widespread appreciation. More importantly still, various committees of the U.S. Congress charged with investigating the denial of rights under totalitarian aggression heard the testimony and an exposition of Slovak history from Philip Hrobak and gave attentive hearing to the testimony.of a number of Slovak witnesses who appealed against the situation behind the iron curtain. This series of sessions gave American officials in Washington a realistic representation of the sufferings to which a number of countries were being subjected in central Europe. It also provided a formal documentation of tactics that were enslaving the Slovak people. There was a special American subcommittee before which depositions were made about conditions in Slovakia and after these hearings, the full reports were printed in a publication titled Investigation of Communist Takeover and Occupation of Poland, Lithuania and Slovakia. Through the Washington Office of Information and the dynamism of Philip Hrobak excellent rapport was established with a number of American congressmen and statesmen who came to understand and feel for the plight of the Slovak people in their homeland. In 1954 Congressmen Kersten and Bentley openly manifested their interest in the Slovak cause. In 1955 Vice President Nixon expressed the sympathetic feeling of the administration in a written message that was addressed to the 34th congress of the Slovak League of America. In 1956 Secretary of State Dulles received an eight-member delegation of the Slovak League led by Philip Hrobak and engaged in animated discussion of vital topics with them. Philip Hrobak worked on and on with boundless devotion. It was very fitting then, that this dedication and wholehearted service was recognized when a public presentation of honor was made to him in 1957 in the course of the golden jubilee of the founding of the League. A special committee of Slovak leaders singled him out for the award designated as the Hlinka Cup. This was an unusually high honor, for the Hlinka Cup was a trophy which had never before been bestowed upon American soil. The address of presentation was made by Dr. Joseph M. Kirschbaum in recognition of Hrobak's merits as president SLOVAKIA 49 of the Slovak League of America, as an eminent and intrepid editor of Jednota and Slovakia, as an outstanding champion in American Slovak life, as the compiler of a grammar and a dictionary and "because with his aggressive elan, his perseverance and fearlessness both as a journalist and as an organizer, he personifies the finest qualities that had endowed not only :Cudovit stur (a leading patriot), but also the first recipient of the cup, Andrew Hlinka." In 1961 another public honor was conferred on Philip Hrobak. This was the Charles IV Award or Karl's Prize that was presented to him by the Sudeten German Council of West Germany. It is a recognition that is awarded annually to a political leader, scientist or publicist who has made an outstanding contribution to the concept of a United Europe. The ceremonies were held in Cologne on Sudeten German Day, May 20, with over 200,000 Sudeten German expellees participating. Mr. Hrobak responded to the honor with a glowing address titled "Self Determination for All." His words bespoke the aspirations and the innermost feelings of Sudeten Germans as well as of the Slovak people and other victims of self-rule denied under the crushing force of communism. Among other Americans who participated in this observance were U.S. Congressmen Morgan D. Moulder, Gordon H. Scherer, Roy A. Taylor, and Henry C. Schadeberg. Willy Brandt, the mayor of Berlin, and several other Sudeten German leaders also delivered addresses. In these numberless events and situations we cannot fail to see the greatness of Philip Hrobak as an American and Slovak patriot, as a man of ideals and of forceful action, as a fraternalist and an organizer but we must not overlook his stature as a man of God also. It must never be forgotten that Hrobak served God at least as well as he served his nation and his fellow man. Religious principles and obligations had first place in his life and his life style. All his zeal and purpose was rooted in the law and the love of God; his spending of self on behalf of others was within the Christian concept. He was as ready to promote and defend Christian virtue and idealism as he was to crusade for national honor and welfare. Although his days were incredibly crowded with constant activity, 50 SLOVAKIA he did not put God in second place in his personal life. As a teacher and educator, he was aware of the importance of Catholic schools. As a parent, he was solicitous about a genuinely Christian atmosphere in the home and true religious training in the family. As a journalist, he faithfully promoted the interests of the Church and ethical principles. That was the reason why he combated the atheistic and the Away-from-Rome! attitude that was being sponsored by some leaders in Czecho-Slovakia. As 1963 was moving in on the calendar, Philip Hrobak prepared copy for a special issue of Slovakia and for the Jednota publications that he managed and edited. Out of regard for the Christian heritage of the Slovak people, he began to prepare to honor the 1100th anniversary of the mission of SS. Cyril and Methodius to Great Moravia and the Christianization of the Slovak nation. The annuals that he prepared for this occasion became a kind of crown of excellence that climaxed his literary and scholarly output and gave singular expression to his religious devotion as well. Truly, as we review the life and the accomplishments of Philip Hrobak who would have been seventy years old this year, we have reason to thank God for his idealism and example, and we are impressed and inspired by this great man's patriotism, his scholarship, his leadership and his personal dynamism. Sr. Martina Tybor, SS.C.M. THE FAMOUS Slovak folk-dance group, "Lucnica," from Bratislava returned from a 6-weeks' tour of several South American. countries. The 47-member company represented the current silver jubilee ensemble. Lucnica was organized in 1948. THE HIGH TATRAS in Slovakia last year attracted 2 and ½ million tourists. An even larger number was expected in 1974.  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Philip A. Hrobak (1907-1964) Description An account of the resource Sr. Martina Tybor, SS.C.M. Slovakia, Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974 pp. 36-50 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Tybor, Sister M. Martina, SS.C.M. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 name https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/1490e3af0ce4f4bf4e4f464ec8e3e75a.pdf 131c2b78141c60a2a6af799da0952b80 PDF Text Text SLOVAKIA 51 MARCH 14, 1974: The 35th Anniversary of Slovak Independence Day By Andrew Pie r, O.S.B. Personal liberty is a God-given natural right to all men because the Creator bestowed intelligence and a conscience upon every man to whom he gave the power to make his own decisions freely. Every infringement on human freedom, therefore, is contrary to the will of God and a violation of God's natural law. When individuals are deprived of their freedom the inevitable result is oppression, and when the rights of any nation to free development are denied the consequence is tyranny. In 1976 the second centennial of American independence will be commemorated in celebration of the overthrow of British imperial tyranny two hundred years ago. The War of Independence was waged by the thirteen American colonies to establish political freedom in the new world. Their successful revolt marked a historic milestone in the struggle of modern man for human freedom, and the founding of the American republic served as a precedent and pattern for countries around the world. Aspiration to national freedom, democracy, self-government and statehood in regions inhabited by people speaking the same language, having the same or a similar culture, sharing the same religion, having developed a literature of its own, and cherishing a common tradition, are a natural outgrowth of the inner most desires of a kindred people to be free . The path to national sovereignity is not always a rosy one, for it is often bathed with the blood, sweat and tears �52 SLOVAEIA of men forced to wage a constant struggle to win freedom, and having won it, they must be eternally vigilant to maintain it. Untold sacrifices are the price of freedom in every age. At the end of World War I the Slovaks, after a thousand years of virtual serfdom, emerged victoriously on the brink of national freedom that was denied them until they declared their independence on March 14, 1939. For a brief span of six years they enjoyed national freedom in their own free Slovak Republic only to fall victims of the Yalta agreement by which freedom was wrested from them by force and they were incorporated once again in the CzechoSlovak state that was destined to become a satellite in the Soviet sphere of influence in central Europe. Self-appointe d champions of Czecho-Slovakia in which the Slovaks have invariably been treated as colonials, or at best as second-rate citizens, by the Czech politicians in Prague at first hailed the "liberation" of the country in World War II by the Russians, but they were disillusioned quickly when a communist regime was imposed upon what was marked at Teheran and Yalta as a Soviet satellite state in the heart of Europe. More than that, under unrelenting pressure from Moscow postwar Czecho-Slovakia became a communist country in which the citizen as a subject of the state lost his freedom . Six years ago in mid-August the Soviet invasion by five armies (forces of the USSR, East Germany, Poland, Bulgaria and Hungary) of an allied state reduced CzechoSlovakia virtually to a conquered country in which enemy military forces of occupation continue to enforce the will of Moscow. Liberation, so called, in 1945 led to a communist take over in 1948; and twenty years later (1968) the enslavement of a freedom-lovin g peoples, the Slovaks and Czechs, was completed by the unprovoked invasion of their lands by the self-styled champions of "a people's democracy" from the steppes of Eurasia. Despite the loss of their national freedom to the victorious conquerors of World War II, the Slovaks in their homeland have not ceased to aspire to their God-given �SLOVAKIA 53 right to freedom. Although their passive resistance to the communist system appears futile at the moment, they continue to hope for true liberation from the godless forces of communist tyranny, while their fellow countrymen in the free world keep alive their hope of ultimate liberation from the yoke of tyranny. Probably the most abused and misunderstood word in the English language is the simple word, "independence." And perhaps the least understood by many. All of us are interdependent ... we depend upon each other in so many ways: from infancy, through youth, adulthood and old age ... from the cradle to the grave. That's reality! How can we, therefore, speak of independence at all? In the sense that we have freedom of action, provided it does not encroach upon the freedom of others. Independence rules out subservience to an alien power, and it is exercised by free people who live in a prescribed area within which they rule themselves according to the principles of justice, freedom, truth and self-preservation, as well as under the inspiration of a spirit of esprit-decorps and the ideals of a well-ordered society under the authority of the law. Although in this form of society it is majority rule that dominates, there are provisions for the minority to voice their will-which on occasion has been known to predominate, for better or worse. Nevertheless, independence works in this way, too ... as we know it. Control of their national destiny was long denied the Slovaks, but for a brief period in their history of more than a dozen centuries in central Europe in their own free, Slovak Republic (1939-1945) they proved to themselves and to the whole world they are capable of self-rule if given the opportunity ... which they seized before the outbreak of the second World War and managed rather well in their self-governing state despite the handicaps imposed upon them, namely, the pressure of a powerful neighbor at war, as well as the hardship of a wartime economy since Slovakia was surrounded by nations engaged in a titanic struggle. While there are those who continue to downgrade the aspirations of the freedom-loving Slovaks and their desire for a self-governing state of their own, no true champion of liberty will deny them the right to be free. � SLOVAKIA 51 MARCH 14, 1974: The 35th Anniversary of Slovak Independence Day By Andrew Pie r, O.S.B. Personal liberty is a God-given natural right to all men because the Creator bestowed intelligence and a conscience upon every man to whom he gave the power to make his own decisions freely. Every infringement on human freedom, therefore, is contrary to the will of God and a violation of God's natural law. When individuals are deprived of their freedom the inevitable result is oppression, and when the rights of any nation to free development are denied the consequence is tyranny. In 1976 the second centennial of American independence will be commemorated in celebration of the overthrow of British imperial tyranny two hundred years ago. The War of Independence was waged by the thirteen American colonies to establish political freedom in the new world. Their successful revolt marked a historic milestone in the struggle of modern man for human freedom, and the founding of the American republic served as a precedent and pattern for countries around the world. Aspiration to national freedom, democracy, self-government and statehood in regions inhabited by people speaking the same language, having the same or a similar culture, sharing the same religion, having developed a literature of its own, and cherishing a common tradition, are a natural outgrowth of the inner most desires of a kindred people to be free . The path to national sovereignity is not always a rosy one, for it is often bathed with the blood, sweat and tears �52 SLOVAEIA of men forced to wage a constant struggle to win freedom, and having won it, they must be eternally vigilant to maintain it. Untold sacrifices are the price of freedom in every age. At the end of World War I the Slovaks, after a thousand years of virtual serfdom, emerged victoriously on the brink of national freedom that was denied them until they declared their independence on March 14, 1939. For a brief span of six years they enjoyed national freedom in their own free Slovak Republic only to fall victims of the Yalta agreement by which freedom was wrested from them by force and they were incorporated once again in the CzechoSlovak state that was destined to become a satellite in the Soviet sphere of influence in central Europe. Self-appointe d champions of Czecho-Slovakia in which the Slovaks have invariably been treated as colonials, or at best as second-rate citizens, by the Czech politicians in Prague at first hailed the "liberation" of the country in World War II by the Russians, but they were disillusioned quickly when a communist regime was imposed upon what was marked at Teheran and Yalta as a Soviet satellite state in the heart of Europe. More than that, under unrelenting pressure from Moscow postwar Czecho-Slovakia became a communist country in which the citizen as a subject of the state lost his freedom . Six years ago in mid-August the Soviet invasion by five armies (forces of the USSR, East Germany, Poland, Bulgaria and Hungary) of an allied state reduced CzechoSlovakia virtually to a conquered country in which enemy military forces of occupation continue to enforce the will of Moscow. Liberation, so called, in 1945 led to a communist take over in 1948; and twenty years later (1968) the enslavement of a freedom-lovin g peoples, the Slovaks and Czechs, was completed by the unprovoked invasion of their lands by the self-styled champions of "a people's democracy" from the steppes of Eurasia. Despite the loss of their national freedom to the victorious conquerors of World War II, the Slovaks in their homeland have not ceased to aspire to their God-given �SLOVAKIA 53 right to freedom. Although their passive resistance to the communist system appears futile at the moment, they continue to hope for true liberation from the godless forces of communist tyranny, while their fellow countrymen in the free world keep alive their hope of ultimate liberation from the yoke of tyranny. Probably the most abused and misunderstood word in the English language is the simple word, "independence." And perhaps the least understood by many. All of us are interdependent ... we depend upon each other in so many ways: from infancy, through youth, adulthood and old age ... from the cradle to the grave. That's reality! How can we, therefore, speak of independence at all? In the sense that we have freedom of action, provided it does not encroach upon the freedom of others. Independence rules out subservience to an alien power, and it is exercised by free people who live in a prescribed area within which they rule themselves according to the principles of justice, freedom, truth and self-preservation, as well as under the inspiration of a spirit of esprit-decorps and the ideals of a well-ordered society under the authority of the law. Although in this form of society it is majority rule that dominates, there are provisions for the minority to voice their will-which on occasion has been known to predominate, for better or worse. Nevertheless, independence works in this way, too ... as we know it. Control of their national destiny was long denied the Slovaks, but for a brief period in their history of more than a dozen centuries in central Europe in their own free, Slovak Republic (1939-1945) they proved to themselves and to the whole world they are capable of self-rule if given the opportunity ... which they seized before the outbreak of the second World War and managed rather well in their self-governing state despite the handicaps imposed upon them, namely, the pressure of a powerful neighbor at war, as well as the hardship of a wartime economy since Slovakia was surrounded by nations engaged in a titanic struggle. While there are those who continue to downgrade the aspirations of the freedom-loving Slovaks and their desire for a self-governing state of their own, no true champion of liberty will deny them the right to be free. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1974, Vol. 24 Description An account of the resource Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document SLOVAKIA 51 MARCH 14, 1974: The 35th Anniversary of Slovak Independence Day By Andrew Pie r, O.S.B. Personal liberty is a God-given natural right to all men because the Creator bestowed intelligence and a conscience upon every man to whom he gave the power to make his own decisions freely. Every infringement on human freedom, therefore, is contrary to the will of God and a violation of God's natural law. When individuals are deprived of their freedom the inevitable result is oppression, and when the rights of any nation to free development are denied the consequence is tyranny. In 1976 the second centennial of American independence will be commemorated in celebration of the overthrow of British imperial tyranny two hundred years ago. The War of Independence was waged by the thirteen American colonies to establish political freedom in the new world. Their successful revolt marked a historic milestone in the struggle of modern man for human freedom, and the founding of the American republic served as a precedent and pattern for countries around the world. Aspiration to national freedom, democracy, self-government and statehood in regions inhabited by people speaking the same language, having the same or a similar culture, sharing the same religion, having developed a literature of its own, and cherishing a common tradition, are a natural outgrowth of the inner most desires of a kindred people to be free . The path to national sovereignity is not always a rosy one, for it is often bathed with the blood, sweat and tears 52 SLOVAEIA of men forced to wage a constant struggle to win freedom, and having won it, they must be eternally vigilant to maintain it. Untold sacrifices are the price of freedom in every age. At the end of World War I the Slovaks, after a thousand years of virtual serfdom, emerged victoriously on the brink of national freedom that was denied them until they declared their independence on March 14, 1939. For a brief span of six years they enjoyed national freedom in their own free Slovak Republic only to fall victims of the Yalta agreement by which freedom was wrested from them by force and they were incorporated once again in the CzechoSlovak state that was destined to become a satellite in the Soviet sphere of influence in central Europe. Self-appointe d champions of Czecho-Slovakia in which the Slovaks have invariably been treated as colonials, or at best as second-rate citizens, by the Czech politicians in Prague at first hailed the "liberation" of the country in World War II by the Russians, but they were disillusioned quickly when a communist regime was imposed upon what was marked at Teheran and Yalta as a Soviet satellite state in the heart of Europe. More than that, under unrelenting pressure from Moscow postwar Czecho-Slovakia became a communist country in which the citizen as a subject of the state lost his freedom . Six years ago in mid-August the Soviet invasion by five armies (forces of the USSR, East Germany, Poland, Bulgaria and Hungary) of an allied state reduced CzechoSlovakia virtually to a conquered country in which enemy military forces of occupation continue to enforce the will of Moscow. Liberation, so called, in 1945 led to a communist take over in 1948; and twenty years later (1968) the enslavement of a freedom-lovin g peoples, the Slovaks and Czechs, was completed by the unprovoked invasion of their lands by the self-styled champions of "a people's democracy" from the steppes of Eurasia. Despite the loss of their national freedom to the victorious conquerors of World War II, the Slovaks in their homeland have not ceased to aspire to their God-given SLOVAKIA 53 right to freedom. Although their passive resistance to the communist system appears futile at the moment, they continue to hope for true liberation from the godless forces of communist tyranny, while their fellow countrymen in the free world keep alive their hope of ultimate liberation from the yoke of tyranny. Probably the most abused and misunderstood word in the English language is the simple word, "independence." And perhaps the least understood by many. All of us are interdependent ... we depend upon each other in so many ways: from infancy, through youth, adulthood and old age ... from the cradle to the grave. That's reality! How can we, therefore, speak of independence at all? In the sense that we have freedom of action, provided it does not encroach upon the freedom of others. Independence rules out subservience to an alien power, and it is exercised by free people who live in a prescribed area within which they rule themselves according to the principles of justice, freedom, truth and self-preservation, as well as under the inspiration of a spirit of esprit-decorps and the ideals of a well-ordered society under the authority of the law. Although in this form of society it is majority rule that dominates, there are provisions for the minority to voice their will-which on occasion has been known to predominate, for better or worse. Nevertheless, independence works in this way, too ... as we know it. Control of their national destiny was long denied the Slovaks, but for a brief period in their history of more than a dozen centuries in central Europe in their own free, Slovak Republic (1939-1945) they proved to themselves and to the whole world they are capable of self-rule if given the opportunity ... which they seized before the outbreak of the second World War and managed rather well in their self-governing state despite the handicaps imposed upon them, namely, the pressure of a powerful neighbor at war, as well as the hardship of a wartime economy since Slovakia was surrounded by nations engaged in a titanic struggle. While there are those who continue to downgrade the aspirations of the freedom-loving Slovaks and their desire for a self-governing state of their own, no true champion of liberty will deny them the right to be free.  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The 35th Anniversary of Slovak Independence Day Description An account of the resource Andrew Pier, O.S.B. Slovakia, Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974 pp. 51-53 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Pier, Andrew W., 1910-2003 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 name https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/05830a9f7b1891136ed86a28d6d1e32e.pdf b647e20e2ea1ed7c42b8774a34b61939 PDF Text Text 54 SLOVAKIA DR. PETER P. HLETKO American Slovaks Lost a Great Man With the passing of Dr. Peter P. Hletko on November 4, 1973 in the City of Chicago, the American Slovaks and all freedom loving Slovaks in the world lost one of their most illustrious sons. Exceptionally talented and devoted, he contributed his efforts in helping his beloved Slovak people here and behind the Iron Curtain. Deserving tribute was paid to him by the hierarchy, clergy, civic and business leaders, the Slovak World Congress, the Slovak League of America, the Slovak Catholic Federation of America and all the Slovak fraternal societies that he served so well in various capacities. OUTSTANDING CAREER In the course of the history of a people or a nation come individual man, who by the force of their personalities and their endeavors shape and determine the form and direction of the church, their people and their country. These men who are dreamers and who are doers . But the great ones are those who are both-dreamers and doers. They are the ones who set alight their hope and hearts upon the heights they seek to scale. They are the ones who light bright fires of their aspirations and give heart and direction to those who follow. Dr. Peter P. Hletko was such a man! Peter Paul Hletko, M. D., physician-surgeon, was born June 26, 1902 in Chicago, Illinois, the son of Martin and Catherine Hargas Hletko. His home was in Warrenville, Illinois and his office was at 2740 W. 55th Street, Chicago. In 1938 he married Anne E. Remijas. EDUCATION Hletko received his elementary education at St. Michael's School (1908-1915), Chicago. He attended St. Procopius �SLOVAKIA 55 Academy (1915-1919), Lisle, Illinois, and St. Procopius College (1919-1921). He attended De Paul University in Chicago from 1921 to 1923 and received his Bachelor of Science in Chemistry. In 1927 he received his Medical Degree (M.D.) from Loyola University, Chicago. PROFESSIONAL Dr. Hletko served on the resident staff of Cook County Hospital, Chicago, from 1927 to 1928. Besides his private practice, he was an instructor in clinical neurology at Loyola University Medical School from 1931 to 1935. He served as medical examiner of many insurance companies. From 1934 to 1939 he served as Supreme Medical Examiner for the National Slovak Society. From 1927 to 1964 he served as Supreme Medical Examiner of the Slovak Catholic Sokol and was Honorary Medical Examiner for the Society. Dr. Hletko was a member of the American Medical Association; Illinois Medical Association; Chicago Medical Association; and Medical Examiner of Municipal Court and Law Department Benefit and Pension Fund, Chicago, ( 19361961) . CIVIC AND CULTURAL In 1938 Dr. Hletko led a Slovak League of America delegation to Czecho-Slovakia in behalf of gaining recognition of the Pittsburgh Pact. Over 100,000 Slovaks gathered in Bratislava, the capitol of Slovakia as he and Msgr. Andrew Hlinka unveiled the original of the Pittsburgh Pact - an agreement that was to guarantee autonomy for the Slovak nation. The vast crowd roared: "Hlinka, Hletko daju vsetko" (Hlinka and Hletko will give everything!). The rest of his services for the Slovak people in a span of more than four decades reads like a special "Who's Who": President of the Slovak League of America (1935-1939 and 1962-64); Honorary President and Member of the Executive Committee of the Slovak League of America (1938-1973); Vice President of the Slovak Catholic Federation of America (1934); Supreme Officer of the Slovak Catholic Sokol and the National Slovak Society; a Member of the Executive �SLOVAKIA 56 Committee of the Slovak Catholic Sokol; organizer and first President of "Club Furdek"-(a Catholic Cultural Society, Chicago, 1929); and President of the Gage Park Savings and Loan Association, Chicago. AUTHOR-JOURN ALIST Dr. Hletko had a vast collection of manuscripts, documentary materials, books, complete volumes of publications, newspapers, and annuals. He made a contribution of his materials to the Jednota Museum in Middletown, Pa. To many of the publications he was a contributor, a columnist, editor, or author. The following is a list of Dr. Hletko's literary efforts: Author: The Slovaks and the Pittsburgh Pact (1934); wrote Iskry-a reprint of satirocomic column in the Osadne Hlasy (Slovak Parish News, 1931); edited the Slovak Catholic Sokol Cook Book, 1964; was a contributing editor of Osadne Hlasy (Chicago Parish News, 19271963); editor of Jara (Spring), English supplement to Jednota, official publication of the First Catholic Slovak Union, 1927-1936; editor of Chicagsky Dennik (Chicago Daily News, 1926-1927); served as the Chairman of the Literary Committee of the National Slovak Society, and was President of the Slovak Newspapermen's Association in America. In honor of his 70th birthday the Slovak League of America labeled 1972 "Dr. Peter Hletko Year" and designated a special award to him at the Slovak League of America Congress in Chicago. Joseph C. Kr a j s a REFERENCES Slovakia 1965-Published by the Slovak League of America, Middletown, Pennsylvania. Slovakia 1972-Published by the Slovak League of America, Middletown, Pennsylvania. "Slovaci a ich zivot," Jednota, March 17, 1971, p. 11, by Dr. Joseph Pauco. � 54 SLOVAKIA DR. PETER P. HLETKO American Slovaks Lost a Great Man With the passing of Dr. Peter P. Hletko on November 4, 1973 in the City of Chicago, the American Slovaks and all freedom loving Slovaks in the world lost one of their most illustrious sons. Exceptionally talented and devoted, he contributed his efforts in helping his beloved Slovak people here and behind the Iron Curtain. Deserving tribute was paid to him by the hierarchy, clergy, civic and business leaders, the Slovak World Congress, the Slovak League of America, the Slovak Catholic Federation of America and all the Slovak fraternal societies that he served so well in various capacities. OUTSTANDING CAREER In the course of the history of a people or a nation come individual man, who by the force of their personalities and their endeavors shape and determine the form and direction of the church, their people and their country. These men who are dreamers and who are doers . But the great ones are those who are both-dreamers and doers. They are the ones who set alight their hope and hearts upon the heights they seek to scale. They are the ones who light bright fires of their aspirations and give heart and direction to those who follow. Dr. Peter P. Hletko was such a man! Peter Paul Hletko, M. D., physician-surgeon, was born June 26, 1902 in Chicago, Illinois, the son of Martin and Catherine Hargas Hletko. His home was in Warrenville, Illinois and his office was at 2740 W. 55th Street, Chicago. In 1938 he married Anne E. Remijas. EDUCATION Hletko received his elementary education at St. Michael's School (1908-1915), Chicago. He attended St. Procopius �SLOVAKIA 55 Academy (1915-1919), Lisle, Illinois, and St. Procopius College (1919-1921). He attended De Paul University in Chicago from 1921 to 1923 and received his Bachelor of Science in Chemistry. In 1927 he received his Medical Degree (M.D.) from Loyola University, Chicago. PROFESSIONAL Dr. Hletko served on the resident staff of Cook County Hospital, Chicago, from 1927 to 1928. Besides his private practice, he was an instructor in clinical neurology at Loyola University Medical School from 1931 to 1935. He served as medical examiner of many insurance companies. From 1934 to 1939 he served as Supreme Medical Examiner for the National Slovak Society. From 1927 to 1964 he served as Supreme Medical Examiner of the Slovak Catholic Sokol and was Honorary Medical Examiner for the Society. Dr. Hletko was a member of the American Medical Association; Illinois Medical Association; Chicago Medical Association; and Medical Examiner of Municipal Court and Law Department Benefit and Pension Fund, Chicago, ( 19361961) . CIVIC AND CULTURAL In 1938 Dr. Hletko led a Slovak League of America delegation to Czecho-Slovakia in behalf of gaining recognition of the Pittsburgh Pact. Over 100,000 Slovaks gathered in Bratislava, the capitol of Slovakia as he and Msgr. Andrew Hlinka unveiled the original of the Pittsburgh Pact - an agreement that was to guarantee autonomy for the Slovak nation. The vast crowd roared: "Hlinka, Hletko daju vsetko" (Hlinka and Hletko will give everything!). The rest of his services for the Slovak people in a span of more than four decades reads like a special "Who's Who": President of the Slovak League of America (1935-1939 and 1962-64); Honorary President and Member of the Executive Committee of the Slovak League of America (1938-1973); Vice President of the Slovak Catholic Federation of America (1934); Supreme Officer of the Slovak Catholic Sokol and the National Slovak Society; a Member of the Executive �SLOVAKIA 56 Committee of the Slovak Catholic Sokol; organizer and first President of "Club Furdek"-(a Catholic Cultural Society, Chicago, 1929); and President of the Gage Park Savings and Loan Association, Chicago. AUTHOR-JOURN ALIST Dr. Hletko had a vast collection of manuscripts, documentary materials, books, complete volumes of publications, newspapers, and annuals. He made a contribution of his materials to the Jednota Museum in Middletown, Pa. To many of the publications he was a contributor, a columnist, editor, or author. The following is a list of Dr. Hletko's literary efforts: Author: The Slovaks and the Pittsburgh Pact (1934); wrote Iskry-a reprint of satirocomic column in the Osadne Hlasy (Slovak Parish News, 1931); edited the Slovak Catholic Sokol Cook Book, 1964; was a contributing editor of Osadne Hlasy (Chicago Parish News, 19271963); editor of Jara (Spring), English supplement to Jednota, official publication of the First Catholic Slovak Union, 1927-1936; editor of Chicagsky Dennik (Chicago Daily News, 1926-1927); served as the Chairman of the Literary Committee of the National Slovak Society, and was President of the Slovak Newspapermen's Association in America. In honor of his 70th birthday the Slovak League of America labeled 1972 "Dr. Peter Hletko Year" and designated a special award to him at the Slovak League of America Congress in Chicago. Joseph C. Kr a j s a REFERENCES Slovakia 1965-Published by the Slovak League of America, Middletown, Pennsylvania. Slovakia 1972-Published by the Slovak League of America, Middletown, Pennsylvania. "Slovaci a ich zivot," Jednota, March 17, 1971, p. 11, by Dr. Joseph Pauco. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1974, Vol. 24 Description An account of the resource Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document 54 SLOVAKIA DR. PETER P. HLETKO American Slovaks Lost a Great Man With the passing of Dr. Peter P. Hletko on November 4, 1973 in the City of Chicago, the American Slovaks and all freedom loving Slovaks in the world lost one of their most illustrious sons. Exceptionally talented and devoted, he contributed his efforts in helping his beloved Slovak people here and behind the Iron Curtain. Deserving tribute was paid to him by the hierarchy, clergy, civic and business leaders, the Slovak World Congress, the Slovak League of America, the Slovak Catholic Federation of America and all the Slovak fraternal societies that he served so well in various capacities. OUTSTANDING CAREER In the course of the history of a people or a nation come individual man, who by the force of their personalities and their endeavors shape and determine the form and direction of the church, their people and their country. These men who are dreamers and who are doers . But the great ones are those who are both-dreamers and doers. They are the ones who set alight their hope and hearts upon the heights they seek to scale. They are the ones who light bright fires of their aspirations and give heart and direction to those who follow. Dr. Peter P. Hletko was such a man! Peter Paul Hletko, M. D., physician-surgeon, was born June 26, 1902 in Chicago, Illinois, the son of Martin and Catherine Hargas Hletko. His home was in Warrenville, Illinois and his office was at 2740 W. 55th Street, Chicago. In 1938 he married Anne E. Remijas. EDUCATION Hletko received his elementary education at St. Michael's School (1908-1915), Chicago. He attended St. Procopius SLOVAKIA 55 Academy (1915-1919), Lisle, Illinois, and St. Procopius College (1919-1921). He attended De Paul University in Chicago from 1921 to 1923 and received his Bachelor of Science in Chemistry. In 1927 he received his Medical Degree (M.D.) from Loyola University, Chicago. PROFESSIONAL Dr. Hletko served on the resident staff of Cook County Hospital, Chicago, from 1927 to 1928. Besides his private practice, he was an instructor in clinical neurology at Loyola University Medical School from 1931 to 1935. He served as medical examiner of many insurance companies. From 1934 to 1939 he served as Supreme Medical Examiner for the National Slovak Society. From 1927 to 1964 he served as Supreme Medical Examiner of the Slovak Catholic Sokol and was Honorary Medical Examiner for the Society. Dr. Hletko was a member of the American Medical Association; Illinois Medical Association; Chicago Medical Association; and Medical Examiner of Municipal Court and Law Department Benefit and Pension Fund, Chicago, ( 19361961) . CIVIC AND CULTURAL In 1938 Dr. Hletko led a Slovak League of America delegation to Czecho-Slovakia in behalf of gaining recognition of the Pittsburgh Pact. Over 100,000 Slovaks gathered in Bratislava, the capitol of Slovakia as he and Msgr. Andrew Hlinka unveiled the original of the Pittsburgh Pact - an agreement that was to guarantee autonomy for the Slovak nation. The vast crowd roared: "Hlinka, Hletko daju vsetko" (Hlinka and Hletko will give everything!). The rest of his services for the Slovak people in a span of more than four decades reads like a special "Who's Who": President of the Slovak League of America (1935-1939 and 1962-64); Honorary President and Member of the Executive Committee of the Slovak League of America (1938-1973); Vice President of the Slovak Catholic Federation of America (1934); Supreme Officer of the Slovak Catholic Sokol and the National Slovak Society; a Member of the Executive SLOVAKIA 56 Committee of the Slovak Catholic Sokol; organizer and first President of "Club Furdek"-(a Catholic Cultural Society, Chicago, 1929); and President of the Gage Park Savings and Loan Association, Chicago. AUTHOR-JOURN ALIST Dr. Hletko had a vast collection of manuscripts, documentary materials, books, complete volumes of publications, newspapers, and annuals. He made a contribution of his materials to the Jednota Museum in Middletown, Pa. To many of the publications he was a contributor, a columnist, editor, or author. The following is a list of Dr. Hletko's literary efforts: Author: The Slovaks and the Pittsburgh Pact (1934); wrote Iskry-a reprint of satirocomic column in the Osadne Hlasy (Slovak Parish News, 1931); edited the Slovak Catholic Sokol Cook Book, 1964; was a contributing editor of Osadne Hlasy (Chicago Parish News, 19271963); editor of Jara (Spring), English supplement to Jednota, official publication of the First Catholic Slovak Union, 1927-1936; editor of Chicagsky Dennik (Chicago Daily News, 1926-1927); served as the Chairman of the Literary Committee of the National Slovak Society, and was President of the Slovak Newspapermen's Association in America. In honor of his 70th birthday the Slovak League of America labeled 1972 "Dr. Peter Hletko Year" and designated a special award to him at the Slovak League of America Congress in Chicago. Joseph C. Kr a j s a REFERENCES Slovakia 1965-Published by the Slovak League of America, Middletown, Pennsylvania. Slovakia 1972-Published by the Slovak League of America, Middletown, Pennsylvania. "Slovaci a ich zivot," Jednota, March 17, 1971, p. 11, by Dr. Joseph Pauco.  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Dr. Peter P. Hletko: American Slovaks Lost a Great Man Description An account of the resource Joseph C. Krajsa Slovakia, Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974 pp. 54-56 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Krajsa, Joseph C. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 LCNAF https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/b69dc446e19c457b5bc9d36fefbc52d5.pdf b3d7f3bfb36c1c412f2a2ee3116fa9e3 PDF Text Text SLOVAKIA 57 Slovak Destiny Stephen B . R o m a n, President SLOVAK WORLD CONGRESS There are moments in the lives of Slovaks when we are very clearly and sometimes very painfully aware of who we are, where we came from, and where we should be going. These intimate perceptions are not frequent. Usually they come when the volume and tempo of persistent cares diminish, or just before the making of a critical decision. At such times we intuitively understand our relationship and responsibility to ourselves, to our immediate and distant relatives and friends, to our nation, to mankind, and to God. Over a long period of time we developed a collective consciousness, a set of intrinsic values which blend together to create a common bond among us. We are products of a nation that has cherished and developed its distinct character over millennia, and which has absorbed a full range of human talents and achievements in that process. Every page of our history bears the imprint of pain and suffering-pain and suffering from which have emerged great values. We are descendants of a nation which was not large in numbers. A nation, which, over a period of time, had to confront wave after wave of stronger and more aggressive neighbors. These attackers conquered our fortresses and burnt down our settlements; but, they never broke our spirit. No wonder then that, in our nation, courage and tenacity have always triumphed over oppression and hardship. What we went through marked our national personality-deepened, and strengthened it. Our earliest forefathers found strength in the soil. This close tie with the land gave our nation its typical characteristics: industry, endurance, faith in ourselves, and faith in God. From a natural reconciliation with nature grew other virtues: the virtues of hospitality, of justice, of judgment, �58 SLOVAKIA and of creativity. The feeling of togetherness brought brotherhood. From oppression and want, we crystalized a sense of fair play. The reality of mortal life brought judgement; and, a growing quality in day-to-day life gave time for the enrichment of the soul. Who are we today? We are no more, and no less. than one generation in the development of this patricular spirit. We have inherited the gift of our history. We are to advance the tradition of our forefathers and, walk a few steps further along the road towards our human destiny, which they marched on over the centuries. We are the custodians of their virtues. We are the ones who were left to aggrandize their tradition; and, this makes us responsible for further progress both as members of our nation, and as part of the commonwealth of mankind. A talent has been passed on to us for which we are responsible, and which we have to return, with interest, in the spirit of the best tradition and trust in Divine Providence. Where do we go? We continue in the footsteps of our fathers, perhaps with greater strides, perhaps with a stronger will, hopefully with an ever higher goal: confident because of the firm steps behind us; responsible for so many steps ahead. Our successes will not be ours alone; they will be shared by the nation; they should penetrate into the consciousness of mankind. Each one of us adds in his own way; each one of us takes credit towards the overall account of this process. Our people have seen many a crisis. The last one seems to have no equal; the strong have seized our nation and our nation is, again, praying and suffering. Yet, though the enemy may take its comforts from it, for a time - silence it - they cannot obliterate our souls. Our nation will survive this current evil. Our task is to surmount this trial; to achieve new successes in the shape and execution of democracy and freedom. We must grow in our humanity, in our unshakeable self-confidence, in our will to enrich what we are. Only then will we have grown under the test-will w-e feel needed-will we have pride that we are judged by �SLOVAKIA 59 measures applicable to all mankind, and that we come out well in the balance. I believe that every nation has a Divine destiny to fulfill. Slovak destiny, although at times obscure, is to improve and enhance that part of the world where its influence can be a positive factor for genuine advancement of humanity. The solid value of the word of a Slovak and the uniquely spiritual warmth of the sons and daughters of Slovakia can be a radiant source of edification to others as they exemplify what can be accomplished by work and good will, for God and country. May the name SLOVAK soon begin to ring out melodiously in the steeples of the Family of Nations and strike a responsive chord of recognition in the hearts of all peoples. DR. STEPHEN LUCAS, associate professor of Elementary Education at Edinboro State College, has been elected President of the Pennsylvania Science Teachers Association. A member of the Board of Directors for the past two years, Dr. Lucas has contributed articles and papers to "The Pennsylvania Science Teacher and the Voice of P .S.T .A." The recipient of a Bachelor of Science degree from Clarion State College, Dr. Lucas received his Master of Education in Biology and his Doctor of Education Degree in science education from Pennsylvania State University. He did additional graduate work at Cornell University, University of Vermont, North Caroline State College and Bloomsburg State College. He is an American Slovak. � SLOVAKIA 57 Slovak Destiny Stephen B . R o m a n, President SLOVAK WORLD CONGRESS There are moments in the lives of Slovaks when we are very clearly and sometimes very painfully aware of who we are, where we came from, and where we should be going. These intimate perceptions are not frequent. Usually they come when the volume and tempo of persistent cares diminish, or just before the making of a critical decision. At such times we intuitively understand our relationship and responsibility to ourselves, to our immediate and distant relatives and friends, to our nation, to mankind, and to God. Over a long period of time we developed a collective consciousness, a set of intrinsic values which blend together to create a common bond among us. We are products of a nation that has cherished and developed its distinct character over millennia, and which has absorbed a full range of human talents and achievements in that process. Every page of our history bears the imprint of pain and suffering-pain and suffering from which have emerged great values. We are descendants of a nation which was not large in numbers. A nation, which, over a period of time, had to confront wave after wave of stronger and more aggressive neighbors. These attackers conquered our fortresses and burnt down our settlements; but, they never broke our spirit. No wonder then that, in our nation, courage and tenacity have always triumphed over oppression and hardship. What we went through marked our national personality-deepened, and strengthened it. Our earliest forefathers found strength in the soil. This close tie with the land gave our nation its typical characteristics: industry, endurance, faith in ourselves, and faith in God. From a natural reconciliation with nature grew other virtues: the virtues of hospitality, of justice, of judgment, �58 SLOVAKIA and of creativity. The feeling of togetherness brought brotherhood. From oppression and want, we crystalized a sense of fair play. The reality of mortal life brought judgement; and, a growing quality in day-to-day life gave time for the enrichment of the soul. Who are we today? We are no more, and no less. than one generation in the development of this patricular spirit. We have inherited the gift of our history. We are to advance the tradition of our forefathers and, walk a few steps further along the road towards our human destiny, which they marched on over the centuries. We are the custodians of their virtues. We are the ones who were left to aggrandize their tradition; and, this makes us responsible for further progress both as members of our nation, and as part of the commonwealth of mankind. A talent has been passed on to us for which we are responsible, and which we have to return, with interest, in the spirit of the best tradition and trust in Divine Providence. Where do we go? We continue in the footsteps of our fathers, perhaps with greater strides, perhaps with a stronger will, hopefully with an ever higher goal: confident because of the firm steps behind us; responsible for so many steps ahead. Our successes will not be ours alone; they will be shared by the nation; they should penetrate into the consciousness of mankind. Each one of us adds in his own way; each one of us takes credit towards the overall account of this process. Our people have seen many a crisis. The last one seems to have no equal; the strong have seized our nation and our nation is, again, praying and suffering. Yet, though the enemy may take its comforts from it, for a time - silence it - they cannot obliterate our souls. Our nation will survive this current evil. Our task is to surmount this trial; to achieve new successes in the shape and execution of democracy and freedom. We must grow in our humanity, in our unshakeable self-confidence, in our will to enrich what we are. Only then will we have grown under the test-will w-e feel needed-will we have pride that we are judged by �SLOVAKIA 59 measures applicable to all mankind, and that we come out well in the balance. I believe that every nation has a Divine destiny to fulfill. Slovak destiny, although at times obscure, is to improve and enhance that part of the world where its influence can be a positive factor for genuine advancement of humanity. The solid value of the word of a Slovak and the uniquely spiritual warmth of the sons and daughters of Slovakia can be a radiant source of edification to others as they exemplify what can be accomplished by work and good will, for God and country. May the name SLOVAK soon begin to ring out melodiously in the steeples of the Family of Nations and strike a responsive chord of recognition in the hearts of all peoples. DR. STEPHEN LUCAS, associate professor of Elementary Education at Edinboro State College, has been elected President of the Pennsylvania Science Teachers Association. A member of the Board of Directors for the past two years, Dr. Lucas has contributed articles and papers to "The Pennsylvania Science Teacher and the Voice of P .S.T .A." The recipient of a Bachelor of Science degree from Clarion State College, Dr. Lucas received his Master of Education in Biology and his Doctor of Education Degree in science education from Pennsylvania State University. He did additional graduate work at Cornell University, University of Vermont, North Caroline State College and Bloomsburg State College. He is an American Slovak. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1974, Vol. 24 Description An account of the resource Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document SLOVAKIA 57 Slovak Destiny Stephen B . R o m a n, President SLOVAK WORLD CONGRESS There are moments in the lives of Slovaks when we are very clearly and sometimes very painfully aware of who we are, where we came from, and where we should be going. These intimate perceptions are not frequent. Usually they come when the volume and tempo of persistent cares diminish, or just before the making of a critical decision. At such times we intuitively understand our relationship and responsibility to ourselves, to our immediate and distant relatives and friends, to our nation, to mankind, and to God. Over a long period of time we developed a collective consciousness, a set of intrinsic values which blend together to create a common bond among us. We are products of a nation that has cherished and developed its distinct character over millennia, and which has absorbed a full range of human talents and achievements in that process. Every page of our history bears the imprint of pain and suffering-pain and suffering from which have emerged great values. We are descendants of a nation which was not large in numbers. A nation, which, over a period of time, had to confront wave after wave of stronger and more aggressive neighbors. These attackers conquered our fortresses and burnt down our settlements; but, they never broke our spirit. No wonder then that, in our nation, courage and tenacity have always triumphed over oppression and hardship. What we went through marked our national personality-deepened, and strengthened it. Our earliest forefathers found strength in the soil. This close tie with the land gave our nation its typical characteristics: industry, endurance, faith in ourselves, and faith in God. From a natural reconciliation with nature grew other virtues: the virtues of hospitality, of justice, of judgment, 58 SLOVAKIA and of creativity. The feeling of togetherness brought brotherhood. From oppression and want, we crystalized a sense of fair play. The reality of mortal life brought judgement; and, a growing quality in day-to-day life gave time for the enrichment of the soul. Who are we today? We are no more, and no less. than one generation in the development of this patricular spirit. We have inherited the gift of our history. We are to advance the tradition of our forefathers and, walk a few steps further along the road towards our human destiny, which they marched on over the centuries. We are the custodians of their virtues. We are the ones who were left to aggrandize their tradition; and, this makes us responsible for further progress both as members of our nation, and as part of the commonwealth of mankind. A talent has been passed on to us for which we are responsible, and which we have to return, with interest, in the spirit of the best tradition and trust in Divine Providence. Where do we go? We continue in the footsteps of our fathers, perhaps with greater strides, perhaps with a stronger will, hopefully with an ever higher goal: confident because of the firm steps behind us; responsible for so many steps ahead. Our successes will not be ours alone; they will be shared by the nation; they should penetrate into the consciousness of mankind. Each one of us adds in his own way; each one of us takes credit towards the overall account of this process. Our people have seen many a crisis. The last one seems to have no equal; the strong have seized our nation and our nation is, again, praying and suffering. Yet, though the enemy may take its comforts from it, for a time - silence it - they cannot obliterate our souls. Our nation will survive this current evil. Our task is to surmount this trial; to achieve new successes in the shape and execution of democracy and freedom. We must grow in our humanity, in our unshakeable self-confidence, in our will to enrich what we are. Only then will we have grown under the test-will w-e feel needed-will we have pride that we are judged by SLOVAKIA 59 measures applicable to all mankind, and that we come out well in the balance. I believe that every nation has a Divine destiny to fulfill. Slovak destiny, although at times obscure, is to improve and enhance that part of the world where its influence can be a positive factor for genuine advancement of humanity. The solid value of the word of a Slovak and the uniquely spiritual warmth of the sons and daughters of Slovakia can be a radiant source of edification to others as they exemplify what can be accomplished by work and good will, for God and country. May the name SLOVAK soon begin to ring out melodiously in the steeples of the Family of Nations and strike a responsive chord of recognition in the hearts of all peoples. DR. STEPHEN LUCAS, associate professor of Elementary Education at Edinboro State College, has been elected President of the Pennsylvania Science Teachers Association. A member of the Board of Directors for the past two years, Dr. Lucas has contributed articles and papers to "The Pennsylvania Science Teacher and the Voice of P .S.T .A." The recipient of a Bachelor of Science degree from Clarion State College, Dr. Lucas received his Master of Education in Biology and his Doctor of Education Degree in science education from Pennsylvania State University. He did additional graduate work at Cornell University, University of Vermont, North Caroline State College and Bloomsburg State College. He is an American Slovak.  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Slovak Destiny Description An account of the resource Stephen B. Roman, President, Slovak World Congress Slovakia, Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974 pp. 57-59 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Roman, Stephen, 1921-1988 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 LCNAF https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/df353948399f5034df14401db3114502.pdf ad9b12e7af62c4acb9b45cf9bc721e8e PDF Text Text 60 SLOVAKIA Slovak League of America and Slovak World Congress Edward J . B e h u n c i k President of the Slovak League of America Remarks at the closing banque t - Slovak World Congress Saturday, June 30, 1973, Pick-Congress Hotel, Chicago, Illinois Tonight, as you did two years ago at Toronto, you do me the honor of having me as President of the Slovak League of America speak on behalf of the Slovak American organizations and societies. It is a great pleasure to join this assemblage where we find a greater amount of Slovak cultivation of mind, of natural genius, of everything which constitutes the development of Slovak intelligence than undoubtedly ever has assembled within the same space anywhere else except perhaps at another Slovak World Congress. Three years ago, week before last, we free men of Slovak origin made a great decision. With an unanimity so complete that it absolutely silenced opposition, we took our place formally against the schemes and purposes of the temporary oppressors of our brethren in subjugated Slovakia. We have a peculiar satisfaction today in the reflection that when we made the decision we made no reservation. We cast in all we had; we asked nothing for ourselves for, even if we had, our oppressed brethren could not, however they might wish, give us anything. But, we made no terms with anyone but ourselves. Our newly formed organization was to be, and is, open to all men af good will, freedom loving and God fearing, whether they be Protestant or Catholic, Gentile or Jew, irrespective of color or creed - only so long as they be Slovak, by origin or marriage. Immediately after that great decision, and largely as a result of that great decision, we soon became the target of the Communist dominated governments in the subjugated �SLOVAKIA 61 states of Eastern Europe, especially that of Prague. This action, however, merely proved that we had become a recognizable enemy, worthy of the attention of, and of interest to, the Prague stooges of Moscow. Today, I venture to say, that deep in the heart of every Slovak everywhere throughout the globe, - and even for a brief time on the moon when Slovak Astronaut Ceman was aloft - there is a feeling of pride, pride about which we grow more certain everyday; pride over something we did that we believe will be endorsed absolutely by history, and vrill be the richest heritage we can leave to our children; pride not merely because we were able, at this time of crisis in Slovak history, to strike a giant blow in the interests of humanity but pride primarily because we struck that blow unselfishly. Your very presence at this Chicago Congress reinvigorates and revives all the impulses which earlier gripped and drove us on and made us worthy morally and with dedication to undertake to germinate the noble idea of a Slovak World Congress. We are now in a time of progress - that means advancement not retrogression, improvement not decay; it means accomplishment not failure, it means onward and forward. And so we must go or we will merely be making the Congress a factor only inside our small parochial circles. This we must not do! For if we regress instead of progress, if our drift is away from and not toward its highest ideals and traditions, slowly but surely the vitality which sustains the Slovak World Congress will slip away, and I say, without hesitation, that our Congress and the Slovak cause will cease to appeal to intelligent men. It will become nothing but an empty shell, a jargon of titles and platitudes - for we will be following the shadow and not the substance. That we must not permit it to become. And I am confident that we will not. No matter what previous opinions we have entertained, �62 SLOVAKIA no matter what we may charge to the past lack of cooperation between our various groups, no matter what our own ideas of the future relations of these groups - our paramount duty for the present and future is, as I said at Toronto, and again here repeat - to rise above all selfish contributions , all jealousies, all prejudices and give the Slovak people the true Slovak ideals - the best there is in us. This is the day of test for free Slovaks everywhere, but it is also the day of priceless opportunity. And those who today spend their treasure and give of their blood and energy in this sacred cause will have their memory perpetuated for all time. First, as the true defenders of freedom, then as the true children of our institutions those who learned from our fathers and retained the simple lessons of trust. This trust is the sincere trust in Almighty God and in the principles of justice that He has put in the hearts of men. Let us then look and move forward and onward as we fight and struggle not only for ourselves and our brethren in Slovakia but for future generations as well. Because if we do, then those who come after us will enjoy the freedom which will have been bought by our contributions of time, energy, money and dedicated devotion. Thus, we will be fully carrying out our duties as energetic and inspired members of our Slovak World Congress. Thus, I am fully confident, we will move forward in peace and harmony. And thus, we will help our subjugated brothers and sisters in oppressed Slovakia to approach the dream of Milton, where he says: Methinks I see in my mind a noble and puissant nation rousing herself like a strong man after sleep, and shaking her invincible locks; Methinks I see her as an eagle mewing her mighty youU and kindling her un<lazzled eyes at the full midday beam . . . � 60 SLOVAKIA Slovak League of America and Slovak World Congress Edward J . B e h u n c i k President of the Slovak League of America Remarks at the closing banque t - Slovak World Congress Saturday, June 30, 1973, Pick-Congress Hotel, Chicago, Illinois Tonight, as you did two years ago at Toronto, you do me the honor of having me as President of the Slovak League of America speak on behalf of the Slovak American organizations and societies. It is a great pleasure to join this assemblage where we find a greater amount of Slovak cultivation of mind, of natural genius, of everything which constitutes the development of Slovak intelligence than undoubtedly ever has assembled within the same space anywhere else except perhaps at another Slovak World Congress. Three years ago, week before last, we free men of Slovak origin made a great decision. With an unanimity so complete that it absolutely silenced opposition, we took our place formally against the schemes and purposes of the temporary oppressors of our brethren in subjugated Slovakia. We have a peculiar satisfaction today in the reflection that when we made the decision we made no reservation. We cast in all we had; we asked nothing for ourselves for, even if we had, our oppressed brethren could not, however they might wish, give us anything. But, we made no terms with anyone but ourselves. Our newly formed organization was to be, and is, open to all men af good will, freedom loving and God fearing, whether they be Protestant or Catholic, Gentile or Jew, irrespective of color or creed - only so long as they be Slovak, by origin or marriage. Immediately after that great decision, and largely as a result of that great decision, we soon became the target of the Communist dominated governments in the subjugated �SLOVAKIA 61 states of Eastern Europe, especially that of Prague. This action, however, merely proved that we had become a recognizable enemy, worthy of the attention of, and of interest to, the Prague stooges of Moscow. Today, I venture to say, that deep in the heart of every Slovak everywhere throughout the globe, - and even for a brief time on the moon when Slovak Astronaut Ceman was aloft - there is a feeling of pride, pride about which we grow more certain everyday; pride over something we did that we believe will be endorsed absolutely by history, and vrill be the richest heritage we can leave to our children; pride not merely because we were able, at this time of crisis in Slovak history, to strike a giant blow in the interests of humanity but pride primarily because we struck that blow unselfishly. Your very presence at this Chicago Congress reinvigorates and revives all the impulses which earlier gripped and drove us on and made us worthy morally and with dedication to undertake to germinate the noble idea of a Slovak World Congress. We are now in a time of progress - that means advancement not retrogression, improvement not decay; it means accomplishment not failure, it means onward and forward. And so we must go or we will merely be making the Congress a factor only inside our small parochial circles. This we must not do! For if we regress instead of progress, if our drift is away from and not toward its highest ideals and traditions, slowly but surely the vitality which sustains the Slovak World Congress will slip away, and I say, without hesitation, that our Congress and the Slovak cause will cease to appeal to intelligent men. It will become nothing but an empty shell, a jargon of titles and platitudes - for we will be following the shadow and not the substance. That we must not permit it to become. And I am confident that we will not. No matter what previous opinions we have entertained, �62 SLOVAKIA no matter what we may charge to the past lack of cooperation between our various groups, no matter what our own ideas of the future relations of these groups - our paramount duty for the present and future is, as I said at Toronto, and again here repeat - to rise above all selfish contributions , all jealousies, all prejudices and give the Slovak people the true Slovak ideals - the best there is in us. This is the day of test for free Slovaks everywhere, but it is also the day of priceless opportunity. And those who today spend their treasure and give of their blood and energy in this sacred cause will have their memory perpetuated for all time. First, as the true defenders of freedom, then as the true children of our institutions those who learned from our fathers and retained the simple lessons of trust. This trust is the sincere trust in Almighty God and in the principles of justice that He has put in the hearts of men. Let us then look and move forward and onward as we fight and struggle not only for ourselves and our brethren in Slovakia but for future generations as well. Because if we do, then those who come after us will enjoy the freedom which will have been bought by our contributions of time, energy, money and dedicated devotion. Thus, we will be fully carrying out our duties as energetic and inspired members of our Slovak World Congress. Thus, I am fully confident, we will move forward in peace and harmony. And thus, we will help our subjugated brothers and sisters in oppressed Slovakia to approach the dream of Milton, where he says: Methinks I see in my mind a noble and puissant nation rousing herself like a strong man after sleep, and shaking her invincible locks; Methinks I see her as an eagle mewing her mighty youU and kindling her un<lazzled eyes at the full midday beam . . . � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1974, Vol. 24 Description An account of the resource Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document 60 SLOVAKIA Slovak League of America and Slovak World Congress Edward J . B e h u n c i k President of the Slovak League of America Remarks at the closing banque t - Slovak World Congress Saturday, June 30, 1973, Pick-Congress Hotel, Chicago, Illinois Tonight, as you did two years ago at Toronto, you do me the honor of having me as President of the Slovak League of America speak on behalf of the Slovak American organizations and societies. It is a great pleasure to join this assemblage where we find a greater amount of Slovak cultivation of mind, of natural genius, of everything which constitutes the development of Slovak intelligence than undoubtedly ever has assembled within the same space anywhere else except perhaps at another Slovak World Congress. Three years ago, week before last, we free men of Slovak origin made a great decision. With an unanimity so complete that it absolutely silenced opposition, we took our place formally against the schemes and purposes of the temporary oppressors of our brethren in subjugated Slovakia. We have a peculiar satisfaction today in the reflection that when we made the decision we made no reservation. We cast in all we had; we asked nothing for ourselves for, even if we had, our oppressed brethren could not, however they might wish, give us anything. But, we made no terms with anyone but ourselves. Our newly formed organization was to be, and is, open to all men af good will, freedom loving and God fearing, whether they be Protestant or Catholic, Gentile or Jew, irrespective of color or creed - only so long as they be Slovak, by origin or marriage. Immediately after that great decision, and largely as a result of that great decision, we soon became the target of the Communist dominated governments in the subjugated SLOVAKIA 61 states of Eastern Europe, especially that of Prague. This action, however, merely proved that we had become a recognizable enemy, worthy of the attention of, and of interest to, the Prague stooges of Moscow. Today, I venture to say, that deep in the heart of every Slovak everywhere throughout the globe, - and even for a brief time on the moon when Slovak Astronaut Ceman was aloft - there is a feeling of pride, pride about which we grow more certain everyday; pride over something we did that we believe will be endorsed absolutely by history, and vrill be the richest heritage we can leave to our children; pride not merely because we were able, at this time of crisis in Slovak history, to strike a giant blow in the interests of humanity but pride primarily because we struck that blow unselfishly. Your very presence at this Chicago Congress reinvigorates and revives all the impulses which earlier gripped and drove us on and made us worthy morally and with dedication to undertake to germinate the noble idea of a Slovak World Congress. We are now in a time of progress - that means advancement not retrogression, improvement not decay; it means accomplishment not failure, it means onward and forward. And so we must go or we will merely be making the Congress a factor only inside our small parochial circles. This we must not do! For if we regress instead of progress, if our drift is away from and not toward its highest ideals and traditions, slowly but surely the vitality which sustains the Slovak World Congress will slip away, and I say, without hesitation, that our Congress and the Slovak cause will cease to appeal to intelligent men. It will become nothing but an empty shell, a jargon of titles and platitudes - for we will be following the shadow and not the substance. That we must not permit it to become. And I am confident that we will not. No matter what previous opinions we have entertained, 62 SLOVAKIA no matter what we may charge to the past lack of cooperation between our various groups, no matter what our own ideas of the future relations of these groups - our paramount duty for the present and future is, as I said at Toronto, and again here repeat - to rise above all selfish contributions , all jealousies, all prejudices and give the Slovak people the true Slovak ideals - the best there is in us. This is the day of test for free Slovaks everywhere, but it is also the day of priceless opportunity. And those who today spend their treasure and give of their blood and energy in this sacred cause will have their memory perpetuated for all time. First, as the true defenders of freedom, then as the true children of our institutions those who learned from our fathers and retained the simple lessons of trust. This trust is the sincere trust in Almighty God and in the principles of justice that He has put in the hearts of men. Let us then look and move forward and onward as we fight and struggle not only for ourselves and our brethren in Slovakia but for future generations as well. Because if we do, then those who come after us will enjoy the freedom which will have been bought by our contributions of time, energy, money and dedicated devotion. Thus, we will be fully carrying out our duties as energetic and inspired members of our Slovak World Congress. Thus, I am fully confident, we will move forward in peace and harmony. And thus, we will help our subjugated brothers and sisters in oppressed Slovakia to approach the dream of Milton, where he says: Methinks I see in my mind a noble and puissant nation rousing herself like a strong man after sleep, and shaking her invincible locks; Methinks I see her as an eagle mewing her mighty youU and kindling her un<lazzled eyes at the full midday beam . . .  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Slovak League of America and Slovak World Congress Description An account of the resource Edward J. Behuncik, President of the Slovak League of America Slovakia, Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974 pp. 60-62 Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Behuncik, Edward J. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 name https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/10aed17015a5abecf03124d945932fa2.pdf 13ba17b6c0a62ac1bcb8fadc80beabd4 PDF Text Text SLOVAKIA 63 Slovaks Abroad and Their Role in Slovakia's Struggle /or Freed om J. M. Ki rs ch b au m, Ph.D. National struggles for emancipation from foreign rule were fought in East Central Europe for more than a century on two fronts: at home, and by emigres abroad. During the first World War and again during the Second World War, leading Western Powers gave to various emigre groups formal recognition to become the official representatives of their native countries. In so doing, they helped to establish a tradition which, in time of political oppression, assigns to emigres the role of interpreters of the national aspirations of the people in their country of origin. Slovakia is one of the Central European countries in which this tradition has played an important role. At the end of the First World War, Slovakia was freed from Hungarian rule above all by the efforts of Slovaks who settled in the United States and by Slovak legionaries fighting on the side of the victorious powers. This gave American Slovaks and all Slovaks abroad not only recognition and a new sense of patriotism but also a consciousness of their mission to speak on behalf of the Slovak people when they are silenced. Political developments in Slovakia after the Second World War brought disappointment even to those who desired the restoration of Czecho-Slovakia and favored Soviet expansion in Central Europe. The introduction of a rigid centralism instead of the promised autonomy, the ruthless replacement of parliamentary democracy by the Stalinist system, political and religious persecution, economic discrimination and prohibition of contacts with Western countries, could not leave Slovaks abroad indifferent to the fate of the Slovak people. American Slovaks together with Slovaks in other Western countries, strengthened by thousands of political emigres as well as by those who were deceived in their attempts at co-operation with the Communists, resumed the role of interpreters of the �64 SLOVAKIA aspirations of the Slovak people for freedom, democracy and independence . In 1968 when the attempts to reform the political and economic system imposed on Slovakia by Moscow and Prague failed and "socialism with human face" was crushed under the tanks of the Warsaw Pact military forces, a new wave of Slovak emigrants found refuge in Western countries. This new situation prompted Slovaks abroad to rally their forces for intensified political and cultural activities within the framework of the Slovak World Congress, founded in the City of New York in June 1970. The aims and goals of the Congress were defined as follows: "Slovaks living throughout the entire world, many of whom were born in the United States and elsewhere, accept as a moral duty the necessity to unite in the struggle for the natural rights of the Slovak nation and for the complete freedom in the determinatio n of its destinies. We consider it our obligation to present to the world a true picture of the life and aspirations of the Slovak nation for a free and democratic way of life. Today we are more acutely aware of this duty in view of the fact that the regime which has been forced upon the Slovak nation is opposed to the national traditions of Slovakia and the country is occupied by the military forces of a foreign Great Power. Therefore, in view of the foregoing: We subscribe to the traditional values of Slovak history which have promoted the re-birth of our nation, its growth and its acceptance in western civilization among cultured nations; We contend that the Slovak question is an international problem and therefore we request that international justice be done Slovakia, justice that would be expressed in full democratic statehood; We take a positive attitude towards the process of integration in Europe and we demand that the Slovak nation be given the right to participate freely and directly in this process. �SLOVAKIA 65 We desire and hope that the situation in Central and Eastern Europe will change so that there will no longer be any obstacle towards establishing and maintaining cultural exchanges between the Slovaks at home and abroad which present conditions in Slovakia either make completely impossible, or allow only in a restricted sense." Among the main tasks of the Slovak World Congress are the activities aiming at acquainting the Western world with the history, culture and the present political situation in Slovakia. The Congress fulfills this task through the activities of its individual and constitutional members and their press. Some of the best known authors of books on Slovakia and political scientists and historians are leading figures of the Congress. The institutional members, mostly large Slovak organizations, help to fulfill this role in their press and, publishing activities, by memoranda and so on. Three publications by the Congress are destined to achieve the same aim. Before the Second General Meeting of the Congress in Toronto in 1971, the Slovak World Congress published its first publication: Slovakia - Historical and Cultural Background (Toronto, 1971). Two authors, Prof. J. A. Mikus and Prof. J. M. Kirschbaum, outlined in concise chapters the historical and cultural developments in Slovakia since the appearance of Slovaks in Central Europe in order to correct many misconceptions about the Slovak political and cultural history. The book gives, however, only basic information and, therefore, to fill the gap in presenting Slovakia to the West, the Congress organized a Conference on Slovakia, and the papers which were delivered at the Conference by more than 20 scholars were published in the volume: Slovakia in the 19th and 20th Centuries (Toronto, 1973).1 The aim of this book - as expressed in the Preface by S. B. Roman - is "to contribute to the search for historical truth about Slovaks and thereby to help better understanding and co-operation among the nations of Central Europe. It is our firm belief that peoples of that vital area can regain their political freedom and build their future only in close co-operation and only if each recognize the equal rights to independence that each has." 1) For evaluation of the book see Book reviews. �66 SLOVAKIA The book is divided into four parts which deal with Slovak national philosophy; Slovak politics in the 19th and 20th centuries; the relations of Slovakia with her neighbors, and with the attitude of Slovaks abroad towards Slovakia. All the authors, of whom four are of non-Slovak origin, examined in a scholarly manner Slovak political and cultural developments. The book presents at the same time "a confrontation of views on the Slovak past and present, as there are among the Slovak contributors two generations and two schools of thought," as the editor of the book stressed. The Slovak World Congress published also a German publication: Der Weltkongress der Slowaken - Seine Ziele und sein Program (Koln, 1973) 2 for informing political and cultural circles in Western Europe about the aims and goals of Slovaks abroad in their struggle for freedom and independence of Slovakia. In view of the fact that the fate of the peoples of Central Europe was decided in modern history by the Great Powers, it is by means of informing Western political and cultural circles about the national aspirations of the Slovak people that Slovaks abroad could help their native country to regain freedom and democracy. The above publications are destined to serve this aim, but they are hopefully only the beginning of a series of books by Slovak intellectuals in the democratic countries of the Western hemisphere. At the Third General Meeting of the Slovak World Congress, a survey of Slovaks active in various scientific fields, prepared by this writer, would indicate that at the present time there is a considerable number of scientists whose writings and activities have not yet been absorbed in this struggle for international recognition of political and cultural identity of the Slovak people. When this intellectual force will also be integrated into the activities for recognition of equal political and cultural rights of the Slovak people with other civilized nations, Slovaks abroad will remedy to a great degree the lack of communication between Slovakia and the Western countries, which has been caused by the policy of the regimes imposed on the Slovak people since 1945 by foreign powers. 2) For details see Book reviews. � SLOVAKIA 63 Slovaks Abroad and Their Role in Slovakia's Struggle /or Freed om J. M. Ki rs ch b au m, Ph.D. National struggles for emancipation from foreign rule were fought in East Central Europe for more than a century on two fronts: at home, and by emigres abroad. During the first World War and again during the Second World War, leading Western Powers gave to various emigre groups formal recognition to become the official representatives of their native countries. In so doing, they helped to establish a tradition which, in time of political oppression, assigns to emigres the role of interpreters of the national aspirations of the people in their country of origin. Slovakia is one of the Central European countries in which this tradition has played an important role. At the end of the First World War, Slovakia was freed from Hungarian rule above all by the efforts of Slovaks who settled in the United States and by Slovak legionaries fighting on the side of the victorious powers. This gave American Slovaks and all Slovaks abroad not only recognition and a new sense of patriotism but also a consciousness of their mission to speak on behalf of the Slovak people when they are silenced. Political developments in Slovakia after the Second World War brought disappointment even to those who desired the restoration of Czecho-Slovakia and favored Soviet expansion in Central Europe. The introduction of a rigid centralism instead of the promised autonomy, the ruthless replacement of parliamentary democracy by the Stalinist system, political and religious persecution, economic discrimination and prohibition of contacts with Western countries, could not leave Slovaks abroad indifferent to the fate of the Slovak people. American Slovaks together with Slovaks in other Western countries, strengthened by thousands of political emigres as well as by those who were deceived in their attempts at co-operation with the Communists, resumed the role of interpreters of the �64 SLOVAKIA aspirations of the Slovak people for freedom, democracy and independence . In 1968 when the attempts to reform the political and economic system imposed on Slovakia by Moscow and Prague failed and "socialism with human face" was crushed under the tanks of the Warsaw Pact military forces, a new wave of Slovak emigrants found refuge in Western countries. This new situation prompted Slovaks abroad to rally their forces for intensified political and cultural activities within the framework of the Slovak World Congress, founded in the City of New York in June 1970. The aims and goals of the Congress were defined as follows: "Slovaks living throughout the entire world, many of whom were born in the United States and elsewhere, accept as a moral duty the necessity to unite in the struggle for the natural rights of the Slovak nation and for the complete freedom in the determinatio n of its destinies. We consider it our obligation to present to the world a true picture of the life and aspirations of the Slovak nation for a free and democratic way of life. Today we are more acutely aware of this duty in view of the fact that the regime which has been forced upon the Slovak nation is opposed to the national traditions of Slovakia and the country is occupied by the military forces of a foreign Great Power. Therefore, in view of the foregoing: We subscribe to the traditional values of Slovak history which have promoted the re-birth of our nation, its growth and its acceptance in western civilization among cultured nations; We contend that the Slovak question is an international problem and therefore we request that international justice be done Slovakia, justice that would be expressed in full democratic statehood; We take a positive attitude towards the process of integration in Europe and we demand that the Slovak nation be given the right to participate freely and directly in this process. �SLOVAKIA 65 We desire and hope that the situation in Central and Eastern Europe will change so that there will no longer be any obstacle towards establishing and maintaining cultural exchanges between the Slovaks at home and abroad which present conditions in Slovakia either make completely impossible, or allow only in a restricted sense." Among the main tasks of the Slovak World Congress are the activities aiming at acquainting the Western world with the history, culture and the present political situation in Slovakia. The Congress fulfills this task through the activities of its individual and constitutional members and their press. Some of the best known authors of books on Slovakia and political scientists and historians are leading figures of the Congress. The institutional members, mostly large Slovak organizations, help to fulfill this role in their press and, publishing activities, by memoranda and so on. Three publications by the Congress are destined to achieve the same aim. Before the Second General Meeting of the Congress in Toronto in 1971, the Slovak World Congress published its first publication: Slovakia - Historical and Cultural Background (Toronto, 1971). Two authors, Prof. J. A. Mikus and Prof. J. M. Kirschbaum, outlined in concise chapters the historical and cultural developments in Slovakia since the appearance of Slovaks in Central Europe in order to correct many misconceptions about the Slovak political and cultural history. The book gives, however, only basic information and, therefore, to fill the gap in presenting Slovakia to the West, the Congress organized a Conference on Slovakia, and the papers which were delivered at the Conference by more than 20 scholars were published in the volume: Slovakia in the 19th and 20th Centuries (Toronto, 1973).1 The aim of this book - as expressed in the Preface by S. B. Roman - is "to contribute to the search for historical truth about Slovaks and thereby to help better understanding and co-operation among the nations of Central Europe. It is our firm belief that peoples of that vital area can regain their political freedom and build their future only in close co-operation and only if each recognize the equal rights to independence that each has." 1) For evaluation of the book see Book reviews. �66 SLOVAKIA The book is divided into four parts which deal with Slovak national philosophy; Slovak politics in the 19th and 20th centuries; the relations of Slovakia with her neighbors, and with the attitude of Slovaks abroad towards Slovakia. All the authors, of whom four are of non-Slovak origin, examined in a scholarly manner Slovak political and cultural developments. The book presents at the same time "a confrontation of views on the Slovak past and present, as there are among the Slovak contributors two generations and two schools of thought," as the editor of the book stressed. The Slovak World Congress published also a German publication: Der Weltkongress der Slowaken - Seine Ziele und sein Program (Koln, 1973) 2 for informing political and cultural circles in Western Europe about the aims and goals of Slovaks abroad in their struggle for freedom and independence of Slovakia. In view of the fact that the fate of the peoples of Central Europe was decided in modern history by the Great Powers, it is by means of informing Western political and cultural circles about the national aspirations of the Slovak people that Slovaks abroad could help their native country to regain freedom and democracy. The above publications are destined to serve this aim, but they are hopefully only the beginning of a series of books by Slovak intellectuals in the democratic countries of the Western hemisphere. At the Third General Meeting of the Slovak World Congress, a survey of Slovaks active in various scientific fields, prepared by this writer, would indicate that at the present time there is a considerable number of scientists whose writings and activities have not yet been absorbed in this struggle for international recognition of political and cultural identity of the Slovak people. When this intellectual force will also be integrated into the activities for recognition of equal political and cultural rights of the Slovak people with other civilized nations, Slovaks abroad will remedy to a great degree the lack of communication between Slovakia and the Western countries, which has been caused by the policy of the regimes imposed on the Slovak people since 1945 by foreign powers. 2) For details see Book reviews. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1974, Vol. 24 Description An account of the resource Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document SLOVAKIA 63 Slovaks Abroad and Their Role in Slovakia's Struggle /or Freed om J. M. Ki rs ch b au m, Ph.D. National struggles for emancipation from foreign rule were fought in East Central Europe for more than a century on two fronts: at home, and by emigres abroad. During the first World War and again during the Second World War, leading Western Powers gave to various emigre groups formal recognition to become the official representatives of their native countries. In so doing, they helped to establish a tradition which, in time of political oppression, assigns to emigres the role of interpreters of the national aspirations of the people in their country of origin. Slovakia is one of the Central European countries in which this tradition has played an important role. At the end of the First World War, Slovakia was freed from Hungarian rule above all by the efforts of Slovaks who settled in the United States and by Slovak legionaries fighting on the side of the victorious powers. This gave American Slovaks and all Slovaks abroad not only recognition and a new sense of patriotism but also a consciousness of their mission to speak on behalf of the Slovak people when they are silenced. Political developments in Slovakia after the Second World War brought disappointment even to those who desired the restoration of Czecho-Slovakia and favored Soviet expansion in Central Europe. The introduction of a rigid centralism instead of the promised autonomy, the ruthless replacement of parliamentary democracy by the Stalinist system, political and religious persecution, economic discrimination and prohibition of contacts with Western countries, could not leave Slovaks abroad indifferent to the fate of the Slovak people. American Slovaks together with Slovaks in other Western countries, strengthened by thousands of political emigres as well as by those who were deceived in their attempts at co-operation with the Communists, resumed the role of interpreters of the 64 SLOVAKIA aspirations of the Slovak people for freedom, democracy and independence . In 1968 when the attempts to reform the political and economic system imposed on Slovakia by Moscow and Prague failed and "socialism with human face" was crushed under the tanks of the Warsaw Pact military forces, a new wave of Slovak emigrants found refuge in Western countries. This new situation prompted Slovaks abroad to rally their forces for intensified political and cultural activities within the framework of the Slovak World Congress, founded in the City of New York in June 1970. The aims and goals of the Congress were defined as follows: "Slovaks living throughout the entire world, many of whom were born in the United States and elsewhere, accept as a moral duty the necessity to unite in the struggle for the natural rights of the Slovak nation and for the complete freedom in the determinatio n of its destinies. We consider it our obligation to present to the world a true picture of the life and aspirations of the Slovak nation for a free and democratic way of life. Today we are more acutely aware of this duty in view of the fact that the regime which has been forced upon the Slovak nation is opposed to the national traditions of Slovakia and the country is occupied by the military forces of a foreign Great Power. Therefore, in view of the foregoing: We subscribe to the traditional values of Slovak history which have promoted the re-birth of our nation, its growth and its acceptance in western civilization among cultured nations; We contend that the Slovak question is an international problem and therefore we request that international justice be done Slovakia, justice that would be expressed in full democratic statehood; We take a positive attitude towards the process of integration in Europe and we demand that the Slovak nation be given the right to participate freely and directly in this process. SLOVAKIA 65 We desire and hope that the situation in Central and Eastern Europe will change so that there will no longer be any obstacle towards establishing and maintaining cultural exchanges between the Slovaks at home and abroad which present conditions in Slovakia either make completely impossible, or allow only in a restricted sense." Among the main tasks of the Slovak World Congress are the activities aiming at acquainting the Western world with the history, culture and the present political situation in Slovakia. The Congress fulfills this task through the activities of its individual and constitutional members and their press. Some of the best known authors of books on Slovakia and political scientists and historians are leading figures of the Congress. The institutional members, mostly large Slovak organizations, help to fulfill this role in their press and, publishing activities, by memoranda and so on. Three publications by the Congress are destined to achieve the same aim. Before the Second General Meeting of the Congress in Toronto in 1971, the Slovak World Congress published its first publication: Slovakia - Historical and Cultural Background (Toronto, 1971). Two authors, Prof. J. A. Mikus and Prof. J. M. Kirschbaum, outlined in concise chapters the historical and cultural developments in Slovakia since the appearance of Slovaks in Central Europe in order to correct many misconceptions about the Slovak political and cultural history. The book gives, however, only basic information and, therefore, to fill the gap in presenting Slovakia to the West, the Congress organized a Conference on Slovakia, and the papers which were delivered at the Conference by more than 20 scholars were published in the volume: Slovakia in the 19th and 20th Centuries (Toronto, 1973).1 The aim of this book - as expressed in the Preface by S. B. Roman - is "to contribute to the search for historical truth about Slovaks and thereby to help better understanding and co-operation among the nations of Central Europe. It is our firm belief that peoples of that vital area can regain their political freedom and build their future only in close co-operation and only if each recognize the equal rights to independence that each has." 1) For evaluation of the book see Book reviews. 66 SLOVAKIA The book is divided into four parts which deal with Slovak national philosophy; Slovak politics in the 19th and 20th centuries; the relations of Slovakia with her neighbors, and with the attitude of Slovaks abroad towards Slovakia. All the authors, of whom four are of non-Slovak origin, examined in a scholarly manner Slovak political and cultural developments. The book presents at the same time "a confrontation of views on the Slovak past and present, as there are among the Slovak contributors two generations and two schools of thought," as the editor of the book stressed. The Slovak World Congress published also a German publication: Der Weltkongress der Slowaken - Seine Ziele und sein Program (Koln, 1973) 2 for informing political and cultural circles in Western Europe about the aims and goals of Slovaks abroad in their struggle for freedom and independence of Slovakia. In view of the fact that the fate of the peoples of Central Europe was decided in modern history by the Great Powers, it is by means of informing Western political and cultural circles about the national aspirations of the Slovak people that Slovaks abroad could help their native country to regain freedom and democracy. The above publications are destined to serve this aim, but they are hopefully only the beginning of a series of books by Slovak intellectuals in the democratic countries of the Western hemisphere. At the Third General Meeting of the Slovak World Congress, a survey of Slovaks active in various scientific fields, prepared by this writer, would indicate that at the present time there is a considerable number of scientists whose writings and activities have not yet been absorbed in this struggle for international recognition of political and cultural identity of the Slovak people. When this intellectual force will also be integrated into the activities for recognition of equal political and cultural rights of the Slovak people with other civilized nations, Slovaks abroad will remedy to a great degree the lack of communication between Slovakia and the Western countries, which has been caused by the policy of the regimes imposed on the Slovak people since 1945 by foreign powers. 2) For details see Book reviews.  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Slovaks Abroad and Their Role in Slovakia's Struggle for Freedom Description An account of the resource J. M. Kirschbaum, Ph.D. Slovakia, Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974 pp. 63-66 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Kirschbaum, Jozef M., 1913-2001 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 SNK https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/f94875fc8f747e7995fc4eecf1cdeba6.pdf 1b7642a3332fca6d163ffb00092d6b6d PDF Text Text SLOVAKIA 67 Jozef Pa u co, Ph.D.: Slovak Pioneers Ln America REVEREND GREGORY VANISCAK, O.S.B. (JULY 24, 1884-JANUARY 15, 1938) Father Furdek's accomplishments in behalf of the Slovak people by organizing the two Jednotas and the Slovak League of America and Father Jankola's achievement of being the founder of the Religious Order of the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius in Danville, Pa. were supplemented by Father Vaniscak's founding of the Slovak abbey of the Order of St. Benedict in Cleveland, Ohio. These three men constitute the most glorious trio of Slovak Catholic leaders in America. The future founder of the Slovak Benedictine Abbey of St. Andrew Svorad in Cleveland, Ohio, namely, Jan Vaniscak, came to the United States as a 16-year old youth from the village of Lemesany, saris district, Slovakia, to join his brother, Andrew, in the city of Johnstown, Pa. Three years later through the efforts of Rev. Jan Martvo:n, pastor of St. Stephen's Slovak parish there, and Father Matus Jankola, Jan Vaniscak was enrolled at St. Procopius Benedictine College in Lisle, Illinois. As a zealous student and a pious, warm-hearted youth he became a leader among the Slovak students at Lisle. Under his guidance and inspiration several of his colleagues became attracted to the Benedictine way of life and soon shared his vision of establishing a Slovak Benedictine monastery. Foremost among these were the following: Francis Gmuca, destined to become the first abbot of the future St. Andrew's Abbey, his name in the Benedictine Order was Stanislaus; Father George (Stephen) Luba, who became the first principal of the new Benedictine High School in 1927 at St. Andrew's Priory, East 51st Street and Superior Avenue; Father Celestine Drexler, who did pioneer pastoral work for the new community; Father Leo Rehak, pastor of St. Benedict's parish in Cleveland for many years; Father Ivan Kramoris, principal at Benedictine High School and editor of the zenska Jednota semi-monthly publication �68 SLOVAKIA for a number of years; Father Charles Florek, who succeeded Father Gregory as pastor of St. Michael's in Chicago. These were the charter members of the Abbey. Father Gregory (his name in the Religious Order of St. Benedict) Vaniscak was ordained on June 6, 1914, and offered up his first solemn Mass in St. Stephen's Church, Johnstown, Pa. on June 14, 1914. He was immediately appointed pastor of the large flourishing Slovak parish of St. Michael's in Chicago. During his pastorate of approximately 15 years Father Gregory built a new school, a convent for the school sisters and a parsonage. The parish soon became a leading Slovak religious, cultural and national center in the heart of South Chicago. While at St. Procopius College and Seminary Father Gregory established life-long friendship with the following future priests: Father Malinak, Msgr. Hrtanek, Msgr. Kocis, Father Krispinsky, Msgr. Begalla, Msgr. Hamrak, Father Barlok, Father Banik, Father Fecko, also with outstanding lay leaders, among them Adam Podkrivacky, Julius Badzik and Philip Hrobak. Father Gregory's dream of having a Slovak Benedictine monastery was realized when he was elected conventual prior of St. Andrew's Priory in Cleveland, Ohio in the fall of 1929. The ground had been laid for the new foundation in February of 1922 when a dependent priory was established at St. Andrew's parish, East 51st Street and Superior Avenue by Abbot Valentine Kohlbeck, 0. S. B. and the monastic Chapter at St. Procopius Abbey in Lisle, Illinois. Father Stanislaus Gmuca, O.S.B., assistant to Father Gregory at St. Michael's parish in Chicago, was appointed prior of the fledging community in Cleveland at St. Andrew's dependent priory. Moreover, in the fall of 1927 Father George Luba, the newly-appointed principal of the Benedictine High School, welcomed a Freshman class of 27 boys to the new school at the priory. Two years later both the priory and school were moved to the new site at 10510 Buckeye Road and East Boulevard. Rev. Paschal Kavulic, O.S.B. transferred to St. Andrew's Abbey from St. Vincent's Archabbey in the late 1920's. The new monastic nucleus added the following clerical candidates : Frs. Wendelin Kravec, Michael Jasko, Gilbert Stopko, Sylvester Prise and John Zeman, O.S.B. At this time, too, �SLOVAKIA 69 the monastic community was increased by Brothers Method Tokarcik, Nicholas Pekar, Martin Seckar, Florian Halcin and Victor Repon, as well as by clerics at the beginning of the 1930's: Fratres Theodore Kojis, Daniel Novak, Joseph Bue, Stephen Sramek, Andrew Pier, Anthony Bachleda, Benedict Dobrancin, Paul Taracko. This was only the beginning of the fulfillment of Father Gregory's life-long dream, for he envisioned a college, a seminary and eventually a university. Although this rather grandiose dream was not to become a reality, nevertheless, the priory was elevated to the status of an abbey by the Holy See in 1934 and the 13-member chapter of St. Andrew's Priory (now with abbatial rank) was entitled to vote for its first abbot. Accordingly, on August 8, 1934, Father Stanislaus Gmuca, O.S.B. was elected. The many activities of Father Gregory exacted their toll and, as an inevitable consequence, his health began to fail noticeably after the election of the first abbot. Nevertheless, he accepted the position of pastor at St. Andrew's parish where he continued to fulfill his pastoral duties faithfully until he succumbed to a fatal heart attack on January 15, 1938. Thus at the age of 53 the life of an inspiring Slovak Benedictine monk came to a sudden end. Father Gregory's writings remain as an immortal legacy of his cultural and religious endeavors, namely, the many articles in the Ave Maria magazine which he edited for several years, his translation of the Holy Rule of St. Benedict and a brief life history of the Patriarch of the West, his Holy Name Manuel, the Way of the Cross, a Catechism and his Slovak grammar, and many articles that appeared in Slovak periodicals throughout the country. During World War I Father Gregory was in the forefront of the struggle for the liberation of the Slovak nation from Magyar rule. When the Slovaks joined the Czechs in forming Czecho-Slovakia, he refused to accept a medal from the new state because the government in Prague failed to live up to the promise of self-government in Slovakia. Michael Bosak, Sr., a leading American Slovak banker and patriot and intimate friend of Father Gregory's, also refused the proffered honor for meritorious service in behalf of the liberation of the Slovaks from foreign rule. �70 SLOVAKIA Slovaks everywhere mourned the death of Father Gregory Vaniscak, a foremost Slovak Benedictine in America, the founder of St. Andrew Svorad Abbey in Cleveland, an indefatigable worker, a zealous priest, a great Slovak patriot and a faithful servant of the Lord in His wineyard who labored perseveringly until the end for God, our Country and the Slovak nation under God. SOURCES Slovenske relwle v Amerike (Slovak Religious Orders in America), Fr. Hrusovsky, Ph.D., Slovak Institute, Cleveland, Ohio, 1955. Dve sviite hodiny (Two Holy Hours ), Jednota, February 2, 1938 by Rev. Paschal Kavulic, O.S.B. Slovensky samostatny priorcit (The Slovak Independent Priory), Jednota kalendar, 1931, by Rev. Gregor K.Vaniscak, O.S.B. Rehor K. Vanisccik, O.S.B. (Tribute in the Jednota kalendar, 1931). Several eye-witnesses of the events recorded, also first-hand account of all Benedictine personalities mentioned from persons who knew them personally. FATHER JOSEPH J. DUL1K (SEPTEMBER 10, 1884-AUGUST 26, 1936) As I look over the list of accomplishments of our Slovak pioneer priests, I invariably say to myself: "All deserved to be honored highly for innumerable religious and cultural contributions. But not one of them received due recognition for a lifetime of devoted service and noble endeavor in behalf of our Slovak people." Father f>ulik was one of the most deserving leaders among our Slovak clergy. In a comparatively brief span of life, Father :t.>ulik as a priest accomplished extraordinary services for the Slovak immigrants. An ideal priest, he labored indefatigably with true apostolic zeal for the cause of Christ. He was a veritable lighthouse of faith. His widespread influence among Slovak Catholic organizations inspired them to foster the highest ideals of our national, religious and cultural traditions and yet he vanished from the scene of American Slovak life virtually unknown, except among his own compatriots. A SERVANT OF GOD Father Joseph :t.>ulik was born in Rovne, Trencin district, Slovakia, on September 10, 1884. His parents were Jan and Katarina f>ulik (nee Podkrivacky). After completing his �SLOVAKIA 71 college education in Bratislava, zilina and Nitra he emigrated to the United States in 1904. He was enrolled in the diocesan seminary in Brooklyn, N. Y. where he was ordained five years later, on May 9, 1909. The new priest's first appointment was in an Irish parish, but he was soon given the assignment of organizing the Slovak parish of the Holy Family. In a short while he built a church and a rectory. Here he remained until November 12, 1912, when he was called to St. Michael's parish in Jessup, Pa. Before being transferred on March 1, 1916, to the Holy Ghost Slovak parish in Olyphant, Pa. he built a new school. Father t.>ulik was destined to remain in Olyphant until his untimely death twenty years later. Father !:>ulik's pastorate in Olyphant was marked by the building of a new church, a rectory and a Slovak cultural center-the latter in the renovated old church edifice. The parish under his inspiring leadership became the focal point of Slovak national and cultural activity in the entire area. Olyphant's Slovak community had complete confidence in Father f>ulik who devoted himself wholeheartedly to the spiritual, social and cultural welfare of his people. But his influence soon extended far beyond the confines of his parish, for he became involved in an extensive Slovak Catholic program that affected the destiny of the Slovak nation in America and in its native homeland. Moreover, he promoted a healthy ecumenical spirit in his personal intimate relationship with the Slovaks of the Lutheran faith. 1 A PILLAR IN THE SLOVAK CATHOLIC FEDERATION OF AMERICA At a critical time when it was necessary to maintain a proper perspective of the situation, it was Father t.>ulik's prudent leadership, honest convictions and genuine love for his people that brought him into national focus as a truly great leader in American Slovak life. After the first World War it was his role to win the Slovak Catholics to a pro-Hlinka outlook. In order to mitivate them in this direction Father t.>ulik made a decisive break with a number of organizations that did not share his views. As president of the Slovak Catholic Federation �72 SLOVAKIA he wrote a distinct chapter in the history of the Slovak nation, particularly as it affected his co-religionists. Even before his election as president of the federation, Father t'.>ulik had made his mark in Slovak national life. Had it not been for his initiative and the cooperation of Father Jan Kubasek (Yonkers, N. Y.) in 1919 the American Slovaks might have become sorely disunited. Under the auspices of the Slovak Catholic Federation, Father Anton Gracik was sent to Slovakia to invite a delegation of the Slovak People's Party (led by Andrej Hlinka) for a visit to America. The need for an exchange of views and united action in behalf of Slovak autonomy was a vital necessity because at a decisive stage of the Slovak nation's struggle for freedom the Slovak League of America, for lack of proper leadership, had lost its course and the mass of the American Slovaks was in a quandary. Soon after the coming of the Slovak delegation from overseas the matter was cleared up and the American Slovaks were again marching in the right direction. Father Joseph Rudinsky, a delegate of the Slovak People's Party, convinced the officers of the Slovak Catholic Federation to call a meeting of Slovak clergy and officers of all the Slovak societies in Pittsburgh, Pa. on November 19 and 20, 1919. Father t'.>ulik presided at the priests' meeting on November 19 and it was unanimously decided to support the program for Slovakia's autonomy in the frame-work of the newly-established Republic of CzechoSlovakia.2 The Slovak press throughout America hailed the announcement that was approved the following day by representatives of the various Slovak societies. At the above conference a proposal by Father i'.>ulik that a demand for the immediate release of Father Andrej Hlinka from prison be addressed to President Masaryk and that autonomy be put into effect in Slovakia ( an official paragraph in the Paris Peace Treaty) was adopted unanimously. 3 These measures were adopted at the convention of the Sdruzenie Slovenskych Katolikov ( Slovak Catholic Federation) on December 18, 1919, in Scranton, Pa. and Father t'.>ulik was elected president.4 On January 14, 1920, Father i'.>ulik called an executive meeting of the federation which voted 100,000 crowns to Andrej Hlinka, decided to issue a commemorative stamp �SLOVAKIA 73 in his honor and added a sum of $5,000 for Catholic action in Slovakia. Father Joseph Rudinsky, and Joseph Kubala, the two delegates from Slovakia, were assured that the federation was completely in accord with the Hlinka movement for autonomy, and, as if to confirm this policy, they were named to the positions of organizer and assistant secretary of the Slovak Catholic Federation.5 Under Father !>ulik's leadership a nationwide newspaper campaign was inaugurated to demand the acceptance and ratification of the Pittsburgh Pact in Czecho-Slovakia. The Memorandum adopted by the central executive committee of the federation on April 7, 1920, was sent to the Slovak leaders in Slovakia. An outline of the reasons for insisting that the Pittsburgh Pact be adopted officially by the new government of Czecho-Slovakia was attached to the Memorandum that called attention to the fact that President Masaryk had personally signed the document guaranteeing Slovak autonomy. Moreover, a supplementary denial of any agreement with irridentist Magyar elements accompanied the Memorandum. Father !>ulik's signature to the document proved beyond a doubt that he was a dedicated patriot of the Slovak nation.6 Twenty thousand members in 189 assemblies throughout the United States were enrolled as members in less than a year before the Slovak Catholic Federation held its convention on October 13 and 14 in Chicago in 1920.7 Demands for Slovakia's autonomy were reiterated at t his convention in Chicago.8 Father f>ulik, spokesman for t he delegates representing the majority of the Slovaks in America, declared that failure to grant autonomy to the Slovak nation would make President Masaryk and his cohorts a laughing-stock before the whole world. 9 SUPREME CHAPLAIN OF THE FIRST CATHOLIC SLOVAK UNION (JEDNOTA) Outstanding personalities in the early pioneer days built First Catholic Slovak Union on strong foundations . Father !>ulik was one of the foremost leaders of the era, closely behind in influence to Fathers Furdek and Jankola. As the last of the remarkable trio in the first quarter of �74 SLOVAKIA the 20th century, his was a highly influential career in both our national and fraternal life as one of our greatest Jednota leaders who served the society and our common cause with distinction and honor until the end of his life. Jednota's 22nd national convention in Scranton, Pa. in 1926 saw the emergence of a new set of leaders, among them John Sabol who was destined to serve as supreme secretary for four decades. Andrej Hlinka was the guest of honor at this convention that elected him as Jednota's honorary supreme chaplain for life. It was a great moment for the Slovaks in America, and for Slovaks everywhere. The great champion of Slovak liberty was given a standing ovation after a special proclamation, expressing gratitude to him for his sacrifices in behalf of the Slovak nation, was read, and assurances were given that the Jednota stood behind him 100 % in the struggle to win Slovak national freedom and self-governing statehood according to the Pittsburgh Pact. At the same convention the Jednota delegates elected Father t:>ulik as the supreme chaplain, as if to place him alongside Hlinka upon whom they had conferred the honorary title of chaplain for life. 10 Recognized as a veritable golden link between the old and young, Father Dulik was re-elected at the New York convention in 1928 11 and again at the Detroit convention in 1931.12 Much more can be said of Father Dulik than merely to note that he had been elected and re-elected as supreme chaplain several times. His influence in both the Jednota and the Slovak Catholic Federation left an indelible mark on both organizations in which his official priestly office and dignity, moral power and love of the Slovak nation and American patriotism proved to be unmistakably great assets for unquestioned leadership in his time. At a critical stage in the history of the Slovaks in America whose influence was felt in their native homeland across the Atlantic, when it was somewhat popular to downgrade the Church and religion in general, the Jednota was the bulwark of the Faith of our Fathers. When Magyar chauvinists stopped at nothing to destroy the Slovak national spirit, it was the Jednota that provided the resources and the power to withstand the assaults of these foes of �SLOVAKIA 75 Slovak freedom, foes who unfortunately sometimes found recruits for their ranks among ambitious or naive Slovaks themselves! Jednota leaders were not content to merely maintam a defensive position. They launched an effective offensive to rout the enemy and establish the natural right of the Slovak nation to its own democratic self-government in line with the Wilsonian principle of 'self-determinatio n for all nations.' Historically, it must be registered that the Jednota, from the highest officer to the last member, met the challenge of both the ancient and modern foes of Slovak freedom and helped immeasurably to liberate the Slovaks from Magyar rule in Hungary.13 Moral values for Father nulik rated an A-1 priority. Thus, the Jednota for him was a vital factor in Catholic action, and, thank God, under the truly Christian-inspired leadership of such leaders as Father Dulik the Jednota can rightfully and proudly claim that its policies have been guided by spiritual motives rather than material interests that are too often motivated by mere expediency. "Unique is the proper world to describe the total achievements of the Jednota, for it is undoubtedly great to have an organization with many thousands of members, to have a rich treasury, to have order and discipline, all of which have to a greater or less extent, as a matter of fact, but it is a far greater asset to cherish and foster our ancient Christian faith and traditions and to excel in moral virtue that contributed far more to our society in America than mere material wealth. I re-affirm unequivocally that the millions we have given out in benefits and that we shall distribute in the future cannot equal in value the spiritual benefits that have accrued to our members, Slovak nation and America directly as fruits of Jednota leadership in the past decades." 14 Father Dulik was fully aware of the vita! role of the Jednota, but he realized, too, that its work ultimately depended upon human beings. He always gave his full support, therefore, to his colleagues. His friendship with Joseph Husek, a noted journalist, was particularly strong and effective among the American Slovaks. These two complemented each other in the struggle for unity among �76 SLOVAKIA American Slovaks. This was an important and decisive factor when a number of Slovak priests organized opposition to Rusek. Father Dulik did not hesitate to side with his friend against a number of clerical opponents who attacked Rusek on the question of Slovak national freedom. 15 Husek's talents as editor Father nulik rightfully assessed and appreciated. Moreover, he did not doubt his sincerity, for he regarded Rusek as a true successor of Stefan Furdek in whose footsteps he followed to work in the true interests of the Jednota and the Slovak people. 16 Father nulik, unfortunately, became a victim of circumstances that seem to have plagued all of our great Slovak figures of the time. He suddenly lost his popularity at the very height of his brilliant career. A background to this ironical development is found in the minutes of the First Catholic Slovak Union. There we find a long list of intrigues and prejudices levelled against his person, as he himself outlined before his resignation at the annual executive meeting in 1933.17 Suddenly and unexpectedly a forceful personality was removed from the ranks of the Jednota. Father nulik's vision and dynamic energy were lost with his departure from the office of supreme chaplain. IN RETROSPECT: THE 1928 CONVENTION One of Father Dulik's proposals at the executive meeting in 1928, namely, to have a junior membership convention was immediately endorsed and the first such meeting was held at the Jednota Home in Middletown, Pa. in the summer of that very same year. A total of 170 delegates and more than 2,000 guests convened for this general assembly of our junior membership. As might be expected, the Man of the Hour was Father nulik. In his keynote address he called upon the entire assembly to foster the Slovak language, to cherish the ideals of the Slovak nation and to preserve our ancient national heritage of faith and freedom under God. 18 Hailed throughout the country in Slovak circles and publicized by the Slovak press, Father nulik's program stimulated such interest that the supreme chaplain was invited to speak at a series of programs in various parts of the country. He travelled extensively and created interest �SLOVAKIA 77 everywhere in the common cause of our fraternal and national destiny as true sons of the land of our Slovak forefathers. 19 TREASURER OF THE SLOVAK CATHOLIC EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTE Slovak priests and laity, as a general rule, from the very beginning worked together in harmony in this country, and that included cooperation in cultural and national affairs. In the Slovak Catholic Educational Institute, for example, under the presidency of the genial Michael Bosak, Sr. the office of secretary was ably filled by the aggressive Joseph Husek, and the treasurer's post was entrusted to the highly respected Father i'.>ulik. This unusual trio did an excellent job of collecting a substantial sum of several hundred thousand dollars despite adverse economic conditions in the country. A nationwide appeal by Father f>ulik aroused the interest of his fellow Slovaks who contributed generously to the project of higher education. A number of American bishops not only endorsed the campaign in their dioceses but contributed financially, too.20 Michael Bosak's generosity and Father f>ulik's personality were a happy combination that won generous support among the clergy and laity. The Slovak press supported the campaign that enabled the Slovak Sisters of St. Cyril and Methodius to build a beautiful new Academy for girls in Danville, Pa. and the Slovak Benedictines to purchase a suitable site for their boys' Benedictine High School in Cleveland, Ohio. Father f>ulik in a brief span of time between two World Wars was a dynamic force in stimulating an active and vigorous interest in the preservation of the Slovak spirit and the enrichment of Slovak culture in America, as well as a tremendous growth of our Slovak fraternal organizations. A TRAGIC ENDING Father Joseph i'.>ulik's life came to a tragic end when he was drawned accidentally while on a routine fishing trip on the Delaware River on August 26, 1936. Although Father f>ulik's life was comparatively brief, �78 SLOVAKIA his highly concentrated energies were instrumental in successfully promoting the highest traditions of Slovak freedom, culture and faith that became intimately interwoven into a beautiful fabric of American Slovak life that bears the unique imprint of his indomitable character and skillful workmanship. Perhaps more than any single individual in the history of the Slovaks in America Father Dulik's influence brought out the primeval elements of our national Slovak Christian heritage, namely, an indestructible faith in God and His Church, an all consuming love of his Slovak brethren and a passionate aspiration for Slovak national freedom, as well as profound appreciation of the richness of our Slovak language, literature and culture. Translated by Andrew Pier, O.S.B. FOOTNOTES 1) "Rev. J. J. 1'.>ulik 20 rokov knazom" (Rev J . J. Dulik 20 years a priest). Slovak v Amerike, June 6, 1929, p. 2. 2) "Za krest'anske a autonomne Slovensko" (For a Christian and autonomous Slovakia). Jednota, November 26, 1919, p. 4. 3) "Uradna zprava schodze katolickych duchovnych a zastupcov kat. organizacil odbyvana dna 19. a 20. novembra 19-19 v Pittsburgh, Pa." ( Official report of the meeting of Catholic clergy and representatives of Catholic organizations on November 19 and 20, 1919 in Pittsburgh, Pa.), Jednota, December 3, 1919, p. 5. Signed by Father !>ullk and A. Pirhalla. 4) "Podrobnosti z konvencie Sdruzenia Slov. Katolikov" (From the report of the Convention of the Slovak Catholic Federation ), Jednota, November 24, 1919, p. 1. 5) "Vaznejsie uznesenia Sdruz. SI. Katolikov (More important proceedings of the Slovak Catholic Federation), Jednota, January 28, 1920, p. 1. 6) The complete text of the Memorandum in the Jednota of May 26, 1920, p. 5. Signatures of Fr. Jozef !>ulik, president, Fr. Stefan Kocis, secretary and Jozef Husek, member of the executive committee. 7) "Konvencia Sdruzenia Slovenskych Katolikov" (Convention of the Slovak Catholic Federation), Jednota, October 20, 1920, p. 1. Reports from the convention confirmed Fr. !>ulik's principle expressed when he was elected president: "I am not a friend of programmed speeches, or articles. I prefer to do more than I promise." "Sdruzenie Katolikov," Jednota, January 7, 1920, p. 1. Father Klemo Hrtanek was elected president in Chicago. 8) Quote: "The Slovak Catholic Federation today is in favor of autonomous Slovakia and it will continue to support Slovak autonomy �SLOVAKIA 79 until the flag of Slovak autonomy waves above the Tatras in the framework of the Czecho-Slovak Republic." ... Rev. G. K. Vaniscak, O.S.B., "Po konvencii Sdruzenia Slovenskych Katolikov" (After the Convention of the Slovak Catholic Federation), Jednota, October 20, 1920, p. 4. 9) "Rev. Moysovi, " Jednota, March 13, 1920, p. 4. 10) Report of his election in the Minutes of the 22nd Convention of the Jednota (First Catholic Slovak Union), p. 254. Data in the minutes about the presence and election of Msgr. Andrej ffiinka. 11 ) Minutes from the 23rd Convention of the First Catholic Slovak Union, p. 288. 12) Minutes from the 24th Convention of the Jednota, p . 540. 13) "40 rokov" (40 Years) , Jednota, May 20, 1931, p. 1. 14) Minutes from the 24th Convention of the First Catholic Slovak Union, p. 17. 15) Matter pertaining to a pro-Magyar Slovak priest, Rev. Dr. Jehli~ka, and his comrades in America. See Minutes from the 24th Conv ention of the First Catholic Slovak Union, pp. 20-21. 16) "40 rokov" (40 Years), Jednota, May 20, 1931, p. 1. 17) Compare the Minutes from the annual meeting of the executive committee of the F.C.S.U. (Jednota), 1932, p. 3 pertaining to Fr. f>ulik's complaints with Husek's editorial "S Bohom . .. do videnia" (Goodbye, until we meet again) in the February 3, 1932, issue of the Jednota weekly. 18) Sermon on July 16, 1928, in St. Patrick's Cathedral, Harrisburg, Pa. Compare the report on the first convention of the young membership (Junior Branch) in the July 18, 1928, p. 1 issue of the Jednota. Details are given in this report. 19) "Rev. Joseph J . Dulik," Jednota issue of May 23, 1934. Contemporary critics agreed that Fr. f>ulik was a good preacher and an eloquent speaker. 20) Bishops Philip McDevitt of Harrisburg, Pa., Joseph Schrembs of Cleveland, Ohio, and T. C. O'Reilly of Scranton, Pa. endorsed the campaign of the Slovak Catholic Educational Institute for their Slovak priests. Bishop O'Reilly donated $1,000 and Bishop Thomas Walsh of Trenton gave $250 to the campaign. At a meeting of the Slovaks in T11enton Bishop Walsh recommended that the young Slovaks ought to learn the Slovak language, a language that has been spoken and written for hundreds of years. See Jednota issue of April 11, 1928, p. 4. Bishop Schrembs wrote an official letter in behalf of the Slovak Catholic Educational Institute. See the Jednota issue of April 24, 1929, p.1. SOURCES Minutes of the 22nd, 23rd and 24th Convention of the Jednota, and Minutes of the annual meeting of the executive committee of the First Catholic Slovak Union for the following years: 1928 through 1932. Kalendar Jednota, Middletown, Pa., 1937, p. 91. � SLOVAKIA 67 Jozef Pa u co, Ph.D.: Slovak Pioneers Ln America REVEREND GREGORY VANISCAK, O.S.B. (JULY 24, 1884-JANUARY 15, 1938) Father Furdek's accomplishments in behalf of the Slovak people by organizing the two Jednotas and the Slovak League of America and Father Jankola's achievement of being the founder of the Religious Order of the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius in Danville, Pa. were supplemented by Father Vaniscak's founding of the Slovak abbey of the Order of St. Benedict in Cleveland, Ohio. These three men constitute the most glorious trio of Slovak Catholic leaders in America. The future founder of the Slovak Benedictine Abbey of St. Andrew Svorad in Cleveland, Ohio, namely, Jan Vaniscak, came to the United States as a 16-year old youth from the village of Lemesany, saris district, Slovakia, to join his brother, Andrew, in the city of Johnstown, Pa. Three years later through the efforts of Rev. Jan Martvo:n, pastor of St. Stephen's Slovak parish there, and Father Matus Jankola, Jan Vaniscak was enrolled at St. Procopius Benedictine College in Lisle, Illinois. As a zealous student and a pious, warm-hearted youth he became a leader among the Slovak students at Lisle. Under his guidance and inspiration several of his colleagues became attracted to the Benedictine way of life and soon shared his vision of establishing a Slovak Benedictine monastery. Foremost among these were the following: Francis Gmuca, destined to become the first abbot of the future St. Andrew's Abbey, his name in the Benedictine Order was Stanislaus; Father George (Stephen) Luba, who became the first principal of the new Benedictine High School in 1927 at St. Andrew's Priory, East 51st Street and Superior Avenue; Father Celestine Drexler, who did pioneer pastoral work for the new community; Father Leo Rehak, pastor of St. Benedict's parish in Cleveland for many years; Father Ivan Kramoris, principal at Benedictine High School and editor of the zenska Jednota semi-monthly publication �68 SLOVAKIA for a number of years; Father Charles Florek, who succeeded Father Gregory as pastor of St. Michael's in Chicago. These were the charter members of the Abbey. Father Gregory (his name in the Religious Order of St. Benedict) Vaniscak was ordained on June 6, 1914, and offered up his first solemn Mass in St. Stephen's Church, Johnstown, Pa. on June 14, 1914. He was immediately appointed pastor of the large flourishing Slovak parish of St. Michael's in Chicago. During his pastorate of approximately 15 years Father Gregory built a new school, a convent for the school sisters and a parsonage. The parish soon became a leading Slovak religious, cultural and national center in the heart of South Chicago. While at St. Procopius College and Seminary Father Gregory established life-long friendship with the following future priests: Father Malinak, Msgr. Hrtanek, Msgr. Kocis, Father Krispinsky, Msgr. Begalla, Msgr. Hamrak, Father Barlok, Father Banik, Father Fecko, also with outstanding lay leaders, among them Adam Podkrivacky, Julius Badzik and Philip Hrobak. Father Gregory's dream of having a Slovak Benedictine monastery was realized when he was elected conventual prior of St. Andrew's Priory in Cleveland, Ohio in the fall of 1929. The ground had been laid for the new foundation in February of 1922 when a dependent priory was established at St. Andrew's parish, East 51st Street and Superior Avenue by Abbot Valentine Kohlbeck, 0. S. B. and the monastic Chapter at St. Procopius Abbey in Lisle, Illinois. Father Stanislaus Gmuca, O.S.B., assistant to Father Gregory at St. Michael's parish in Chicago, was appointed prior of the fledging community in Cleveland at St. Andrew's dependent priory. Moreover, in the fall of 1927 Father George Luba, the newly-appointed principal of the Benedictine High School, welcomed a Freshman class of 27 boys to the new school at the priory. Two years later both the priory and school were moved to the new site at 10510 Buckeye Road and East Boulevard. Rev. Paschal Kavulic, O.S.B. transferred to St. Andrew's Abbey from St. Vincent's Archabbey in the late 1920's. The new monastic nucleus added the following clerical candidates : Frs. Wendelin Kravec, Michael Jasko, Gilbert Stopko, Sylvester Prise and John Zeman, O.S.B. At this time, too, �SLOVAKIA 69 the monastic community was increased by Brothers Method Tokarcik, Nicholas Pekar, Martin Seckar, Florian Halcin and Victor Repon, as well as by clerics at the beginning of the 1930's: Fratres Theodore Kojis, Daniel Novak, Joseph Bue, Stephen Sramek, Andrew Pier, Anthony Bachleda, Benedict Dobrancin, Paul Taracko. This was only the beginning of the fulfillment of Father Gregory's life-long dream, for he envisioned a college, a seminary and eventually a university. Although this rather grandiose dream was not to become a reality, nevertheless, the priory was elevated to the status of an abbey by the Holy See in 1934 and the 13-member chapter of St. Andrew's Priory (now with abbatial rank) was entitled to vote for its first abbot. Accordingly, on August 8, 1934, Father Stanislaus Gmuca, O.S.B. was elected. The many activities of Father Gregory exacted their toll and, as an inevitable consequence, his health began to fail noticeably after the election of the first abbot. Nevertheless, he accepted the position of pastor at St. Andrew's parish where he continued to fulfill his pastoral duties faithfully until he succumbed to a fatal heart attack on January 15, 1938. Thus at the age of 53 the life of an inspiring Slovak Benedictine monk came to a sudden end. Father Gregory's writings remain as an immortal legacy of his cultural and religious endeavors, namely, the many articles in the Ave Maria magazine which he edited for several years, his translation of the Holy Rule of St. Benedict and a brief life history of the Patriarch of the West, his Holy Name Manuel, the Way of the Cross, a Catechism and his Slovak grammar, and many articles that appeared in Slovak periodicals throughout the country. During World War I Father Gregory was in the forefront of the struggle for the liberation of the Slovak nation from Magyar rule. When the Slovaks joined the Czechs in forming Czecho-Slovakia, he refused to accept a medal from the new state because the government in Prague failed to live up to the promise of self-government in Slovakia. Michael Bosak, Sr., a leading American Slovak banker and patriot and intimate friend of Father Gregory's, also refused the proffered honor for meritorious service in behalf of the liberation of the Slovaks from foreign rule. �70 SLOVAKIA Slovaks everywhere mourned the death of Father Gregory Vaniscak, a foremost Slovak Benedictine in America, the founder of St. Andrew Svorad Abbey in Cleveland, an indefatigable worker, a zealous priest, a great Slovak patriot and a faithful servant of the Lord in His wineyard who labored perseveringly until the end for God, our Country and the Slovak nation under God. SOURCES Slovenske relwle v Amerike (Slovak Religious Orders in America), Fr. Hrusovsky, Ph.D., Slovak Institute, Cleveland, Ohio, 1955. Dve sviite hodiny (Two Holy Hours ), Jednota, February 2, 1938 by Rev. Paschal Kavulic, O.S.B. Slovensky samostatny priorcit (The Slovak Independent Priory), Jednota kalendar, 1931, by Rev. Gregor K.Vaniscak, O.S.B. Rehor K. Vanisccik, O.S.B. (Tribute in the Jednota kalendar, 1931). Several eye-witnesses of the events recorded, also first-hand account of all Benedictine personalities mentioned from persons who knew them personally. FATHER JOSEPH J. DUL1K (SEPTEMBER 10, 1884-AUGUST 26, 1936) As I look over the list of accomplishments of our Slovak pioneer priests, I invariably say to myself: "All deserved to be honored highly for innumerable religious and cultural contributions. But not one of them received due recognition for a lifetime of devoted service and noble endeavor in behalf of our Slovak people." Father f>ulik was one of the most deserving leaders among our Slovak clergy. In a comparatively brief span of life, Father :t.>ulik as a priest accomplished extraordinary services for the Slovak immigrants. An ideal priest, he labored indefatigably with true apostolic zeal for the cause of Christ. He was a veritable lighthouse of faith. His widespread influence among Slovak Catholic organizations inspired them to foster the highest ideals of our national, religious and cultural traditions and yet he vanished from the scene of American Slovak life virtually unknown, except among his own compatriots. A SERVANT OF GOD Father Joseph :t.>ulik was born in Rovne, Trencin district, Slovakia, on September 10, 1884. His parents were Jan and Katarina f>ulik (nee Podkrivacky). After completing his �SLOVAKIA 71 college education in Bratislava, zilina and Nitra he emigrated to the United States in 1904. He was enrolled in the diocesan seminary in Brooklyn, N. Y. where he was ordained five years later, on May 9, 1909. The new priest's first appointment was in an Irish parish, but he was soon given the assignment of organizing the Slovak parish of the Holy Family. In a short while he built a church and a rectory. Here he remained until November 12, 1912, when he was called to St. Michael's parish in Jessup, Pa. Before being transferred on March 1, 1916, to the Holy Ghost Slovak parish in Olyphant, Pa. he built a new school. Father t.>ulik was destined to remain in Olyphant until his untimely death twenty years later. Father !:>ulik's pastorate in Olyphant was marked by the building of a new church, a rectory and a Slovak cultural center-the latter in the renovated old church edifice. The parish under his inspiring leadership became the focal point of Slovak national and cultural activity in the entire area. Olyphant's Slovak community had complete confidence in Father f>ulik who devoted himself wholeheartedly to the spiritual, social and cultural welfare of his people. But his influence soon extended far beyond the confines of his parish, for he became involved in an extensive Slovak Catholic program that affected the destiny of the Slovak nation in America and in its native homeland. Moreover, he promoted a healthy ecumenical spirit in his personal intimate relationship with the Slovaks of the Lutheran faith. 1 A PILLAR IN THE SLOVAK CATHOLIC FEDERATION OF AMERICA At a critical time when it was necessary to maintain a proper perspective of the situation, it was Father t.>ulik's prudent leadership, honest convictions and genuine love for his people that brought him into national focus as a truly great leader in American Slovak life. After the first World War it was his role to win the Slovak Catholics to a pro-Hlinka outlook. In order to mitivate them in this direction Father t.>ulik made a decisive break with a number of organizations that did not share his views. As president of the Slovak Catholic Federation �72 SLOVAKIA he wrote a distinct chapter in the history of the Slovak nation, particularly as it affected his co-religionists. Even before his election as president of the federation, Father t'.>ulik had made his mark in Slovak national life. Had it not been for his initiative and the cooperation of Father Jan Kubasek (Yonkers, N. Y.) in 1919 the American Slovaks might have become sorely disunited. Under the auspices of the Slovak Catholic Federation, Father Anton Gracik was sent to Slovakia to invite a delegation of the Slovak People's Party (led by Andrej Hlinka) for a visit to America. The need for an exchange of views and united action in behalf of Slovak autonomy was a vital necessity because at a decisive stage of the Slovak nation's struggle for freedom the Slovak League of America, for lack of proper leadership, had lost its course and the mass of the American Slovaks was in a quandary. Soon after the coming of the Slovak delegation from overseas the matter was cleared up and the American Slovaks were again marching in the right direction. Father Joseph Rudinsky, a delegate of the Slovak People's Party, convinced the officers of the Slovak Catholic Federation to call a meeting of Slovak clergy and officers of all the Slovak societies in Pittsburgh, Pa. on November 19 and 20, 1919. Father t'.>ulik presided at the priests' meeting on November 19 and it was unanimously decided to support the program for Slovakia's autonomy in the frame-work of the newly-established Republic of CzechoSlovakia.2 The Slovak press throughout America hailed the announcement that was approved the following day by representatives of the various Slovak societies. At the above conference a proposal by Father i'.>ulik that a demand for the immediate release of Father Andrej Hlinka from prison be addressed to President Masaryk and that autonomy be put into effect in Slovakia ( an official paragraph in the Paris Peace Treaty) was adopted unanimously. 3 These measures were adopted at the convention of the Sdruzenie Slovenskych Katolikov ( Slovak Catholic Federation) on December 18, 1919, in Scranton, Pa. and Father t'.>ulik was elected president.4 On January 14, 1920, Father i'.>ulik called an executive meeting of the federation which voted 100,000 crowns to Andrej Hlinka, decided to issue a commemorative stamp �SLOVAKIA 73 in his honor and added a sum of $5,000 for Catholic action in Slovakia. Father Joseph Rudinsky, and Joseph Kubala, the two delegates from Slovakia, were assured that the federation was completely in accord with the Hlinka movement for autonomy, and, as if to confirm this policy, they were named to the positions of organizer and assistant secretary of the Slovak Catholic Federation.5 Under Father !>ulik's leadership a nationwide newspaper campaign was inaugurated to demand the acceptance and ratification of the Pittsburgh Pact in Czecho-Slovakia. The Memorandum adopted by the central executive committee of the federation on April 7, 1920, was sent to the Slovak leaders in Slovakia. An outline of the reasons for insisting that the Pittsburgh Pact be adopted officially by the new government of Czecho-Slovakia was attached to the Memorandum that called attention to the fact that President Masaryk had personally signed the document guaranteeing Slovak autonomy. Moreover, a supplementary denial of any agreement with irridentist Magyar elements accompanied the Memorandum. Father !>ulik's signature to the document proved beyond a doubt that he was a dedicated patriot of the Slovak nation.6 Twenty thousand members in 189 assemblies throughout the United States were enrolled as members in less than a year before the Slovak Catholic Federation held its convention on October 13 and 14 in Chicago in 1920.7 Demands for Slovakia's autonomy were reiterated at t his convention in Chicago.8 Father f>ulik, spokesman for t he delegates representing the majority of the Slovaks in America, declared that failure to grant autonomy to the Slovak nation would make President Masaryk and his cohorts a laughing-stock before the whole world. 9 SUPREME CHAPLAIN OF THE FIRST CATHOLIC SLOVAK UNION (JEDNOTA) Outstanding personalities in the early pioneer days built First Catholic Slovak Union on strong foundations . Father !>ulik was one of the foremost leaders of the era, closely behind in influence to Fathers Furdek and Jankola. As the last of the remarkable trio in the first quarter of �74 SLOVAKIA the 20th century, his was a highly influential career in both our national and fraternal life as one of our greatest Jednota leaders who served the society and our common cause with distinction and honor until the end of his life. Jednota's 22nd national convention in Scranton, Pa. in 1926 saw the emergence of a new set of leaders, among them John Sabol who was destined to serve as supreme secretary for four decades. Andrej Hlinka was the guest of honor at this convention that elected him as Jednota's honorary supreme chaplain for life. It was a great moment for the Slovaks in America, and for Slovaks everywhere. The great champion of Slovak liberty was given a standing ovation after a special proclamation, expressing gratitude to him for his sacrifices in behalf of the Slovak nation, was read, and assurances were given that the Jednota stood behind him 100 % in the struggle to win Slovak national freedom and self-governing statehood according to the Pittsburgh Pact. At the same convention the Jednota delegates elected Father t:>ulik as the supreme chaplain, as if to place him alongside Hlinka upon whom they had conferred the honorary title of chaplain for life. 10 Recognized as a veritable golden link between the old and young, Father Dulik was re-elected at the New York convention in 1928 11 and again at the Detroit convention in 1931.12 Much more can be said of Father Dulik than merely to note that he had been elected and re-elected as supreme chaplain several times. His influence in both the Jednota and the Slovak Catholic Federation left an indelible mark on both organizations in which his official priestly office and dignity, moral power and love of the Slovak nation and American patriotism proved to be unmistakably great assets for unquestioned leadership in his time. At a critical stage in the history of the Slovaks in America whose influence was felt in their native homeland across the Atlantic, when it was somewhat popular to downgrade the Church and religion in general, the Jednota was the bulwark of the Faith of our Fathers. When Magyar chauvinists stopped at nothing to destroy the Slovak national spirit, it was the Jednota that provided the resources and the power to withstand the assaults of these foes of �SLOVAKIA 75 Slovak freedom, foes who unfortunately sometimes found recruits for their ranks among ambitious or naive Slovaks themselves! Jednota leaders were not content to merely maintam a defensive position. They launched an effective offensive to rout the enemy and establish the natural right of the Slovak nation to its own democratic self-government in line with the Wilsonian principle of 'self-determinatio n for all nations.' Historically, it must be registered that the Jednota, from the highest officer to the last member, met the challenge of both the ancient and modern foes of Slovak freedom and helped immeasurably to liberate the Slovaks from Magyar rule in Hungary.13 Moral values for Father nulik rated an A-1 priority. Thus, the Jednota for him was a vital factor in Catholic action, and, thank God, under the truly Christian-inspired leadership of such leaders as Father Dulik the Jednota can rightfully and proudly claim that its policies have been guided by spiritual motives rather than material interests that are too often motivated by mere expediency. "Unique is the proper world to describe the total achievements of the Jednota, for it is undoubtedly great to have an organization with many thousands of members, to have a rich treasury, to have order and discipline, all of which have to a greater or less extent, as a matter of fact, but it is a far greater asset to cherish and foster our ancient Christian faith and traditions and to excel in moral virtue that contributed far more to our society in America than mere material wealth. I re-affirm unequivocally that the millions we have given out in benefits and that we shall distribute in the future cannot equal in value the spiritual benefits that have accrued to our members, Slovak nation and America directly as fruits of Jednota leadership in the past decades." 14 Father Dulik was fully aware of the vita! role of the Jednota, but he realized, too, that its work ultimately depended upon human beings. He always gave his full support, therefore, to his colleagues. His friendship with Joseph Husek, a noted journalist, was particularly strong and effective among the American Slovaks. These two complemented each other in the struggle for unity among �76 SLOVAKIA American Slovaks. This was an important and decisive factor when a number of Slovak priests organized opposition to Rusek. Father Dulik did not hesitate to side with his friend against a number of clerical opponents who attacked Rusek on the question of Slovak national freedom. 15 Husek's talents as editor Father nulik rightfully assessed and appreciated. Moreover, he did not doubt his sincerity, for he regarded Rusek as a true successor of Stefan Furdek in whose footsteps he followed to work in the true interests of the Jednota and the Slovak people. 16 Father nulik, unfortunately, became a victim of circumstances that seem to have plagued all of our great Slovak figures of the time. He suddenly lost his popularity at the very height of his brilliant career. A background to this ironical development is found in the minutes of the First Catholic Slovak Union. There we find a long list of intrigues and prejudices levelled against his person, as he himself outlined before his resignation at the annual executive meeting in 1933.17 Suddenly and unexpectedly a forceful personality was removed from the ranks of the Jednota. Father nulik's vision and dynamic energy were lost with his departure from the office of supreme chaplain. IN RETROSPECT: THE 1928 CONVENTION One of Father Dulik's proposals at the executive meeting in 1928, namely, to have a junior membership convention was immediately endorsed and the first such meeting was held at the Jednota Home in Middletown, Pa. in the summer of that very same year. A total of 170 delegates and more than 2,000 guests convened for this general assembly of our junior membership. As might be expected, the Man of the Hour was Father nulik. In his keynote address he called upon the entire assembly to foster the Slovak language, to cherish the ideals of the Slovak nation and to preserve our ancient national heritage of faith and freedom under God. 18 Hailed throughout the country in Slovak circles and publicized by the Slovak press, Father nulik's program stimulated such interest that the supreme chaplain was invited to speak at a series of programs in various parts of the country. He travelled extensively and created interest �SLOVAKIA 77 everywhere in the common cause of our fraternal and national destiny as true sons of the land of our Slovak forefathers. 19 TREASURER OF THE SLOVAK CATHOLIC EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTE Slovak priests and laity, as a general rule, from the very beginning worked together in harmony in this country, and that included cooperation in cultural and national affairs. In the Slovak Catholic Educational Institute, for example, under the presidency of the genial Michael Bosak, Sr. the office of secretary was ably filled by the aggressive Joseph Husek, and the treasurer's post was entrusted to the highly respected Father i'.>ulik. This unusual trio did an excellent job of collecting a substantial sum of several hundred thousand dollars despite adverse economic conditions in the country. A nationwide appeal by Father f>ulik aroused the interest of his fellow Slovaks who contributed generously to the project of higher education. A number of American bishops not only endorsed the campaign in their dioceses but contributed financially, too.20 Michael Bosak's generosity and Father f>ulik's personality were a happy combination that won generous support among the clergy and laity. The Slovak press supported the campaign that enabled the Slovak Sisters of St. Cyril and Methodius to build a beautiful new Academy for girls in Danville, Pa. and the Slovak Benedictines to purchase a suitable site for their boys' Benedictine High School in Cleveland, Ohio. Father f>ulik in a brief span of time between two World Wars was a dynamic force in stimulating an active and vigorous interest in the preservation of the Slovak spirit and the enrichment of Slovak culture in America, as well as a tremendous growth of our Slovak fraternal organizations. A TRAGIC ENDING Father Joseph i'.>ulik's life came to a tragic end when he was drawned accidentally while on a routine fishing trip on the Delaware River on August 26, 1936. Although Father f>ulik's life was comparatively brief, �78 SLOVAKIA his highly concentrated energies were instrumental in successfully promoting the highest traditions of Slovak freedom, culture and faith that became intimately interwoven into a beautiful fabric of American Slovak life that bears the unique imprint of his indomitable character and skillful workmanship. Perhaps more than any single individual in the history of the Slovaks in America Father Dulik's influence brought out the primeval elements of our national Slovak Christian heritage, namely, an indestructible faith in God and His Church, an all consuming love of his Slovak brethren and a passionate aspiration for Slovak national freedom, as well as profound appreciation of the richness of our Slovak language, literature and culture. Translated by Andrew Pier, O.S.B. FOOTNOTES 1) "Rev. J. J. 1'.>ulik 20 rokov knazom" (Rev J . J. Dulik 20 years a priest). Slovak v Amerike, June 6, 1929, p. 2. 2) "Za krest'anske a autonomne Slovensko" (For a Christian and autonomous Slovakia). Jednota, November 26, 1919, p. 4. 3) "Uradna zprava schodze katolickych duchovnych a zastupcov kat. organizacil odbyvana dna 19. a 20. novembra 19-19 v Pittsburgh, Pa." ( Official report of the meeting of Catholic clergy and representatives of Catholic organizations on November 19 and 20, 1919 in Pittsburgh, Pa.), Jednota, December 3, 1919, p. 5. Signed by Father !>ullk and A. Pirhalla. 4) "Podrobnosti z konvencie Sdruzenia Slov. Katolikov" (From the report of the Convention of the Slovak Catholic Federation ), Jednota, November 24, 1919, p. 1. 5) "Vaznejsie uznesenia Sdruz. SI. Katolikov (More important proceedings of the Slovak Catholic Federation), Jednota, January 28, 1920, p. 1. 6) The complete text of the Memorandum in the Jednota of May 26, 1920, p. 5. Signatures of Fr. Jozef !>ulik, president, Fr. Stefan Kocis, secretary and Jozef Husek, member of the executive committee. 7) "Konvencia Sdruzenia Slovenskych Katolikov" (Convention of the Slovak Catholic Federation), Jednota, October 20, 1920, p. 1. Reports from the convention confirmed Fr. !>ulik's principle expressed when he was elected president: "I am not a friend of programmed speeches, or articles. I prefer to do more than I promise." "Sdruzenie Katolikov," Jednota, January 7, 1920, p. 1. Father Klemo Hrtanek was elected president in Chicago. 8) Quote: "The Slovak Catholic Federation today is in favor of autonomous Slovakia and it will continue to support Slovak autonomy �SLOVAKIA 79 until the flag of Slovak autonomy waves above the Tatras in the framework of the Czecho-Slovak Republic." ... Rev. G. K. Vaniscak, O.S.B., "Po konvencii Sdruzenia Slovenskych Katolikov" (After the Convention of the Slovak Catholic Federation), Jednota, October 20, 1920, p. 4. 9) "Rev. Moysovi, " Jednota, March 13, 1920, p. 4. 10) Report of his election in the Minutes of the 22nd Convention of the Jednota (First Catholic Slovak Union), p. 254. Data in the minutes about the presence and election of Msgr. Andrej ffiinka. 11 ) Minutes from the 23rd Convention of the First Catholic Slovak Union, p. 288. 12) Minutes from the 24th Convention of the Jednota, p . 540. 13) "40 rokov" (40 Years) , Jednota, May 20, 1931, p. 1. 14) Minutes from the 24th Convention of the First Catholic Slovak Union, p. 17. 15) Matter pertaining to a pro-Magyar Slovak priest, Rev. Dr. Jehli~ka, and his comrades in America. See Minutes from the 24th Conv ention of the First Catholic Slovak Union, pp. 20-21. 16) "40 rokov" (40 Years), Jednota, May 20, 1931, p. 1. 17) Compare the Minutes from the annual meeting of the executive committee of the F.C.S.U. (Jednota), 1932, p. 3 pertaining to Fr. f>ulik's complaints with Husek's editorial "S Bohom . .. do videnia" (Goodbye, until we meet again) in the February 3, 1932, issue of the Jednota weekly. 18) Sermon on July 16, 1928, in St. Patrick's Cathedral, Harrisburg, Pa. Compare the report on the first convention of the young membership (Junior Branch) in the July 18, 1928, p. 1 issue of the Jednota. Details are given in this report. 19) "Rev. Joseph J . Dulik," Jednota issue of May 23, 1934. Contemporary critics agreed that Fr. f>ulik was a good preacher and an eloquent speaker. 20) Bishops Philip McDevitt of Harrisburg, Pa., Joseph Schrembs of Cleveland, Ohio, and T. C. O'Reilly of Scranton, Pa. endorsed the campaign of the Slovak Catholic Educational Institute for their Slovak priests. Bishop O'Reilly donated $1,000 and Bishop Thomas Walsh of Trenton gave $250 to the campaign. At a meeting of the Slovaks in T11enton Bishop Walsh recommended that the young Slovaks ought to learn the Slovak language, a language that has been spoken and written for hundreds of years. See Jednota issue of April 11, 1928, p. 4. Bishop Schrembs wrote an official letter in behalf of the Slovak Catholic Educational Institute. See the Jednota issue of April 24, 1929, p.1. SOURCES Minutes of the 22nd, 23rd and 24th Convention of the Jednota, and Minutes of the annual meeting of the executive committee of the First Catholic Slovak Union for the following years: 1928 through 1932. Kalendar Jednota, Middletown, Pa., 1937, p. 91. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1974, Vol. 24 Description An account of the resource Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document SLOVAKIA 67 Jozef Pa u co, Ph.D.: Slovak Pioneers Ln America REVEREND GREGORY VANISCAK, O.S.B. (JULY 24, 1884-JANUARY 15, 1938) Father Furdek's accomplishments in behalf of the Slovak people by organizing the two Jednotas and the Slovak League of America and Father Jankola's achievement of being the founder of the Religious Order of the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius in Danville, Pa. were supplemented by Father Vaniscak's founding of the Slovak abbey of the Order of St. Benedict in Cleveland, Ohio. These three men constitute the most glorious trio of Slovak Catholic leaders in America. The future founder of the Slovak Benedictine Abbey of St. Andrew Svorad in Cleveland, Ohio, namely, Jan Vaniscak, came to the United States as a 16-year old youth from the village of Lemesany, saris district, Slovakia, to join his brother, Andrew, in the city of Johnstown, Pa. Three years later through the efforts of Rev. Jan Martvo:n, pastor of St. Stephen's Slovak parish there, and Father Matus Jankola, Jan Vaniscak was enrolled at St. Procopius Benedictine College in Lisle, Illinois. As a zealous student and a pious, warm-hearted youth he became a leader among the Slovak students at Lisle. Under his guidance and inspiration several of his colleagues became attracted to the Benedictine way of life and soon shared his vision of establishing a Slovak Benedictine monastery. Foremost among these were the following: Francis Gmuca, destined to become the first abbot of the future St. Andrew's Abbey, his name in the Benedictine Order was Stanislaus; Father George (Stephen) Luba, who became the first principal of the new Benedictine High School in 1927 at St. Andrew's Priory, East 51st Street and Superior Avenue; Father Celestine Drexler, who did pioneer pastoral work for the new community; Father Leo Rehak, pastor of St. Benedict's parish in Cleveland for many years; Father Ivan Kramoris, principal at Benedictine High School and editor of the zenska Jednota semi-monthly publication 68 SLOVAKIA for a number of years; Father Charles Florek, who succeeded Father Gregory as pastor of St. Michael's in Chicago. These were the charter members of the Abbey. Father Gregory (his name in the Religious Order of St. Benedict) Vaniscak was ordained on June 6, 1914, and offered up his first solemn Mass in St. Stephen's Church, Johnstown, Pa. on June 14, 1914. He was immediately appointed pastor of the large flourishing Slovak parish of St. Michael's in Chicago. During his pastorate of approximately 15 years Father Gregory built a new school, a convent for the school sisters and a parsonage. The parish soon became a leading Slovak religious, cultural and national center in the heart of South Chicago. While at St. Procopius College and Seminary Father Gregory established life-long friendship with the following future priests: Father Malinak, Msgr. Hrtanek, Msgr. Kocis, Father Krispinsky, Msgr. Begalla, Msgr. Hamrak, Father Barlok, Father Banik, Father Fecko, also with outstanding lay leaders, among them Adam Podkrivacky, Julius Badzik and Philip Hrobak. Father Gregory's dream of having a Slovak Benedictine monastery was realized when he was elected conventual prior of St. Andrew's Priory in Cleveland, Ohio in the fall of 1929. The ground had been laid for the new foundation in February of 1922 when a dependent priory was established at St. Andrew's parish, East 51st Street and Superior Avenue by Abbot Valentine Kohlbeck, 0. S. B. and the monastic Chapter at St. Procopius Abbey in Lisle, Illinois. Father Stanislaus Gmuca, O.S.B., assistant to Father Gregory at St. Michael's parish in Chicago, was appointed prior of the fledging community in Cleveland at St. Andrew's dependent priory. Moreover, in the fall of 1927 Father George Luba, the newly-appointed principal of the Benedictine High School, welcomed a Freshman class of 27 boys to the new school at the priory. Two years later both the priory and school were moved to the new site at 10510 Buckeye Road and East Boulevard. Rev. Paschal Kavulic, O.S.B. transferred to St. Andrew's Abbey from St. Vincent's Archabbey in the late 1920's. The new monastic nucleus added the following clerical candidates : Frs. Wendelin Kravec, Michael Jasko, Gilbert Stopko, Sylvester Prise and John Zeman, O.S.B. At this time, too, SLOVAKIA 69 the monastic community was increased by Brothers Method Tokarcik, Nicholas Pekar, Martin Seckar, Florian Halcin and Victor Repon, as well as by clerics at the beginning of the 1930's: Fratres Theodore Kojis, Daniel Novak, Joseph Bue, Stephen Sramek, Andrew Pier, Anthony Bachleda, Benedict Dobrancin, Paul Taracko. This was only the beginning of the fulfillment of Father Gregory's life-long dream, for he envisioned a college, a seminary and eventually a university. Although this rather grandiose dream was not to become a reality, nevertheless, the priory was elevated to the status of an abbey by the Holy See in 1934 and the 13-member chapter of St. Andrew's Priory (now with abbatial rank) was entitled to vote for its first abbot. Accordingly, on August 8, 1934, Father Stanislaus Gmuca, O.S.B. was elected. The many activities of Father Gregory exacted their toll and, as an inevitable consequence, his health began to fail noticeably after the election of the first abbot. Nevertheless, he accepted the position of pastor at St. Andrew's parish where he continued to fulfill his pastoral duties faithfully until he succumbed to a fatal heart attack on January 15, 1938. Thus at the age of 53 the life of an inspiring Slovak Benedictine monk came to a sudden end. Father Gregory's writings remain as an immortal legacy of his cultural and religious endeavors, namely, the many articles in the Ave Maria magazine which he edited for several years, his translation of the Holy Rule of St. Benedict and a brief life history of the Patriarch of the West, his Holy Name Manuel, the Way of the Cross, a Catechism and his Slovak grammar, and many articles that appeared in Slovak periodicals throughout the country. During World War I Father Gregory was in the forefront of the struggle for the liberation of the Slovak nation from Magyar rule. When the Slovaks joined the Czechs in forming Czecho-Slovakia, he refused to accept a medal from the new state because the government in Prague failed to live up to the promise of self-government in Slovakia. Michael Bosak, Sr., a leading American Slovak banker and patriot and intimate friend of Father Gregory's, also refused the proffered honor for meritorious service in behalf of the liberation of the Slovaks from foreign rule. 70 SLOVAKIA Slovaks everywhere mourned the death of Father Gregory Vaniscak, a foremost Slovak Benedictine in America, the founder of St. Andrew Svorad Abbey in Cleveland, an indefatigable worker, a zealous priest, a great Slovak patriot and a faithful servant of the Lord in His wineyard who labored perseveringly until the end for God, our Country and the Slovak nation under God. SOURCES Slovenske relwle v Amerike (Slovak Religious Orders in America), Fr. Hrusovsky, Ph.D., Slovak Institute, Cleveland, Ohio, 1955. Dve sviite hodiny (Two Holy Hours ), Jednota, February 2, 1938 by Rev. Paschal Kavulic, O.S.B. Slovensky samostatny priorcit (The Slovak Independent Priory), Jednota kalendar, 1931, by Rev. Gregor K.Vaniscak, O.S.B. Rehor K. Vanisccik, O.S.B. (Tribute in the Jednota kalendar, 1931). Several eye-witnesses of the events recorded, also first-hand account of all Benedictine personalities mentioned from persons who knew them personally. FATHER JOSEPH J. DUL1K (SEPTEMBER 10, 1884-AUGUST 26, 1936) As I look over the list of accomplishments of our Slovak pioneer priests, I invariably say to myself: "All deserved to be honored highly for innumerable religious and cultural contributions. But not one of them received due recognition for a lifetime of devoted service and noble endeavor in behalf of our Slovak people." Father f>ulik was one of the most deserving leaders among our Slovak clergy. In a comparatively brief span of life, Father :t.>ulik as a priest accomplished extraordinary services for the Slovak immigrants. An ideal priest, he labored indefatigably with true apostolic zeal for the cause of Christ. He was a veritable lighthouse of faith. His widespread influence among Slovak Catholic organizations inspired them to foster the highest ideals of our national, religious and cultural traditions and yet he vanished from the scene of American Slovak life virtually unknown, except among his own compatriots. A SERVANT OF GOD Father Joseph :t.>ulik was born in Rovne, Trencin district, Slovakia, on September 10, 1884. His parents were Jan and Katarina f>ulik (nee Podkrivacky). After completing his SLOVAKIA 71 college education in Bratislava, zilina and Nitra he emigrated to the United States in 1904. He was enrolled in the diocesan seminary in Brooklyn, N. Y. where he was ordained five years later, on May 9, 1909. The new priest's first appointment was in an Irish parish, but he was soon given the assignment of organizing the Slovak parish of the Holy Family. In a short while he built a church and a rectory. Here he remained until November 12, 1912, when he was called to St. Michael's parish in Jessup, Pa. Before being transferred on March 1, 1916, to the Holy Ghost Slovak parish in Olyphant, Pa. he built a new school. Father t.>ulik was destined to remain in Olyphant until his untimely death twenty years later. Father !:>ulik's pastorate in Olyphant was marked by the building of a new church, a rectory and a Slovak cultural center-the latter in the renovated old church edifice. The parish under his inspiring leadership became the focal point of Slovak national and cultural activity in the entire area. Olyphant's Slovak community had complete confidence in Father f>ulik who devoted himself wholeheartedly to the spiritual, social and cultural welfare of his people. But his influence soon extended far beyond the confines of his parish, for he became involved in an extensive Slovak Catholic program that affected the destiny of the Slovak nation in America and in its native homeland. Moreover, he promoted a healthy ecumenical spirit in his personal intimate relationship with the Slovaks of the Lutheran faith. 1 A PILLAR IN THE SLOVAK CATHOLIC FEDERATION OF AMERICA At a critical time when it was necessary to maintain a proper perspective of the situation, it was Father t.>ulik's prudent leadership, honest convictions and genuine love for his people that brought him into national focus as a truly great leader in American Slovak life. After the first World War it was his role to win the Slovak Catholics to a pro-Hlinka outlook. In order to mitivate them in this direction Father t.>ulik made a decisive break with a number of organizations that did not share his views. As president of the Slovak Catholic Federation 72 SLOVAKIA he wrote a distinct chapter in the history of the Slovak nation, particularly as it affected his co-religionists. Even before his election as president of the federation, Father t'.>ulik had made his mark in Slovak national life. Had it not been for his initiative and the cooperation of Father Jan Kubasek (Yonkers, N. Y.) in 1919 the American Slovaks might have become sorely disunited. Under the auspices of the Slovak Catholic Federation, Father Anton Gracik was sent to Slovakia to invite a delegation of the Slovak People's Party (led by Andrej Hlinka) for a visit to America. The need for an exchange of views and united action in behalf of Slovak autonomy was a vital necessity because at a decisive stage of the Slovak nation's struggle for freedom the Slovak League of America, for lack of proper leadership, had lost its course and the mass of the American Slovaks was in a quandary. Soon after the coming of the Slovak delegation from overseas the matter was cleared up and the American Slovaks were again marching in the right direction. Father Joseph Rudinsky, a delegate of the Slovak People's Party, convinced the officers of the Slovak Catholic Federation to call a meeting of Slovak clergy and officers of all the Slovak societies in Pittsburgh, Pa. on November 19 and 20, 1919. Father t'.>ulik presided at the priests' meeting on November 19 and it was unanimously decided to support the program for Slovakia's autonomy in the frame-work of the newly-established Republic of CzechoSlovakia.2 The Slovak press throughout America hailed the announcement that was approved the following day by representatives of the various Slovak societies. At the above conference a proposal by Father i'.>ulik that a demand for the immediate release of Father Andrej Hlinka from prison be addressed to President Masaryk and that autonomy be put into effect in Slovakia ( an official paragraph in the Paris Peace Treaty) was adopted unanimously. 3 These measures were adopted at the convention of the Sdruzenie Slovenskych Katolikov ( Slovak Catholic Federation) on December 18, 1919, in Scranton, Pa. and Father t'.>ulik was elected president.4 On January 14, 1920, Father i'.>ulik called an executive meeting of the federation which voted 100,000 crowns to Andrej Hlinka, decided to issue a commemorative stamp SLOVAKIA 73 in his honor and added a sum of $5,000 for Catholic action in Slovakia. Father Joseph Rudinsky, and Joseph Kubala, the two delegates from Slovakia, were assured that the federation was completely in accord with the Hlinka movement for autonomy, and, as if to confirm this policy, they were named to the positions of organizer and assistant secretary of the Slovak Catholic Federation.5 Under Father !>ulik's leadership a nationwide newspaper campaign was inaugurated to demand the acceptance and ratification of the Pittsburgh Pact in Czecho-Slovakia. The Memorandum adopted by the central executive committee of the federation on April 7, 1920, was sent to the Slovak leaders in Slovakia. An outline of the reasons for insisting that the Pittsburgh Pact be adopted officially by the new government of Czecho-Slovakia was attached to the Memorandum that called attention to the fact that President Masaryk had personally signed the document guaranteeing Slovak autonomy. Moreover, a supplementary denial of any agreement with irridentist Magyar elements accompanied the Memorandum. Father !>ulik's signature to the document proved beyond a doubt that he was a dedicated patriot of the Slovak nation.6 Twenty thousand members in 189 assemblies throughout the United States were enrolled as members in less than a year before the Slovak Catholic Federation held its convention on October 13 and 14 in Chicago in 1920.7 Demands for Slovakia's autonomy were reiterated at t his convention in Chicago.8 Father f>ulik, spokesman for t he delegates representing the majority of the Slovaks in America, declared that failure to grant autonomy to the Slovak nation would make President Masaryk and his cohorts a laughing-stock before the whole world. 9 SUPREME CHAPLAIN OF THE FIRST CATHOLIC SLOVAK UNION (JEDNOTA) Outstanding personalities in the early pioneer days built First Catholic Slovak Union on strong foundations . Father !>ulik was one of the foremost leaders of the era, closely behind in influence to Fathers Furdek and Jankola. As the last of the remarkable trio in the first quarter of 74 SLOVAKIA the 20th century, his was a highly influential career in both our national and fraternal life as one of our greatest Jednota leaders who served the society and our common cause with distinction and honor until the end of his life. Jednota's 22nd national convention in Scranton, Pa. in 1926 saw the emergence of a new set of leaders, among them John Sabol who was destined to serve as supreme secretary for four decades. Andrej Hlinka was the guest of honor at this convention that elected him as Jednota's honorary supreme chaplain for life. It was a great moment for the Slovaks in America, and for Slovaks everywhere. The great champion of Slovak liberty was given a standing ovation after a special proclamation, expressing gratitude to him for his sacrifices in behalf of the Slovak nation, was read, and assurances were given that the Jednota stood behind him 100 % in the struggle to win Slovak national freedom and self-governing statehood according to the Pittsburgh Pact. At the same convention the Jednota delegates elected Father t:>ulik as the supreme chaplain, as if to place him alongside Hlinka upon whom they had conferred the honorary title of chaplain for life. 10 Recognized as a veritable golden link between the old and young, Father Dulik was re-elected at the New York convention in 1928 11 and again at the Detroit convention in 1931.12 Much more can be said of Father Dulik than merely to note that he had been elected and re-elected as supreme chaplain several times. His influence in both the Jednota and the Slovak Catholic Federation left an indelible mark on both organizations in which his official priestly office and dignity, moral power and love of the Slovak nation and American patriotism proved to be unmistakably great assets for unquestioned leadership in his time. At a critical stage in the history of the Slovaks in America whose influence was felt in their native homeland across the Atlantic, when it was somewhat popular to downgrade the Church and religion in general, the Jednota was the bulwark of the Faith of our Fathers. When Magyar chauvinists stopped at nothing to destroy the Slovak national spirit, it was the Jednota that provided the resources and the power to withstand the assaults of these foes of SLOVAKIA 75 Slovak freedom, foes who unfortunately sometimes found recruits for their ranks among ambitious or naive Slovaks themselves! Jednota leaders were not content to merely maintam a defensive position. They launched an effective offensive to rout the enemy and establish the natural right of the Slovak nation to its own democratic self-government in line with the Wilsonian principle of 'self-determinatio n for all nations.' Historically, it must be registered that the Jednota, from the highest officer to the last member, met the challenge of both the ancient and modern foes of Slovak freedom and helped immeasurably to liberate the Slovaks from Magyar rule in Hungary.13 Moral values for Father nulik rated an A-1 priority. Thus, the Jednota for him was a vital factor in Catholic action, and, thank God, under the truly Christian-inspired leadership of such leaders as Father Dulik the Jednota can rightfully and proudly claim that its policies have been guided by spiritual motives rather than material interests that are too often motivated by mere expediency. "Unique is the proper world to describe the total achievements of the Jednota, for it is undoubtedly great to have an organization with many thousands of members, to have a rich treasury, to have order and discipline, all of which have to a greater or less extent, as a matter of fact, but it is a far greater asset to cherish and foster our ancient Christian faith and traditions and to excel in moral virtue that contributed far more to our society in America than mere material wealth. I re-affirm unequivocally that the millions we have given out in benefits and that we shall distribute in the future cannot equal in value the spiritual benefits that have accrued to our members, Slovak nation and America directly as fruits of Jednota leadership in the past decades." 14 Father Dulik was fully aware of the vita! role of the Jednota, but he realized, too, that its work ultimately depended upon human beings. He always gave his full support, therefore, to his colleagues. His friendship with Joseph Husek, a noted journalist, was particularly strong and effective among the American Slovaks. These two complemented each other in the struggle for unity among 76 SLOVAKIA American Slovaks. This was an important and decisive factor when a number of Slovak priests organized opposition to Rusek. Father Dulik did not hesitate to side with his friend against a number of clerical opponents who attacked Rusek on the question of Slovak national freedom. 15 Husek's talents as editor Father nulik rightfully assessed and appreciated. Moreover, he did not doubt his sincerity, for he regarded Rusek as a true successor of Stefan Furdek in whose footsteps he followed to work in the true interests of the Jednota and the Slovak people. 16 Father nulik, unfortunately, became a victim of circumstances that seem to have plagued all of our great Slovak figures of the time. He suddenly lost his popularity at the very height of his brilliant career. A background to this ironical development is found in the minutes of the First Catholic Slovak Union. There we find a long list of intrigues and prejudices levelled against his person, as he himself outlined before his resignation at the annual executive meeting in 1933.17 Suddenly and unexpectedly a forceful personality was removed from the ranks of the Jednota. Father nulik's vision and dynamic energy were lost with his departure from the office of supreme chaplain. IN RETROSPECT: THE 1928 CONVENTION One of Father Dulik's proposals at the executive meeting in 1928, namely, to have a junior membership convention was immediately endorsed and the first such meeting was held at the Jednota Home in Middletown, Pa. in the summer of that very same year. A total of 170 delegates and more than 2,000 guests convened for this general assembly of our junior membership. As might be expected, the Man of the Hour was Father nulik. In his keynote address he called upon the entire assembly to foster the Slovak language, to cherish the ideals of the Slovak nation and to preserve our ancient national heritage of faith and freedom under God. 18 Hailed throughout the country in Slovak circles and publicized by the Slovak press, Father nulik's program stimulated such interest that the supreme chaplain was invited to speak at a series of programs in various parts of the country. He travelled extensively and created interest SLOVAKIA 77 everywhere in the common cause of our fraternal and national destiny as true sons of the land of our Slovak forefathers. 19 TREASURER OF THE SLOVAK CATHOLIC EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTE Slovak priests and laity, as a general rule, from the very beginning worked together in harmony in this country, and that included cooperation in cultural and national affairs. In the Slovak Catholic Educational Institute, for example, under the presidency of the genial Michael Bosak, Sr. the office of secretary was ably filled by the aggressive Joseph Husek, and the treasurer's post was entrusted to the highly respected Father i'.>ulik. This unusual trio did an excellent job of collecting a substantial sum of several hundred thousand dollars despite adverse economic conditions in the country. A nationwide appeal by Father f>ulik aroused the interest of his fellow Slovaks who contributed generously to the project of higher education. A number of American bishops not only endorsed the campaign in their dioceses but contributed financially, too.20 Michael Bosak's generosity and Father f>ulik's personality were a happy combination that won generous support among the clergy and laity. The Slovak press supported the campaign that enabled the Slovak Sisters of St. Cyril and Methodius to build a beautiful new Academy for girls in Danville, Pa. and the Slovak Benedictines to purchase a suitable site for their boys' Benedictine High School in Cleveland, Ohio. Father f>ulik in a brief span of time between two World Wars was a dynamic force in stimulating an active and vigorous interest in the preservation of the Slovak spirit and the enrichment of Slovak culture in America, as well as a tremendous growth of our Slovak fraternal organizations. A TRAGIC ENDING Father Joseph i'.>ulik's life came to a tragic end when he was drawned accidentally while on a routine fishing trip on the Delaware River on August 26, 1936. Although Father f>ulik's life was comparatively brief, 78 SLOVAKIA his highly concentrated energies were instrumental in successfully promoting the highest traditions of Slovak freedom, culture and faith that became intimately interwoven into a beautiful fabric of American Slovak life that bears the unique imprint of his indomitable character and skillful workmanship. Perhaps more than any single individual in the history of the Slovaks in America Father Dulik's influence brought out the primeval elements of our national Slovak Christian heritage, namely, an indestructible faith in God and His Church, an all consuming love of his Slovak brethren and a passionate aspiration for Slovak national freedom, as well as profound appreciation of the richness of our Slovak language, literature and culture. Translated by Andrew Pier, O.S.B. FOOTNOTES 1) "Rev. J. J. 1'.>ulik 20 rokov knazom" (Rev J . J. Dulik 20 years a priest). Slovak v Amerike, June 6, 1929, p. 2. 2) "Za krest'anske a autonomne Slovensko" (For a Christian and autonomous Slovakia). Jednota, November 26, 1919, p. 4. 3) "Uradna zprava schodze katolickych duchovnych a zastupcov kat. organizacil odbyvana dna 19. a 20. novembra 19-19 v Pittsburgh, Pa." ( Official report of the meeting of Catholic clergy and representatives of Catholic organizations on November 19 and 20, 1919 in Pittsburgh, Pa.), Jednota, December 3, 1919, p. 5. Signed by Father !>ullk and A. Pirhalla. 4) "Podrobnosti z konvencie Sdruzenia Slov. Katolikov" (From the report of the Convention of the Slovak Catholic Federation ), Jednota, November 24, 1919, p. 1. 5) "Vaznejsie uznesenia Sdruz. SI. Katolikov (More important proceedings of the Slovak Catholic Federation), Jednota, January 28, 1920, p. 1. 6) The complete text of the Memorandum in the Jednota of May 26, 1920, p. 5. Signatures of Fr. Jozef !>ulik, president, Fr. Stefan Kocis, secretary and Jozef Husek, member of the executive committee. 7) "Konvencia Sdruzenia Slovenskych Katolikov" (Convention of the Slovak Catholic Federation), Jednota, October 20, 1920, p. 1. Reports from the convention confirmed Fr. !>ulik's principle expressed when he was elected president: "I am not a friend of programmed speeches, or articles. I prefer to do more than I promise." "Sdruzenie Katolikov," Jednota, January 7, 1920, p. 1. Father Klemo Hrtanek was elected president in Chicago. 8) Quote: "The Slovak Catholic Federation today is in favor of autonomous Slovakia and it will continue to support Slovak autonomy SLOVAKIA 79 until the flag of Slovak autonomy waves above the Tatras in the framework of the Czecho-Slovak Republic." ... Rev. G. K. Vaniscak, O.S.B., "Po konvencii Sdruzenia Slovenskych Katolikov" (After the Convention of the Slovak Catholic Federation), Jednota, October 20, 1920, p. 4. 9) "Rev. Moysovi, " Jednota, March 13, 1920, p. 4. 10) Report of his election in the Minutes of the 22nd Convention of the Jednota (First Catholic Slovak Union), p. 254. Data in the minutes about the presence and election of Msgr. Andrej ffiinka. 11 ) Minutes from the 23rd Convention of the First Catholic Slovak Union, p. 288. 12) Minutes from the 24th Convention of the Jednota, p . 540. 13) "40 rokov" (40 Years) , Jednota, May 20, 1931, p. 1. 14) Minutes from the 24th Convention of the First Catholic Slovak Union, p. 17. 15) Matter pertaining to a pro-Magyar Slovak priest, Rev. Dr. Jehli~ka, and his comrades in America. See Minutes from the 24th Conv ention of the First Catholic Slovak Union, pp. 20-21. 16) "40 rokov" (40 Years), Jednota, May 20, 1931, p. 1. 17) Compare the Minutes from the annual meeting of the executive committee of the F.C.S.U. (Jednota), 1932, p. 3 pertaining to Fr. f>ulik's complaints with Husek's editorial "S Bohom . .. do videnia" (Goodbye, until we meet again) in the February 3, 1932, issue of the Jednota weekly. 18) Sermon on July 16, 1928, in St. Patrick's Cathedral, Harrisburg, Pa. Compare the report on the first convention of the young membership (Junior Branch) in the July 18, 1928, p. 1 issue of the Jednota. Details are given in this report. 19) "Rev. Joseph J . Dulik," Jednota issue of May 23, 1934. Contemporary critics agreed that Fr. f>ulik was a good preacher and an eloquent speaker. 20) Bishops Philip McDevitt of Harrisburg, Pa., Joseph Schrembs of Cleveland, Ohio, and T. C. O'Reilly of Scranton, Pa. endorsed the campaign of the Slovak Catholic Educational Institute for their Slovak priests. Bishop O'Reilly donated $1,000 and Bishop Thomas Walsh of Trenton gave $250 to the campaign. At a meeting of the Slovaks in T11enton Bishop Walsh recommended that the young Slovaks ought to learn the Slovak language, a language that has been spoken and written for hundreds of years. See Jednota issue of April 11, 1928, p. 4. Bishop Schrembs wrote an official letter in behalf of the Slovak Catholic Educational Institute. See the Jednota issue of April 24, 1929, p.1. SOURCES Minutes of the 22nd, 23rd and 24th Convention of the Jednota, and Minutes of the annual meeting of the executive committee of the First Catholic Slovak Union for the following years: 1928 through 1932. Kalendar Jednota, Middletown, Pa., 1937, p. 91.  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Slovak Pioneers in America: Reverend Gregory Vaniščák, O.S.B. Description An account of the resource Jozef Paučo, Ph.D. Slovakia, Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974 pp. 67-79 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Paučo, Jozef, 1914-1975 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 SNK https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/143749d0b4a4e1092a7042332c0bed89.pdf 75ec6b697d890207561ba49f26581f1a PDF Text Text 80 SLOVAKIA Andrew Pi er, O.S.B.: Slovaks Ln Blandburg AN AMERICAN HOLIDAY About a month after school vacations began, we looked forward to the Fourth of July with impatient anticipation of a great and exciting holiday. We were never disappointed, for American Independence Day was traditionally celebrated with great fanfare, noise and fun from early morning to late at night. At first it all seemed strange to us, but it did not take us long to get into the spirit of the day long before we learned the historical significance of the great day in mid-summer. The fervor of patriotism ran high from dawn to mid-night. Explosives of black-powder, gun-fire and dynamite routed everyone out of bed at the first light of day, the sound of fire-crackers continued all day long and a bright display of sparklers and rockets after dark finally climaxed a day of unexcelled excitement. The day's festivities were highlighted by a parade iR which participants of all ages escorted or rode prancing horses and sedate mules that were drafted from the mines or farms to add color and life to the happy event. An added feature was a troop of ex-soldiers and dragoons from the Austro•Hungarian armed forces (mostly Slovaks who had served in the imperial army) who rode on mules borrowed from the mine-owners of the district for the occasion. Gaily attired in their colorful uniforms ( which they had brought with them to this country as souvenirs) they gave a kind of 'foreign legion' picture and atmosphere to the American Fourth of July parade, the like of which will never be seen again. Baseball attracted large crowds before and after lunch as our town's heroes played for glory and victory in a pair of traditional contests against a visiting team. At intermission an abbreviated game between rival teams picked from the mines' department and the brick-yard division of Harbi- �SLOVAKIA 81 -------------------------- son Walker Refractorie s provided no end of entertainm ent as these 'amateurs' never failed to provide hilarious plays in what turned out to be a comedy of errors. The winners were rewarded with great applause and free beer. The children were not neglected, nor were the youthful athletes in their early teens. There were many prizes for them in a series of contests that included running, jumping, throwing the ball, potato-sack races, the three-legged race, the spoon-egg race, etc. Twilight was greeted by an awesome array of rockets and sparklers that lighted up the sky. But this was merely the prelude to a final breath-taki ng outburst of rockets that exploded into beautiful pictorial designs that were greeted exciting 'oh's and ah's' from one end of town to the other. Finally, as if by common agreement when the last sparkler and rocket were reduced to ashes, a sudden silence filled the town. Not even a dog barked as the townspeop le returned to their homes to put their children to sleep before retiring at the end of a perfect day .. . at least for the children who went off to sleep and dream of the happy· days ahead before the school bell would again summon them to resume the perennial struggle in the endless pursuit of learning and knowledge . But for them, at least, that day was far distant as they dozed off into sweet dream after a truly happy and unforgetta ble holiday. A PARADE FOR THE SLOVAK NATION Approxima tely a half century has passed by since the Slovak nation awaited its liberation from political bondage and the American Slovaks gave a helping hand generously in the movement to free their native homeland from foreign rule. I was only a boy but I remember the spirit of the times. July 4, 1917, stands out in my memory as a memorabl e day because it is an American national holiday and because it is so near to the feastday of SS. Cyril and Methodius (it was celebrated on July 5 or July 7 in those days). At any rate a patriotic-m inded group of Slovaks planned to observe a double holiday on July 4 that year. They decided to hold �82 SLOVAKIA a parade throught the main street of our small town of about 2,000 in population. This was, in fact, the only real street we had, and it was a dirt road at that. When it rained it was a muddy thorofare ... and when it was dry it was rather dusty. But we preferred dust to mud and therefore we prayed fervently for a sunny day. Our prayers were answered. July the Fourth was ushered in by a beautiful sunrise and sunny skies prevailed throughout the historic day. Our priest was of Irish descent and he sympathized with the Slovaks, for he knew at firsthand that English oppression was no better than Magyar rule. He agreed to offer up a Mass commemorating the feast of SS. Cyril and Methodius, the ninth century missionary-Apostles who converted the Slovaks to Christianity, approved the singing of Slovak hyms, and promised to read both the Epistle and Gospel in the Slovak language personally ... after all it was like reading Latin. Long before the parade got underway the Slovaks gathered in front of our home on a side-street (if we must give the roadway a dignified name) and the small band of musicians (three amateur accordionists) and a trumpetplayer soon attracted an increasing number of admirers ... even without benefit of modern stereo the music was loud and clear . . . the band performed with great spirit because its members knew they were playing for a cause and the ever-growing appreciative audience encouraged their efforts. Finally, the parade started for the church which was about a mile at the each end of our town. The American Flag and the Slovak Flag (the same colors: White-Blue-Red) were proudly carried at the head of the parade and the marchers waved smaller flags as they followed the major Flag-bearers and the musicians. We all sang both the Star Spangled Banner and My Country Tis of Thee (the youngsters with gusto and their elders, recent arrivals from across the seas, with a muted foreign accent but with more reverence) and the 'Hej, Slovaci' when the elders came into their own ... they sang their heart out. Too bad this scene was not recorded on film and an a sound track. Perhaps �SLOVAKIA 83 it may be re-created as a colorful chapter in American Slovak folklorama that has great historic significance. Half-way to the Church the parade was swelled by groups of youngsters who joined in the march. There were the 'native' Americans, as well as representatives of the Polish, Moravian, Russian, Croatian, Irish, Scotch and English communities ... a veritable United Nations parade on the march for Slovak national freedom. Needless to observe that the Church ceremonies were impressive and the good pastor read the Slovak portions of the Liturgy with unique Latin-Irish pronunciation that was quite understandable and inspiring. And the special Slovak choir that led the Congregational Singing was at its best. Even the regular choir members who were veterans of the Sunday Latin Mass were impressed both by the beautiful Slovak melodies and the singers, too. It was truly a great day for the Slovaks. From that day on the townspeople looked upon the Slovaks with new interest and respect, for they recognized in them a hitherto quality that had been hidden beneath a shy exterior, namely, a vigorous spirit of proud identity as free men who marched and sang in public manifestation of their profound devotion to the ideals of faith and freedom under God in a free country ... and at the same time of fierce pride in their Slovak ancestry and love of their ancient Christian heritage. (A translation from the Slovak book, Nad nami hory - pod nami bane . . . (Woodlands above us-Mines below), by Andrew Pier, 0 .S.B. , 1972.) DR. MARIA KOSOV .A of the Slovak Academy of Science and Art in Bratislava, Slovakia, was the guest speaker last September at the Cleveland Public Library. More than three hundred attended the illustrated slide-lecture on the subject of Slovak folklore and art. � 80 SLOVAKIA Andrew Pi er, O.S.B.: Slovaks Ln Blandburg AN AMERICAN HOLIDAY About a month after school vacations began, we looked forward to the Fourth of July with impatient anticipation of a great and exciting holiday. We were never disappointed, for American Independence Day was traditionally celebrated with great fanfare, noise and fun from early morning to late at night. At first it all seemed strange to us, but it did not take us long to get into the spirit of the day long before we learned the historical significance of the great day in mid-summer. The fervor of patriotism ran high from dawn to mid-night. Explosives of black-powder, gun-fire and dynamite routed everyone out of bed at the first light of day, the sound of fire-crackers continued all day long and a bright display of sparklers and rockets after dark finally climaxed a day of unexcelled excitement. The day's festivities were highlighted by a parade iR which participants of all ages escorted or rode prancing horses and sedate mules that were drafted from the mines or farms to add color and life to the happy event. An added feature was a troop of ex-soldiers and dragoons from the Austro•Hungarian armed forces (mostly Slovaks who had served in the imperial army) who rode on mules borrowed from the mine-owners of the district for the occasion. Gaily attired in their colorful uniforms ( which they had brought with them to this country as souvenirs) they gave a kind of 'foreign legion' picture and atmosphere to the American Fourth of July parade, the like of which will never be seen again. Baseball attracted large crowds before and after lunch as our town's heroes played for glory and victory in a pair of traditional contests against a visiting team. At intermission an abbreviated game between rival teams picked from the mines' department and the brick-yard division of Harbi- �SLOVAKIA 81 -------------------------- son Walker Refractorie s provided no end of entertainm ent as these 'amateurs' never failed to provide hilarious plays in what turned out to be a comedy of errors. The winners were rewarded with great applause and free beer. The children were not neglected, nor were the youthful athletes in their early teens. There were many prizes for them in a series of contests that included running, jumping, throwing the ball, potato-sack races, the three-legged race, the spoon-egg race, etc. Twilight was greeted by an awesome array of rockets and sparklers that lighted up the sky. But this was merely the prelude to a final breath-taki ng outburst of rockets that exploded into beautiful pictorial designs that were greeted exciting 'oh's and ah's' from one end of town to the other. Finally, as if by common agreement when the last sparkler and rocket were reduced to ashes, a sudden silence filled the town. Not even a dog barked as the townspeop le returned to their homes to put their children to sleep before retiring at the end of a perfect day .. . at least for the children who went off to sleep and dream of the happy· days ahead before the school bell would again summon them to resume the perennial struggle in the endless pursuit of learning and knowledge . But for them, at least, that day was far distant as they dozed off into sweet dream after a truly happy and unforgetta ble holiday. A PARADE FOR THE SLOVAK NATION Approxima tely a half century has passed by since the Slovak nation awaited its liberation from political bondage and the American Slovaks gave a helping hand generously in the movement to free their native homeland from foreign rule. I was only a boy but I remember the spirit of the times. July 4, 1917, stands out in my memory as a memorabl e day because it is an American national holiday and because it is so near to the feastday of SS. Cyril and Methodius (it was celebrated on July 5 or July 7 in those days). At any rate a patriotic-m inded group of Slovaks planned to observe a double holiday on July 4 that year. They decided to hold �82 SLOVAKIA a parade throught the main street of our small town of about 2,000 in population. This was, in fact, the only real street we had, and it was a dirt road at that. When it rained it was a muddy thorofare ... and when it was dry it was rather dusty. But we preferred dust to mud and therefore we prayed fervently for a sunny day. Our prayers were answered. July the Fourth was ushered in by a beautiful sunrise and sunny skies prevailed throughout the historic day. Our priest was of Irish descent and he sympathized with the Slovaks, for he knew at firsthand that English oppression was no better than Magyar rule. He agreed to offer up a Mass commemorating the feast of SS. Cyril and Methodius, the ninth century missionary-Apostles who converted the Slovaks to Christianity, approved the singing of Slovak hyms, and promised to read both the Epistle and Gospel in the Slovak language personally ... after all it was like reading Latin. Long before the parade got underway the Slovaks gathered in front of our home on a side-street (if we must give the roadway a dignified name) and the small band of musicians (three amateur accordionists) and a trumpetplayer soon attracted an increasing number of admirers ... even without benefit of modern stereo the music was loud and clear . . . the band performed with great spirit because its members knew they were playing for a cause and the ever-growing appreciative audience encouraged their efforts. Finally, the parade started for the church which was about a mile at the each end of our town. The American Flag and the Slovak Flag (the same colors: White-Blue-Red) were proudly carried at the head of the parade and the marchers waved smaller flags as they followed the major Flag-bearers and the musicians. We all sang both the Star Spangled Banner and My Country Tis of Thee (the youngsters with gusto and their elders, recent arrivals from across the seas, with a muted foreign accent but with more reverence) and the 'Hej, Slovaci' when the elders came into their own ... they sang their heart out. Too bad this scene was not recorded on film and an a sound track. Perhaps �SLOVAKIA 83 it may be re-created as a colorful chapter in American Slovak folklorama that has great historic significance. Half-way to the Church the parade was swelled by groups of youngsters who joined in the march. There were the 'native' Americans, as well as representatives of the Polish, Moravian, Russian, Croatian, Irish, Scotch and English communities ... a veritable United Nations parade on the march for Slovak national freedom. Needless to observe that the Church ceremonies were impressive and the good pastor read the Slovak portions of the Liturgy with unique Latin-Irish pronunciation that was quite understandable and inspiring. And the special Slovak choir that led the Congregational Singing was at its best. Even the regular choir members who were veterans of the Sunday Latin Mass were impressed both by the beautiful Slovak melodies and the singers, too. It was truly a great day for the Slovaks. From that day on the townspeople looked upon the Slovaks with new interest and respect, for they recognized in them a hitherto quality that had been hidden beneath a shy exterior, namely, a vigorous spirit of proud identity as free men who marched and sang in public manifestation of their profound devotion to the ideals of faith and freedom under God in a free country ... and at the same time of fierce pride in their Slovak ancestry and love of their ancient Christian heritage. (A translation from the Slovak book, Nad nami hory - pod nami bane . . . (Woodlands above us-Mines below), by Andrew Pier, 0 .S.B. , 1972.) DR. MARIA KOSOV .A of the Slovak Academy of Science and Art in Bratislava, Slovakia, was the guest speaker last September at the Cleveland Public Library. More than three hundred attended the illustrated slide-lecture on the subject of Slovak folklore and art. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1974, Vol. 24 Description An account of the resource Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document 80 SLOVAKIA Andrew Pi er, O.S.B.: Slovaks Ln Blandburg AN AMERICAN HOLIDAY About a month after school vacations began, we looked forward to the Fourth of July with impatient anticipation of a great and exciting holiday. We were never disappointed, for American Independence Day was traditionally celebrated with great fanfare, noise and fun from early morning to late at night. At first it all seemed strange to us, but it did not take us long to get into the spirit of the day long before we learned the historical significance of the great day in mid-summer. The fervor of patriotism ran high from dawn to mid-night. Explosives of black-powder, gun-fire and dynamite routed everyone out of bed at the first light of day, the sound of fire-crackers continued all day long and a bright display of sparklers and rockets after dark finally climaxed a day of unexcelled excitement. The day's festivities were highlighted by a parade iR which participants of all ages escorted or rode prancing horses and sedate mules that were drafted from the mines or farms to add color and life to the happy event. An added feature was a troop of ex-soldiers and dragoons from the Austro•Hungarian armed forces (mostly Slovaks who had served in the imperial army) who rode on mules borrowed from the mine-owners of the district for the occasion. Gaily attired in their colorful uniforms ( which they had brought with them to this country as souvenirs) they gave a kind of 'foreign legion' picture and atmosphere to the American Fourth of July parade, the like of which will never be seen again. Baseball attracted large crowds before and after lunch as our town's heroes played for glory and victory in a pair of traditional contests against a visiting team. At intermission an abbreviated game between rival teams picked from the mines' department and the brick-yard division of Harbi- SLOVAKIA 81 -------------------------- son Walker Refractorie s provided no end of entertainm ent as these 'amateurs' never failed to provide hilarious plays in what turned out to be a comedy of errors. The winners were rewarded with great applause and free beer. The children were not neglected, nor were the youthful athletes in their early teens. There were many prizes for them in a series of contests that included running, jumping, throwing the ball, potato-sack races, the three-legged race, the spoon-egg race, etc. Twilight was greeted by an awesome array of rockets and sparklers that lighted up the sky. But this was merely the prelude to a final breath-taki ng outburst of rockets that exploded into beautiful pictorial designs that were greeted exciting 'oh's and ah's' from one end of town to the other. Finally, as if by common agreement when the last sparkler and rocket were reduced to ashes, a sudden silence filled the town. Not even a dog barked as the townspeop le returned to their homes to put their children to sleep before retiring at the end of a perfect day .. . at least for the children who went off to sleep and dream of the happy· days ahead before the school bell would again summon them to resume the perennial struggle in the endless pursuit of learning and knowledge . But for them, at least, that day was far distant as they dozed off into sweet dream after a truly happy and unforgetta ble holiday. A PARADE FOR THE SLOVAK NATION Approxima tely a half century has passed by since the Slovak nation awaited its liberation from political bondage and the American Slovaks gave a helping hand generously in the movement to free their native homeland from foreign rule. I was only a boy but I remember the spirit of the times. July 4, 1917, stands out in my memory as a memorabl e day because it is an American national holiday and because it is so near to the feastday of SS. Cyril and Methodius (it was celebrated on July 5 or July 7 in those days). At any rate a patriotic-m inded group of Slovaks planned to observe a double holiday on July 4 that year. They decided to hold 82 SLOVAKIA a parade throught the main street of our small town of about 2,000 in population. This was, in fact, the only real street we had, and it was a dirt road at that. When it rained it was a muddy thorofare ... and when it was dry it was rather dusty. But we preferred dust to mud and therefore we prayed fervently for a sunny day. Our prayers were answered. July the Fourth was ushered in by a beautiful sunrise and sunny skies prevailed throughout the historic day. Our priest was of Irish descent and he sympathized with the Slovaks, for he knew at firsthand that English oppression was no better than Magyar rule. He agreed to offer up a Mass commemorating the feast of SS. Cyril and Methodius, the ninth century missionary-Apostles who converted the Slovaks to Christianity, approved the singing of Slovak hyms, and promised to read both the Epistle and Gospel in the Slovak language personally ... after all it was like reading Latin. Long before the parade got underway the Slovaks gathered in front of our home on a side-street (if we must give the roadway a dignified name) and the small band of musicians (three amateur accordionists) and a trumpetplayer soon attracted an increasing number of admirers ... even without benefit of modern stereo the music was loud and clear . . . the band performed with great spirit because its members knew they were playing for a cause and the ever-growing appreciative audience encouraged their efforts. Finally, the parade started for the church which was about a mile at the each end of our town. The American Flag and the Slovak Flag (the same colors: White-Blue-Red) were proudly carried at the head of the parade and the marchers waved smaller flags as they followed the major Flag-bearers and the musicians. We all sang both the Star Spangled Banner and My Country Tis of Thee (the youngsters with gusto and their elders, recent arrivals from across the seas, with a muted foreign accent but with more reverence) and the 'Hej, Slovaci' when the elders came into their own ... they sang their heart out. Too bad this scene was not recorded on film and an a sound track. Perhaps SLOVAKIA 83 it may be re-created as a colorful chapter in American Slovak folklorama that has great historic significance. Half-way to the Church the parade was swelled by groups of youngsters who joined in the march. There were the 'native' Americans, as well as representatives of the Polish, Moravian, Russian, Croatian, Irish, Scotch and English communities ... a veritable United Nations parade on the march for Slovak national freedom. Needless to observe that the Church ceremonies were impressive and the good pastor read the Slovak portions of the Liturgy with unique Latin-Irish pronunciation that was quite understandable and inspiring. And the special Slovak choir that led the Congregational Singing was at its best. Even the regular choir members who were veterans of the Sunday Latin Mass were impressed both by the beautiful Slovak melodies and the singers, too. It was truly a great day for the Slovaks. From that day on the townspeople looked upon the Slovaks with new interest and respect, for they recognized in them a hitherto quality that had been hidden beneath a shy exterior, namely, a vigorous spirit of proud identity as free men who marched and sang in public manifestation of their profound devotion to the ideals of faith and freedom under God in a free country ... and at the same time of fierce pride in their Slovak ancestry and love of their ancient Christian heritage. (A translation from the Slovak book, Nad nami hory - pod nami bane . . . (Woodlands above us-Mines below), by Andrew Pier, 0 .S.B. , 1972.) DR. MARIA KOSOV .A of the Slovak Academy of Science and Art in Bratislava, Slovakia, was the guest speaker last September at the Cleveland Public Library. More than three hundred attended the illustrated slide-lecture on the subject of Slovak folklore and art.  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Slovaks in Blandburg: An American Holiday Description An account of the resource Andrew Pier, O.S.B. Slovakia, Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974 pp. 80-83 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Pier, Andrew W., 1910-2003 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 name https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/efdd0fb781b17d3de5567c2e9c360e4f.pdf 2b61d04f355f3bfeebd984321c4e80f0 PDF Text Text 84 SLOVAKIA Slovak Heritage By Michael O'P a k e, Esq. There were only three of us on deck that cold, foggy morning-Joseph, Stephen and I. On the distant horizon we could percive the faint outline of a women, standing like a sentinel in the middle of New York harbor. As we drew closer, her haunting voice seemed to penetrate the very depths of our souls and even brought tears to the eyes of my Slovak friends: "Give me your tired, your poor, your huddled masses yearning to breathe free; the wretched refuse of your teeming shore; send these, the homeless, tempest-tossed, to me." I watched Joseph who had been hungry and persecuted, brainwashed and forced by the party to sell his soul for the "glorious revolution of the proletariat." I followed Stephen who, untouched by freedom, had not been able to voice his own opinion or never able to worship his God. I thought of the other millions of enslaved human-beings, drifting helplessly on the sea of uncertainty, brutality, and prejudice-starvin g for a taste of freedom. I wondered what the Statue of Liberty thought when Joseph, in a voice choked up joy, said to her: "I wonder what it's like to be free." Yes, I learned a lesson that morning. We, the youth of America, as well as you . . . and you . . . and you-take freedom for granted. Little do we realize that it was bought with and protected by a precious coin-the blood spilled by the Joes and Jims at Bunker Hill, Gettysburg, at the Marne and on Heartbreak Ridge. Because these men died, we are free to live-to talk, laugh, and pray freedom. Freedom is a process-it must be handled and practiced in order to be known and loved. If freedom were taken away from American, then would we truly appreciate what a precious heritage that freedom is. Perhaps, then, fathers would be thankful that every man's home is his castle where he reigns king. Maybe mothers would appreciate being free to pray and equally important, to teach little Johnny or Susie the Our Father, the Hail Mary or a Psalm. Perhaps then and only then would 167 million Americans wake up! Then would they realize that their God- �SLOVAKIA 85 given rights of life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness could be snatched away and buried on the other side of the Iron Curtain. Perhaps then would all of the grumblers and ·groaners; who praise every century but their own, every country but this, realize that America is a synonym for freedom. , But what are you doing to prevent that dreadful daythe day when America could become freedomless? Oh, you_ celebrate every 4th of July with a picnic and fireworks-you pay your taxes because it's getting harder and harder to cheat -you skip casting your ballot on election day because "it's such a bother" -you separate the black-skinned from the, white in your segregated schools. Is this the way to safeguard our most precious heritage? Is this the way the people of America are answering the little boy's question? The Statue of Liberty, in all her pomp and glory, couldn't answer but we Americans can. What would you say to Joseph if he should. ask you: "I wonder what it's like to be free?" That story, or speech, was written by me in 1956--while still in high school. The thoughts are as valid today as they were 17 years ago but today in 1973-all of us as free proud Slovaks here in America- should be asking ourselves some · additional questions. The freedom and independence and religious liberty which we cherish and about which our ancestors in the old country dreamed-what are we doing to make it a realityin an independent Slovakia? A peaceful and independent Slovakia should be the goal of each and every one of us. One enemy of that goal is Communism. The raucous rumble of the Russian tanks and the screams of the innocent victims of Communist tyranny sinking into pools of their own blood were heard not too long ago in Eastern Europe. The presence and fear are still there. Communism lays its eggs in poverty, feeds on filth, grows in hatred and ignorance and then rears its ugly head for all the world to see. Communism is no idle economic theory for intellectuals to debate. It is a real scourge that saps the lifeblood of a people and subjugates them. It is godless, but it is a powerful religion. It makes machines out of men but they carry out their orders. Communism has threatened to bury us. What is your answer? �86 SLOVAKIA Communism, be it Russian, Chinese or Nationalistic, has always feared religion. That's why it's so important that your efforts to establish Slovakia as an independent religious province be successful. And now is the time. I urge you, Catholics as well as Lutheran and Greek Catholic leaders-to implore the Vatican to recognize now that Slovakia deserves its own cardinal, arehbishops and independent r,eligious ex,istence. I commend you for your efforts in this direction and ask you-are you doing enough? A letter once a year may not convey the sense of urgency and support that thousands of frequent letters from individuals and organizations and maybe even a personal audience. The second question I would like you to ponder-are you satisfied with the moral and political and social climate here in America? Look around you. What do you see? Materialism? This is a more subtle, more insidious growth. Like a cancer, it eats from within to weaken the body of our society. The moral fiber of our nation is slowly taking on the texture of the shiny synthetic creation called pleasure. "Enjoy yourself, it's later than you think." "What counts is a good time." These are the slogans being peddled by today's hucksters of materialism as they count their 30 pieces of silver. Our sense of values is being warped and we're too busy enjoying ourselves to care. Is it any wonder that youth seeks its thrills on the streets when parents are never home either? It is a surprise that marriages don't work when the concept of love has been stripped of its dignity and transformed into lust? Is the business world bribe or political pay-off unusual when a "full day's work for a full day's pay" is a thing of the past? Materialism takes many forms as it gradually weakens our spiritual values. One of the bulwarks against that erosion of values is the unity of the family-a trait so characteristic of the Slovak heritage. Love and closeness of family. We have much to give to America. What else do you see? A third dangerous enemy closely linked to materialism is complacency. "Why bother?" This is the tranquilizer that soothes our minds when a difficult task or problem presents itself. You've heard it many times''Why work harder than you have to, nobody else does?" �SLOVAKIA 87 "Why get involved in politics, it's a crooked game?" And so it goes. The most powerful and most comfortable nation in the world is content to grow fat and soft. The industriousness, the willingness, the pride in work of the Slovak is well-known and respected. But how about the political involvement? Are you satisfied? Are you satisfied that there is no Slovak governor in the entire United States? Are you satisfied that there are so few Slovak Congressmen and Senators? While the Slovaks were busy building churches, the Irish were building political organizations. We can learn a lesson. What else do you see? Another dangerous enemy is lawlessness. People get shook and disgusted ever so often when a national tragedy strikes. As though seared with a burning iron, our minds react and we feel sorry for ourselves-for awhile. But why does it take an assassins bullet to pierce our consciences. The disrespect for law which causes national tragedy starts with small things-with you and me- cheating at school, in the car, at parties, then it's robberies, assaults, drugs, rapes, murders. Draft cards are burned, the American Flag is desecreated, students riot and abuse lawful authority, and then withdraw from all this ugly reality with LSD, the pot party, the trip. God and country have given us law-for the good of us all. Let us respect it and be constructive in changing man's law when needed. No problems are solved by merely being against. Ask not, "Can I get away with it?" ask, "Is this right or wrong?" One way to combat this tide of lawnessness is to channel your energy into active involvement in organizing Slovak organizations, societies and clubs. Are you satisfied with the activities of all of our organizations? Could they be strengthened-by merger, by more youth involvement? These are some of the challenges facing all of us who are interested in freedom for all peoples everywhere. I urge you to do your part right now in achieving that goal. Together we can take the first step that will lead to the goals that all of us hold so dear. (Address given at the Conference of the Slovak League of America, May 19, 1973.) � 84 SLOVAKIA Slovak Heritage By Michael O'P a k e, Esq. There were only three of us on deck that cold, foggy morning-Joseph, Stephen and I. On the distant horizon we could percive the faint outline of a women, standing like a sentinel in the middle of New York harbor. As we drew closer, her haunting voice seemed to penetrate the very depths of our souls and even brought tears to the eyes of my Slovak friends: "Give me your tired, your poor, your huddled masses yearning to breathe free; the wretched refuse of your teeming shore; send these, the homeless, tempest-tossed, to me." I watched Joseph who had been hungry and persecuted, brainwashed and forced by the party to sell his soul for the "glorious revolution of the proletariat." I followed Stephen who, untouched by freedom, had not been able to voice his own opinion or never able to worship his God. I thought of the other millions of enslaved human-beings, drifting helplessly on the sea of uncertainty, brutality, and prejudice-starvin g for a taste of freedom. I wondered what the Statue of Liberty thought when Joseph, in a voice choked up joy, said to her: "I wonder what it's like to be free." Yes, I learned a lesson that morning. We, the youth of America, as well as you . . . and you . . . and you-take freedom for granted. Little do we realize that it was bought with and protected by a precious coin-the blood spilled by the Joes and Jims at Bunker Hill, Gettysburg, at the Marne and on Heartbreak Ridge. Because these men died, we are free to live-to talk, laugh, and pray freedom. Freedom is a process-it must be handled and practiced in order to be known and loved. If freedom were taken away from American, then would we truly appreciate what a precious heritage that freedom is. Perhaps, then, fathers would be thankful that every man's home is his castle where he reigns king. Maybe mothers would appreciate being free to pray and equally important, to teach little Johnny or Susie the Our Father, the Hail Mary or a Psalm. Perhaps then and only then would 167 million Americans wake up! Then would they realize that their God- �SLOVAKIA 85 given rights of life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness could be snatched away and buried on the other side of the Iron Curtain. Perhaps then would all of the grumblers and ·groaners; who praise every century but their own, every country but this, realize that America is a synonym for freedom. , But what are you doing to prevent that dreadful daythe day when America could become freedomless? Oh, you_ celebrate every 4th of July with a picnic and fireworks-you pay your taxes because it's getting harder and harder to cheat -you skip casting your ballot on election day because "it's such a bother" -you separate the black-skinned from the, white in your segregated schools. Is this the way to safeguard our most precious heritage? Is this the way the people of America are answering the little boy's question? The Statue of Liberty, in all her pomp and glory, couldn't answer but we Americans can. What would you say to Joseph if he should. ask you: "I wonder what it's like to be free?" That story, or speech, was written by me in 1956--while still in high school. The thoughts are as valid today as they were 17 years ago but today in 1973-all of us as free proud Slovaks here in America- should be asking ourselves some · additional questions. The freedom and independence and religious liberty which we cherish and about which our ancestors in the old country dreamed-what are we doing to make it a realityin an independent Slovakia? A peaceful and independent Slovakia should be the goal of each and every one of us. One enemy of that goal is Communism. The raucous rumble of the Russian tanks and the screams of the innocent victims of Communist tyranny sinking into pools of their own blood were heard not too long ago in Eastern Europe. The presence and fear are still there. Communism lays its eggs in poverty, feeds on filth, grows in hatred and ignorance and then rears its ugly head for all the world to see. Communism is no idle economic theory for intellectuals to debate. It is a real scourge that saps the lifeblood of a people and subjugates them. It is godless, but it is a powerful religion. It makes machines out of men but they carry out their orders. Communism has threatened to bury us. What is your answer? �86 SLOVAKIA Communism, be it Russian, Chinese or Nationalistic, has always feared religion. That's why it's so important that your efforts to establish Slovakia as an independent religious province be successful. And now is the time. I urge you, Catholics as well as Lutheran and Greek Catholic leaders-to implore the Vatican to recognize now that Slovakia deserves its own cardinal, arehbishops and independent r,eligious ex,istence. I commend you for your efforts in this direction and ask you-are you doing enough? A letter once a year may not convey the sense of urgency and support that thousands of frequent letters from individuals and organizations and maybe even a personal audience. The second question I would like you to ponder-are you satisfied with the moral and political and social climate here in America? Look around you. What do you see? Materialism? This is a more subtle, more insidious growth. Like a cancer, it eats from within to weaken the body of our society. The moral fiber of our nation is slowly taking on the texture of the shiny synthetic creation called pleasure. "Enjoy yourself, it's later than you think." "What counts is a good time." These are the slogans being peddled by today's hucksters of materialism as they count their 30 pieces of silver. Our sense of values is being warped and we're too busy enjoying ourselves to care. Is it any wonder that youth seeks its thrills on the streets when parents are never home either? It is a surprise that marriages don't work when the concept of love has been stripped of its dignity and transformed into lust? Is the business world bribe or political pay-off unusual when a "full day's work for a full day's pay" is a thing of the past? Materialism takes many forms as it gradually weakens our spiritual values. One of the bulwarks against that erosion of values is the unity of the family-a trait so characteristic of the Slovak heritage. Love and closeness of family. We have much to give to America. What else do you see? A third dangerous enemy closely linked to materialism is complacency. "Why bother?" This is the tranquilizer that soothes our minds when a difficult task or problem presents itself. You've heard it many times''Why work harder than you have to, nobody else does?" �SLOVAKIA 87 "Why get involved in politics, it's a crooked game?" And so it goes. The most powerful and most comfortable nation in the world is content to grow fat and soft. The industriousness, the willingness, the pride in work of the Slovak is well-known and respected. But how about the political involvement? Are you satisfied? Are you satisfied that there is no Slovak governor in the entire United States? Are you satisfied that there are so few Slovak Congressmen and Senators? While the Slovaks were busy building churches, the Irish were building political organizations. We can learn a lesson. What else do you see? Another dangerous enemy is lawlessness. People get shook and disgusted ever so often when a national tragedy strikes. As though seared with a burning iron, our minds react and we feel sorry for ourselves-for awhile. But why does it take an assassins bullet to pierce our consciences. The disrespect for law which causes national tragedy starts with small things-with you and me- cheating at school, in the car, at parties, then it's robberies, assaults, drugs, rapes, murders. Draft cards are burned, the American Flag is desecreated, students riot and abuse lawful authority, and then withdraw from all this ugly reality with LSD, the pot party, the trip. God and country have given us law-for the good of us all. Let us respect it and be constructive in changing man's law when needed. No problems are solved by merely being against. Ask not, "Can I get away with it?" ask, "Is this right or wrong?" One way to combat this tide of lawnessness is to channel your energy into active involvement in organizing Slovak organizations, societies and clubs. Are you satisfied with the activities of all of our organizations? Could they be strengthened-by merger, by more youth involvement? These are some of the challenges facing all of us who are interested in freedom for all peoples everywhere. I urge you to do your part right now in achieving that goal. Together we can take the first step that will lead to the goals that all of us hold so dear. (Address given at the Conference of the Slovak League of America, May 19, 1973.) � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1974, Vol. 24 Description An account of the resource Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document 84 SLOVAKIA Slovak Heritage By Michael O'P a k e, Esq. There were only three of us on deck that cold, foggy morning-Joseph, Stephen and I. On the distant horizon we could percive the faint outline of a women, standing like a sentinel in the middle of New York harbor. As we drew closer, her haunting voice seemed to penetrate the very depths of our souls and even brought tears to the eyes of my Slovak friends: "Give me your tired, your poor, your huddled masses yearning to breathe free; the wretched refuse of your teeming shore; send these, the homeless, tempest-tossed, to me." I watched Joseph who had been hungry and persecuted, brainwashed and forced by the party to sell his soul for the "glorious revolution of the proletariat." I followed Stephen who, untouched by freedom, had not been able to voice his own opinion or never able to worship his God. I thought of the other millions of enslaved human-beings, drifting helplessly on the sea of uncertainty, brutality, and prejudice-starvin g for a taste of freedom. I wondered what the Statue of Liberty thought when Joseph, in a voice choked up joy, said to her: "I wonder what it's like to be free." Yes, I learned a lesson that morning. We, the youth of America, as well as you . . . and you . . . and you-take freedom for granted. Little do we realize that it was bought with and protected by a precious coin-the blood spilled by the Joes and Jims at Bunker Hill, Gettysburg, at the Marne and on Heartbreak Ridge. Because these men died, we are free to live-to talk, laugh, and pray freedom. Freedom is a process-it must be handled and practiced in order to be known and loved. If freedom were taken away from American, then would we truly appreciate what a precious heritage that freedom is. Perhaps, then, fathers would be thankful that every man's home is his castle where he reigns king. Maybe mothers would appreciate being free to pray and equally important, to teach little Johnny or Susie the Our Father, the Hail Mary or a Psalm. Perhaps then and only then would 167 million Americans wake up! Then would they realize that their God- SLOVAKIA 85 given rights of life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness could be snatched away and buried on the other side of the Iron Curtain. Perhaps then would all of the grumblers and ·groaners; who praise every century but their own, every country but this, realize that America is a synonym for freedom. , But what are you doing to prevent that dreadful daythe day when America could become freedomless? Oh, you_ celebrate every 4th of July with a picnic and fireworks-you pay your taxes because it's getting harder and harder to cheat -you skip casting your ballot on election day because "it's such a bother" -you separate the black-skinned from the, white in your segregated schools. Is this the way to safeguard our most precious heritage? Is this the way the people of America are answering the little boy's question? The Statue of Liberty, in all her pomp and glory, couldn't answer but we Americans can. What would you say to Joseph if he should. ask you: "I wonder what it's like to be free?" That story, or speech, was written by me in 1956--while still in high school. The thoughts are as valid today as they were 17 years ago but today in 1973-all of us as free proud Slovaks here in America- should be asking ourselves some · additional questions. The freedom and independence and religious liberty which we cherish and about which our ancestors in the old country dreamed-what are we doing to make it a realityin an independent Slovakia? A peaceful and independent Slovakia should be the goal of each and every one of us. One enemy of that goal is Communism. The raucous rumble of the Russian tanks and the screams of the innocent victims of Communist tyranny sinking into pools of their own blood were heard not too long ago in Eastern Europe. The presence and fear are still there. Communism lays its eggs in poverty, feeds on filth, grows in hatred and ignorance and then rears its ugly head for all the world to see. Communism is no idle economic theory for intellectuals to debate. It is a real scourge that saps the lifeblood of a people and subjugates them. It is godless, but it is a powerful religion. It makes machines out of men but they carry out their orders. Communism has threatened to bury us. What is your answer? 86 SLOVAKIA Communism, be it Russian, Chinese or Nationalistic, has always feared religion. That's why it's so important that your efforts to establish Slovakia as an independent religious province be successful. And now is the time. I urge you, Catholics as well as Lutheran and Greek Catholic leaders-to implore the Vatican to recognize now that Slovakia deserves its own cardinal, arehbishops and independent r,eligious ex,istence. I commend you for your efforts in this direction and ask you-are you doing enough? A letter once a year may not convey the sense of urgency and support that thousands of frequent letters from individuals and organizations and maybe even a personal audience. The second question I would like you to ponder-are you satisfied with the moral and political and social climate here in America? Look around you. What do you see? Materialism? This is a more subtle, more insidious growth. Like a cancer, it eats from within to weaken the body of our society. The moral fiber of our nation is slowly taking on the texture of the shiny synthetic creation called pleasure. "Enjoy yourself, it's later than you think." "What counts is a good time." These are the slogans being peddled by today's hucksters of materialism as they count their 30 pieces of silver. Our sense of values is being warped and we're too busy enjoying ourselves to care. Is it any wonder that youth seeks its thrills on the streets when parents are never home either? It is a surprise that marriages don't work when the concept of love has been stripped of its dignity and transformed into lust? Is the business world bribe or political pay-off unusual when a "full day's work for a full day's pay" is a thing of the past? Materialism takes many forms as it gradually weakens our spiritual values. One of the bulwarks against that erosion of values is the unity of the family-a trait so characteristic of the Slovak heritage. Love and closeness of family. We have much to give to America. What else do you see? A third dangerous enemy closely linked to materialism is complacency. "Why bother?" This is the tranquilizer that soothes our minds when a difficult task or problem presents itself. You've heard it many times''Why work harder than you have to, nobody else does?" SLOVAKIA 87 "Why get involved in politics, it's a crooked game?" And so it goes. The most powerful and most comfortable nation in the world is content to grow fat and soft. The industriousness, the willingness, the pride in work of the Slovak is well-known and respected. But how about the political involvement? Are you satisfied? Are you satisfied that there is no Slovak governor in the entire United States? Are you satisfied that there are so few Slovak Congressmen and Senators? While the Slovaks were busy building churches, the Irish were building political organizations. We can learn a lesson. What else do you see? Another dangerous enemy is lawlessness. People get shook and disgusted ever so often when a national tragedy strikes. As though seared with a burning iron, our minds react and we feel sorry for ourselves-for awhile. But why does it take an assassins bullet to pierce our consciences. The disrespect for law which causes national tragedy starts with small things-with you and me- cheating at school, in the car, at parties, then it's robberies, assaults, drugs, rapes, murders. Draft cards are burned, the American Flag is desecreated, students riot and abuse lawful authority, and then withdraw from all this ugly reality with LSD, the pot party, the trip. God and country have given us law-for the good of us all. Let us respect it and be constructive in changing man's law when needed. No problems are solved by merely being against. Ask not, "Can I get away with it?" ask, "Is this right or wrong?" One way to combat this tide of lawnessness is to channel your energy into active involvement in organizing Slovak organizations, societies and clubs. Are you satisfied with the activities of all of our organizations? Could they be strengthened-by merger, by more youth involvement? These are some of the challenges facing all of us who are interested in freedom for all peoples everywhere. I urge you to do your part right now in achieving that goal. Together we can take the first step that will lead to the goals that all of us hold so dear. (Address given at the Conference of the Slovak League of America, May 19, 1973.)  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Slovak Heritage Description An account of the resource Michael O'Pake, Esq. Slovakia, Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974 pp. 84-87 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource O'Pake, Michael A., 1940-2010 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 LCNAF https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/baa86b620a0ddcc8f8f978c58ea65751.pdf eeee6049adb987da89aae71e4b5ae408 PDF Text Text 88 SLOVAKIA The Youth Conference Slovak League of America SATURDAY, MAY 19, 1973, STATLER HILTON HOTEL, NEW YORK, N. Y. The Youth Conference of the Slovak League of America was held on Saturday, May 19, 1973 at the Statler Hilton Hotel in New York City. The panel was opened by Mr. Daniel F. Tanzone of Yonkers, N. Y. who served in the capacity of chairman of the panel and welcomed the delegates and introduced the members of the panel. Mr. Tanzone gave the opening address of the panel whose theme was 'Cultural Pluralism in contemporary American Society.' Each member of the panel read a brief address of a particular aspect relevant to the general theme of the conference. Members of the panel included: Miss Marilyn Blazek of Yonkers, N. Y. who spoke on the upcoming bill in copgress to establish ethnic centers in various parts of the U:nited States; Miss Susan Pojer of Yonkers, N. Y. who developed a talk within the aspect of Slovak culture and the ~rts; Miss Donna Sromovsky of Edison, N. J. who represented the First Catholic Slovak Ladies Association and gave talk on the contribution made by her society to Slovak culture and heritage through its resent national youth . congress held in Cleveland, Ohio; Miss Luby Holy qf West Paterson, N. J. who spoke on her recent visit to Slovakia and developed the idea of the rich natural beauties offered by the land of our ancestors; Mr. Joseph J . Krajsa of Middletown, Pa., who represented the First Catholic Slovak Union, gave a talk on the role played by his society in the past, present and some ideas for the future of Slovak life in America; and finally Mr. John Kovalovsky of Passaic, N. J . who represented the Slovak Catholic Sokol and spoke of the outstanding program offered members of his society in the area of gymnastics and athletics. Various topics were discussed and several weighty �SLOVAKIA 89 questions and observations were made by the participating delegates and panelists. The recommendations and observations were aimed at solving some of the pressing problems facing Slovak organizations and the preservation of the Slovak heritage in general. A general observation made was the evident lack of unity of Slovak fraternal societies in America today. The potential strength both in membership and achievement of one large Slovak fraternal society was discussed. Various programs both educational and cultural were suggested on a mass scale, possible if there were one Slovak fraternal with a membership of some one half million and assets of over one hundred million dollars with twenty or thirty millions of dollars in unassigned funds. The current losses were noted in all existing Slovak fraternals and membership loss is the greatest single factor which will usher the total demise of Slovak fraternalism if something is not done to alter the current trend. The youth present detected the very negative trait of jealousy among the leadership of our societies and advised that unless we can rid our ranks of this hazardous trait very little progress will be made. However a sharp warning was given Slovak fraternals who wish to become mere insurance companies - for then they serve no purpose in the cultural, social and fraternal lives of their memberships . The delegates seriously recommended that the Slovak fraternal societies within the framework of the Slovak League give serious consideration to merging by the end of this decade. The delegates wholeheartedly approved the bill now in congress aimed at establishing ethnic centers in various parts of the United States. The delegates recommended that the Slovak League of America, as the representative of organized Americans of Slovak descent, continue its interest and support for this program. Of major consequence to many delegates was the lack of sufficient research material in English on Slovak topics . The delegates encourage the Slovak League of America and the member societies to establish literary funds to aid in the translating of works from Slovak into English and other Western languages and to encourage young American students of Slovak descent to choose topics from Slovak �90 SLOVAKIA history, culture, and the arts for academic dissertations and to• publish such works as permanent contributions to American Slovakiana. There is a need for a Slovak encyclopedia written in English and also a Slovak Who's Who Unless we of Slovak origin can educate and if necessary re-educate the American public through literature in West• em languages, the Slovak nation will continue to · be misunderstood in historical and political science circles in America and other Western nations. Slovak organizations must not remain provincial in their outlook but must be willing to be innovative and tactful if we are to prove to American historians and political scientists that we are descended from a distinct nation with its own history culture, language and free from any appendage or colonial philosophy which exists in many academic circles in the West. Of paramount importance is to see that the present generations and those of the future born of Slovak parentage know their roots in order to be a contributing segment of American society. The delegates were in agreement that the Slovak nation at home be free of all outside intervention whether it be Prague or Moscow. Political, economic and ideological threats from outside sources must cease and the Slovak nation, like all nations under the sun, must be master of its own destiny and be free to choose the form of government best suited to its culture and traditions. The Slovak nation, like all other nations, is endowed with certain God-given rights of freedom, justice and self-deter• mination to stand among the great family of nations as master of its own destiny. The Slovaks should not be considered as an appendage or colony of any other nation but should stand on its own integrity as a civilized nation with a culture and tradition of over eleven centuries. The people of Slovakia should be afforded the right to choose their future path among the family of nations. A plebiscite should be the vehicle for the Slovak people to choose whether to stay within the federalized Central Europe or rather work for the re-establishment of a completely independent Slovakia free to choose its own destiny and capable to speak for the Slovak nation among the nations of the world. Always to �SLOVAKIA 91 be condemned is chauvinism of the Czech or Russian school as diametrically oposed to true Slovak political expression. The delegates recommend that the Holy Father Pope Paul VI establish Metropolitan provinces for both the Roman and Byzantine Rites in Slovakia and to settle the long overdue question of ecclesiastical jurisdiction in Slovakia. The Slovak nation must not stand for any ecclesiastical chauvinism on the part of Czech or Magyar ecclesiastics. A Cardinal should be appointed for Slovakia, a staunchy Catholic country for over eleven centuries. In conclusion the Slovak League of America is to be commended for sponsoring a very productive conference of youth and encourages future conferences in various cities of the United States. Daniel F. T a n z o n e, Chairman, Youth Panel THE SLOVAK LEAGUE OF AMERICA is an AMERICAN INSTITUTION; it was organized May 26, 1907, at Cleveland, 0 ., by the Rev. Stephen Furdek. THE SLOVAK LEAGUE OF AMERICA is dedicated to American Democracy, the American way of life, and encourages Americans of Slovak descent to be loyal and alert citizens of America; it urges and aids Slovak emigrants to become U. S. citizens by publishing appropriate manuals and brochures in Slovak and English. THE SLOVAK LEAGUE OF AMERICA firmly believes in the American principle of self-determination of all nations, the inherent and God-given right of every nation, whether large or small, to freedom and independence, the right of every nation to freely choose its own form of government and freely elect persons of its own choice by v1hom it shall be governed. THE SLOVAK LEAGUE OF AMERICA is interested primarily in promoting the welfare and security of the United States of America. � 88 SLOVAKIA The Youth Conference Slovak League of America SATURDAY, MAY 19, 1973, STATLER HILTON HOTEL, NEW YORK, N. Y. The Youth Conference of the Slovak League of America was held on Saturday, May 19, 1973 at the Statler Hilton Hotel in New York City. The panel was opened by Mr. Daniel F. Tanzone of Yonkers, N. Y. who served in the capacity of chairman of the panel and welcomed the delegates and introduced the members of the panel. Mr. Tanzone gave the opening address of the panel whose theme was 'Cultural Pluralism in contemporary American Society.' Each member of the panel read a brief address of a particular aspect relevant to the general theme of the conference. Members of the panel included: Miss Marilyn Blazek of Yonkers, N. Y. who spoke on the upcoming bill in copgress to establish ethnic centers in various parts of the U:nited States; Miss Susan Pojer of Yonkers, N. Y. who developed a talk within the aspect of Slovak culture and the ~rts; Miss Donna Sromovsky of Edison, N. J. who represented the First Catholic Slovak Ladies Association and gave talk on the contribution made by her society to Slovak culture and heritage through its resent national youth . congress held in Cleveland, Ohio; Miss Luby Holy qf West Paterson, N. J. who spoke on her recent visit to Slovakia and developed the idea of the rich natural beauties offered by the land of our ancestors; Mr. Joseph J . Krajsa of Middletown, Pa., who represented the First Catholic Slovak Union, gave a talk on the role played by his society in the past, present and some ideas for the future of Slovak life in America; and finally Mr. John Kovalovsky of Passaic, N. J . who represented the Slovak Catholic Sokol and spoke of the outstanding program offered members of his society in the area of gymnastics and athletics. Various topics were discussed and several weighty �SLOVAKIA 89 questions and observations were made by the participating delegates and panelists. The recommendations and observations were aimed at solving some of the pressing problems facing Slovak organizations and the preservation of the Slovak heritage in general. A general observation made was the evident lack of unity of Slovak fraternal societies in America today. The potential strength both in membership and achievement of one large Slovak fraternal society was discussed. Various programs both educational and cultural were suggested on a mass scale, possible if there were one Slovak fraternal with a membership of some one half million and assets of over one hundred million dollars with twenty or thirty millions of dollars in unassigned funds. The current losses were noted in all existing Slovak fraternals and membership loss is the greatest single factor which will usher the total demise of Slovak fraternalism if something is not done to alter the current trend. The youth present detected the very negative trait of jealousy among the leadership of our societies and advised that unless we can rid our ranks of this hazardous trait very little progress will be made. However a sharp warning was given Slovak fraternals who wish to become mere insurance companies - for then they serve no purpose in the cultural, social and fraternal lives of their memberships . The delegates seriously recommended that the Slovak fraternal societies within the framework of the Slovak League give serious consideration to merging by the end of this decade. The delegates wholeheartedly approved the bill now in congress aimed at establishing ethnic centers in various parts of the United States. The delegates recommended that the Slovak League of America, as the representative of organized Americans of Slovak descent, continue its interest and support for this program. Of major consequence to many delegates was the lack of sufficient research material in English on Slovak topics . The delegates encourage the Slovak League of America and the member societies to establish literary funds to aid in the translating of works from Slovak into English and other Western languages and to encourage young American students of Slovak descent to choose topics from Slovak �90 SLOVAKIA history, culture, and the arts for academic dissertations and to• publish such works as permanent contributions to American Slovakiana. There is a need for a Slovak encyclopedia written in English and also a Slovak Who's Who Unless we of Slovak origin can educate and if necessary re-educate the American public through literature in West• em languages, the Slovak nation will continue to · be misunderstood in historical and political science circles in America and other Western nations. Slovak organizations must not remain provincial in their outlook but must be willing to be innovative and tactful if we are to prove to American historians and political scientists that we are descended from a distinct nation with its own history culture, language and free from any appendage or colonial philosophy which exists in many academic circles in the West. Of paramount importance is to see that the present generations and those of the future born of Slovak parentage know their roots in order to be a contributing segment of American society. The delegates were in agreement that the Slovak nation at home be free of all outside intervention whether it be Prague or Moscow. Political, economic and ideological threats from outside sources must cease and the Slovak nation, like all nations under the sun, must be master of its own destiny and be free to choose the form of government best suited to its culture and traditions. The Slovak nation, like all other nations, is endowed with certain God-given rights of freedom, justice and self-deter• mination to stand among the great family of nations as master of its own destiny. The Slovaks should not be considered as an appendage or colony of any other nation but should stand on its own integrity as a civilized nation with a culture and tradition of over eleven centuries. The people of Slovakia should be afforded the right to choose their future path among the family of nations. A plebiscite should be the vehicle for the Slovak people to choose whether to stay within the federalized Central Europe or rather work for the re-establishment of a completely independent Slovakia free to choose its own destiny and capable to speak for the Slovak nation among the nations of the world. Always to �SLOVAKIA 91 be condemned is chauvinism of the Czech or Russian school as diametrically oposed to true Slovak political expression. The delegates recommend that the Holy Father Pope Paul VI establish Metropolitan provinces for both the Roman and Byzantine Rites in Slovakia and to settle the long overdue question of ecclesiastical jurisdiction in Slovakia. The Slovak nation must not stand for any ecclesiastical chauvinism on the part of Czech or Magyar ecclesiastics. A Cardinal should be appointed for Slovakia, a staunchy Catholic country for over eleven centuries. In conclusion the Slovak League of America is to be commended for sponsoring a very productive conference of youth and encourages future conferences in various cities of the United States. Daniel F. T a n z o n e, Chairman, Youth Panel THE SLOVAK LEAGUE OF AMERICA is an AMERICAN INSTITUTION; it was organized May 26, 1907, at Cleveland, 0 ., by the Rev. Stephen Furdek. THE SLOVAK LEAGUE OF AMERICA is dedicated to American Democracy, the American way of life, and encourages Americans of Slovak descent to be loyal and alert citizens of America; it urges and aids Slovak emigrants to become U. S. citizens by publishing appropriate manuals and brochures in Slovak and English. THE SLOVAK LEAGUE OF AMERICA firmly believes in the American principle of self-determination of all nations, the inherent and God-given right of every nation, whether large or small, to freedom and independence, the right of every nation to freely choose its own form of government and freely elect persons of its own choice by v1hom it shall be governed. THE SLOVAK LEAGUE OF AMERICA is interested primarily in promoting the welfare and security of the United States of America. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1974, Vol. 24 Description An account of the resource Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document 88 SLOVAKIA The Youth Conference Slovak League of America SATURDAY, MAY 19, 1973, STATLER HILTON HOTEL, NEW YORK, N. Y. The Youth Conference of the Slovak League of America was held on Saturday, May 19, 1973 at the Statler Hilton Hotel in New York City. The panel was opened by Mr. Daniel F. Tanzone of Yonkers, N. Y. who served in the capacity of chairman of the panel and welcomed the delegates and introduced the members of the panel. Mr. Tanzone gave the opening address of the panel whose theme was 'Cultural Pluralism in contemporary American Society.' Each member of the panel read a brief address of a particular aspect relevant to the general theme of the conference. Members of the panel included: Miss Marilyn Blazek of Yonkers, N. Y. who spoke on the upcoming bill in copgress to establish ethnic centers in various parts of the U:nited States; Miss Susan Pojer of Yonkers, N. Y. who developed a talk within the aspect of Slovak culture and the ~rts; Miss Donna Sromovsky of Edison, N. J. who represented the First Catholic Slovak Ladies Association and gave talk on the contribution made by her society to Slovak culture and heritage through its resent national youth . congress held in Cleveland, Ohio; Miss Luby Holy qf West Paterson, N. J. who spoke on her recent visit to Slovakia and developed the idea of the rich natural beauties offered by the land of our ancestors; Mr. Joseph J . Krajsa of Middletown, Pa., who represented the First Catholic Slovak Union, gave a talk on the role played by his society in the past, present and some ideas for the future of Slovak life in America; and finally Mr. John Kovalovsky of Passaic, N. J . who represented the Slovak Catholic Sokol and spoke of the outstanding program offered members of his society in the area of gymnastics and athletics. Various topics were discussed and several weighty SLOVAKIA 89 questions and observations were made by the participating delegates and panelists. The recommendations and observations were aimed at solving some of the pressing problems facing Slovak organizations and the preservation of the Slovak heritage in general. A general observation made was the evident lack of unity of Slovak fraternal societies in America today. The potential strength both in membership and achievement of one large Slovak fraternal society was discussed. Various programs both educational and cultural were suggested on a mass scale, possible if there were one Slovak fraternal with a membership of some one half million and assets of over one hundred million dollars with twenty or thirty millions of dollars in unassigned funds. The current losses were noted in all existing Slovak fraternals and membership loss is the greatest single factor which will usher the total demise of Slovak fraternalism if something is not done to alter the current trend. The youth present detected the very negative trait of jealousy among the leadership of our societies and advised that unless we can rid our ranks of this hazardous trait very little progress will be made. However a sharp warning was given Slovak fraternals who wish to become mere insurance companies - for then they serve no purpose in the cultural, social and fraternal lives of their memberships . The delegates seriously recommended that the Slovak fraternal societies within the framework of the Slovak League give serious consideration to merging by the end of this decade. The delegates wholeheartedly approved the bill now in congress aimed at establishing ethnic centers in various parts of the United States. The delegates recommended that the Slovak League of America, as the representative of organized Americans of Slovak descent, continue its interest and support for this program. Of major consequence to many delegates was the lack of sufficient research material in English on Slovak topics . The delegates encourage the Slovak League of America and the member societies to establish literary funds to aid in the translating of works from Slovak into English and other Western languages and to encourage young American students of Slovak descent to choose topics from Slovak 90 SLOVAKIA history, culture, and the arts for academic dissertations and to• publish such works as permanent contributions to American Slovakiana. There is a need for a Slovak encyclopedia written in English and also a Slovak Who's Who Unless we of Slovak origin can educate and if necessary re-educate the American public through literature in West• em languages, the Slovak nation will continue to · be misunderstood in historical and political science circles in America and other Western nations. Slovak organizations must not remain provincial in their outlook but must be willing to be innovative and tactful if we are to prove to American historians and political scientists that we are descended from a distinct nation with its own history culture, language and free from any appendage or colonial philosophy which exists in many academic circles in the West. Of paramount importance is to see that the present generations and those of the future born of Slovak parentage know their roots in order to be a contributing segment of American society. The delegates were in agreement that the Slovak nation at home be free of all outside intervention whether it be Prague or Moscow. Political, economic and ideological threats from outside sources must cease and the Slovak nation, like all nations under the sun, must be master of its own destiny and be free to choose the form of government best suited to its culture and traditions. The Slovak nation, like all other nations, is endowed with certain God-given rights of freedom, justice and self-deter• mination to stand among the great family of nations as master of its own destiny. The Slovaks should not be considered as an appendage or colony of any other nation but should stand on its own integrity as a civilized nation with a culture and tradition of over eleven centuries. The people of Slovakia should be afforded the right to choose their future path among the family of nations. A plebiscite should be the vehicle for the Slovak people to choose whether to stay within the federalized Central Europe or rather work for the re-establishment of a completely independent Slovakia free to choose its own destiny and capable to speak for the Slovak nation among the nations of the world. Always to SLOVAKIA 91 be condemned is chauvinism of the Czech or Russian school as diametrically oposed to true Slovak political expression. The delegates recommend that the Holy Father Pope Paul VI establish Metropolitan provinces for both the Roman and Byzantine Rites in Slovakia and to settle the long overdue question of ecclesiastical jurisdiction in Slovakia. The Slovak nation must not stand for any ecclesiastical chauvinism on the part of Czech or Magyar ecclesiastics. A Cardinal should be appointed for Slovakia, a staunchy Catholic country for over eleven centuries. In conclusion the Slovak League of America is to be commended for sponsoring a very productive conference of youth and encourages future conferences in various cities of the United States. Daniel F. T a n z o n e, Chairman, Youth Panel THE SLOVAK LEAGUE OF AMERICA is an AMERICAN INSTITUTION; it was organized May 26, 1907, at Cleveland, 0 ., by the Rev. Stephen Furdek. THE SLOVAK LEAGUE OF AMERICA is dedicated to American Democracy, the American way of life, and encourages Americans of Slovak descent to be loyal and alert citizens of America; it urges and aids Slovak emigrants to become U. S. citizens by publishing appropriate manuals and brochures in Slovak and English. THE SLOVAK LEAGUE OF AMERICA firmly believes in the American principle of self-determination of all nations, the inherent and God-given right of every nation, whether large or small, to freedom and independence, the right of every nation to freely choose its own form of government and freely elect persons of its own choice by v1hom it shall be governed. THE SLOVAK LEAGUE OF AMERICA is interested primarily in promoting the welfare and security of the United States of America.  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Youth Conference - Slovak League of America Description An account of the resource Daniel F. Tanzone Slovakia, Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974 pp. 88-91 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Tanzone, Daniel F. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 name https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/94e009273995fadc75925b7f68a42081.pdf fdb6871601db10592fbe17f31f33f364 PDF Text Text 92 SLOVAKIA Some Personal Observations on the 1973 Slovak League of America Conference By Susan Po j er, B .A. In March of 1973 I was asked to participate in the Slovak League of America Conference held on May 19, 1973, as a youth panel member, but was hesitant at first to accept because I felt that I had nothing of any value to contribute to such a gathering. Although I am a young Slovak-American and have a B.A. degree in European history, I must confess that I knew very little about the history and political development of Slovakia. My knowledge of the language and my ability to speak and understand Slovak had dwindled to a few words and phrases over the years. Fortunately for me, I still belong to a predominantly Slovak parish and my parents have maintained many of the Slovak customs and traditions so that I was not totally out of touch with my Slovak heritage. As I researched my own topic for discussion ( Slovak Folk Art) I began to get a glimpse into the nature of the Slovak people - their longing for beauty in the midst of poverty and hardship, their toughness and practicality in their everyday dealings with life and their piety and reverence for God and his creations. I started to experience a new-found pride in my ethnic background and in my ancestors which was strengthened at the Conference where I saw young and old come together to share their own feelings as to what means to be a Slovak-American. During the morning session, we were all separated into two panel groups (the youth and the older members) . During the youth session many areas were discussed covering a wide range of topics - the new Ethnic Heritage Studies Programs Act (Sen. Schweiker's Ethnic Studies Act), fraternal societies, a trip to Slovakia, Slovakia in �SLOVAKIA 93 history, and my own on Slovak folk art. After these talks were over, a general discussion ensued in which three major points were emphasized. The role of Slovak youth in educating the public and even re-educating their own parents as well as themselves was a topic heatedly discussed. Groups from many states elaborated on what they, as Slovak-Americans, were doing in their areas to help perpetuate the Slovak heritage and inform the public. Some had formed social clubs, others held language classes, while still others tried to get articles in their local papers on what the Slovaks in the community were doing. Another point discussed was the question of why there exists today so many different fraternal organizations. The concensus was that the unification of all fraternals into one large body with a substantial financial power could be a great new force in Slovak circles. We felt that the days of the dues-paying fraternals were numbered and that only one giant organization could keep the youth involved and interested in the ideals on which those many fraternals were originally founded. The third and most important point stressed throughout those morning discussions was the new Ethnic Heritage Studies Programs Act which had been passed by Congress in 1972. To date, however, no governmental funds have as yet been appropriated. Everyone agreed that the establishment of a Slovak ethnic studies center and the further government funding of existing academic, library, and Slovak language facilities was the most constructive way of educating the public and more important of providing our own youth with the educational opportunities (language courses, majors in Slovak studies for college students, a possible central publishing house and extensive monthly magazine or Slovak newspaper on events happening in Slovakia, etc.) to thoroughly investigate all aspects of the Slovak heritage and identity. The youth members present also requested the entire conference and heads of fraternals to support this Act by publishing in their journals, newspapers, and magazines a letter to encourage all readers to write to their legislators �94 SLOVAKIA to put pressure on the executive branch to fund these centers. During lunch, we heard a distinguished guest speaker, State Senator Michael A. O'Pake, of Pennsylvania. He encouraged us all to be proud of our Slovak heritage. Himself half Slovak, he pointed out the qualities in the Slovak people which we should be most proud of and pleaded to the assembly and to all Slovaks to become involved in the governmental system. He stated that, unlike other ethnic groups, the Slovaks never really took an interest in politics and it is high time that they did, as a group and as individuals. He also requested that we support local Slovak candidates for office. After lunch was over, we all assembled for a general meeting in which the youth and the older members informed one another of what had been discussed during their morning session. At the close of business, the Conference adjourned until next year. As I left the Statler Hilton Hotel, where the Conference had taken place, I had a feeling of rejuvenation, as if something inside of me had been reborn. I was also quite ashamed of my lack of knowledge of many aspects of Slovak culture as well as my almost total uncomprehension of the talks given in Slovak in which I could only catch a glimpse of a word here and there. I resolved to rectify both situations immediately. While riding home on the train, many ideas and thoughts for next year's Conference began to form in my mind and I would like to share them here. The major problem among the youth that I found when discussing a topic was the large age difference of the participants. Young people from 15 to 35 years of age were there and many discussions were beyond some. I feel that a Conference should be held for those ranging in age from 14 to 18 (high school level) and supervised by the young adult group. Or, at least next year, there should be separation into three age groups rather than two. As a college student and an M.A. candidate, I would hope to see in the near future a more scholarly symposium lasting perhaps a weekend with guest lecturers and speakers �SLOVAKIA 95 (university professors, Slovak political leaders, from here and from abroad, if possible, authors of books on Slovakia, etc.) in which students, teachers, and other interested parties could meet to discuss problems and topics on Slovak history, politics, language, literature and art. I would also like to see a weekend cultural fair as part of the Conference. It could include displays on all aspects of Slovak art, crafts, costumes, dancing, music as well as many others so that the non-Slovak public could also come and learn. Finally, I would like to see a quarterly or, if possible, monthly newsleter published for the young adult age group of 19 to 35. In it could be articles on what groups throughout the country were doing. This newsletter might also serve as a directory, constantly being up-dated, of, for example, where Slovak could be learned, what universities and colleges give courses in aspects of Slovak culture and ethnic studies, the availability of guest lecturers for groups, any news of trips to Slovakia, news of Slovak arts and crafts exhibits at local museums, etc., as well as language lessons, news items on what is happening in Slovakia from the press, and a listing of the latest books and articles published on Slovakia. I have tried to relate my own experiences at the 1973 Slovak League of America Conference. I have also made suggestions for future Conferences, proposed some new ideas. I would welcome any criticisms or further suggestions regarding the proposals I have presented. In summation I can say that this Conference has only wet my appetite to learn more about my Slovak heritage and my role as a Slovak-American. I look forward to the 1974 Conference with great anticipation and would encourage more youth to attend and voice their opinions. THE NOV .A SCENA dramatic company premiered Ivan Stodola's original ''Diogenes" version on the stage in Bratislava last May to celebrate the Slovak playwright's 85th birthday. � 92 SLOVAKIA Some Personal Observations on the 1973 Slovak League of America Conference By Susan Po j er, B .A. In March of 1973 I was asked to participate in the Slovak League of America Conference held on May 19, 1973, as a youth panel member, but was hesitant at first to accept because I felt that I had nothing of any value to contribute to such a gathering. Although I am a young Slovak-American and have a B.A. degree in European history, I must confess that I knew very little about the history and political development of Slovakia. My knowledge of the language and my ability to speak and understand Slovak had dwindled to a few words and phrases over the years. Fortunately for me, I still belong to a predominantly Slovak parish and my parents have maintained many of the Slovak customs and traditions so that I was not totally out of touch with my Slovak heritage. As I researched my own topic for discussion ( Slovak Folk Art) I began to get a glimpse into the nature of the Slovak people - their longing for beauty in the midst of poverty and hardship, their toughness and practicality in their everyday dealings with life and their piety and reverence for God and his creations. I started to experience a new-found pride in my ethnic background and in my ancestors which was strengthened at the Conference where I saw young and old come together to share their own feelings as to what means to be a Slovak-American. During the morning session, we were all separated into two panel groups (the youth and the older members) . During the youth session many areas were discussed covering a wide range of topics - the new Ethnic Heritage Studies Programs Act (Sen. Schweiker's Ethnic Studies Act), fraternal societies, a trip to Slovakia, Slovakia in �SLOVAKIA 93 history, and my own on Slovak folk art. After these talks were over, a general discussion ensued in which three major points were emphasized. The role of Slovak youth in educating the public and even re-educating their own parents as well as themselves was a topic heatedly discussed. Groups from many states elaborated on what they, as Slovak-Americans, were doing in their areas to help perpetuate the Slovak heritage and inform the public. Some had formed social clubs, others held language classes, while still others tried to get articles in their local papers on what the Slovaks in the community were doing. Another point discussed was the question of why there exists today so many different fraternal organizations. The concensus was that the unification of all fraternals into one large body with a substantial financial power could be a great new force in Slovak circles. We felt that the days of the dues-paying fraternals were numbered and that only one giant organization could keep the youth involved and interested in the ideals on which those many fraternals were originally founded. The third and most important point stressed throughout those morning discussions was the new Ethnic Heritage Studies Programs Act which had been passed by Congress in 1972. To date, however, no governmental funds have as yet been appropriated. Everyone agreed that the establishment of a Slovak ethnic studies center and the further government funding of existing academic, library, and Slovak language facilities was the most constructive way of educating the public and more important of providing our own youth with the educational opportunities (language courses, majors in Slovak studies for college students, a possible central publishing house and extensive monthly magazine or Slovak newspaper on events happening in Slovakia, etc.) to thoroughly investigate all aspects of the Slovak heritage and identity. The youth members present also requested the entire conference and heads of fraternals to support this Act by publishing in their journals, newspapers, and magazines a letter to encourage all readers to write to their legislators �94 SLOVAKIA to put pressure on the executive branch to fund these centers. During lunch, we heard a distinguished guest speaker, State Senator Michael A. O'Pake, of Pennsylvania. He encouraged us all to be proud of our Slovak heritage. Himself half Slovak, he pointed out the qualities in the Slovak people which we should be most proud of and pleaded to the assembly and to all Slovaks to become involved in the governmental system. He stated that, unlike other ethnic groups, the Slovaks never really took an interest in politics and it is high time that they did, as a group and as individuals. He also requested that we support local Slovak candidates for office. After lunch was over, we all assembled for a general meeting in which the youth and the older members informed one another of what had been discussed during their morning session. At the close of business, the Conference adjourned until next year. As I left the Statler Hilton Hotel, where the Conference had taken place, I had a feeling of rejuvenation, as if something inside of me had been reborn. I was also quite ashamed of my lack of knowledge of many aspects of Slovak culture as well as my almost total uncomprehension of the talks given in Slovak in which I could only catch a glimpse of a word here and there. I resolved to rectify both situations immediately. While riding home on the train, many ideas and thoughts for next year's Conference began to form in my mind and I would like to share them here. The major problem among the youth that I found when discussing a topic was the large age difference of the participants. Young people from 15 to 35 years of age were there and many discussions were beyond some. I feel that a Conference should be held for those ranging in age from 14 to 18 (high school level) and supervised by the young adult group. Or, at least next year, there should be separation into three age groups rather than two. As a college student and an M.A. candidate, I would hope to see in the near future a more scholarly symposium lasting perhaps a weekend with guest lecturers and speakers �SLOVAKIA 95 (university professors, Slovak political leaders, from here and from abroad, if possible, authors of books on Slovakia, etc.) in which students, teachers, and other interested parties could meet to discuss problems and topics on Slovak history, politics, language, literature and art. I would also like to see a weekend cultural fair as part of the Conference. It could include displays on all aspects of Slovak art, crafts, costumes, dancing, music as well as many others so that the non-Slovak public could also come and learn. Finally, I would like to see a quarterly or, if possible, monthly newsleter published for the young adult age group of 19 to 35. In it could be articles on what groups throughout the country were doing. This newsletter might also serve as a directory, constantly being up-dated, of, for example, where Slovak could be learned, what universities and colleges give courses in aspects of Slovak culture and ethnic studies, the availability of guest lecturers for groups, any news of trips to Slovakia, news of Slovak arts and crafts exhibits at local museums, etc., as well as language lessons, news items on what is happening in Slovakia from the press, and a listing of the latest books and articles published on Slovakia. I have tried to relate my own experiences at the 1973 Slovak League of America Conference. I have also made suggestions for future Conferences, proposed some new ideas. I would welcome any criticisms or further suggestions regarding the proposals I have presented. In summation I can say that this Conference has only wet my appetite to learn more about my Slovak heritage and my role as a Slovak-American. I look forward to the 1974 Conference with great anticipation and would encourage more youth to attend and voice their opinions. THE NOV .A SCENA dramatic company premiered Ivan Stodola's original ''Diogenes" version on the stage in Bratislava last May to celebrate the Slovak playwright's 85th birthday. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1974, Vol. 24 Description An account of the resource Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document 92 SLOVAKIA Some Personal Observations on the 1973 Slovak League of America Conference By Susan Po j er, B .A. In March of 1973 I was asked to participate in the Slovak League of America Conference held on May 19, 1973, as a youth panel member, but was hesitant at first to accept because I felt that I had nothing of any value to contribute to such a gathering. Although I am a young Slovak-American and have a B.A. degree in European history, I must confess that I knew very little about the history and political development of Slovakia. My knowledge of the language and my ability to speak and understand Slovak had dwindled to a few words and phrases over the years. Fortunately for me, I still belong to a predominantly Slovak parish and my parents have maintained many of the Slovak customs and traditions so that I was not totally out of touch with my Slovak heritage. As I researched my own topic for discussion ( Slovak Folk Art) I began to get a glimpse into the nature of the Slovak people - their longing for beauty in the midst of poverty and hardship, their toughness and practicality in their everyday dealings with life and their piety and reverence for God and his creations. I started to experience a new-found pride in my ethnic background and in my ancestors which was strengthened at the Conference where I saw young and old come together to share their own feelings as to what means to be a Slovak-American. During the morning session, we were all separated into two panel groups (the youth and the older members) . During the youth session many areas were discussed covering a wide range of topics - the new Ethnic Heritage Studies Programs Act (Sen. Schweiker's Ethnic Studies Act), fraternal societies, a trip to Slovakia, Slovakia in SLOVAKIA 93 history, and my own on Slovak folk art. After these talks were over, a general discussion ensued in which three major points were emphasized. The role of Slovak youth in educating the public and even re-educating their own parents as well as themselves was a topic heatedly discussed. Groups from many states elaborated on what they, as Slovak-Americans, were doing in their areas to help perpetuate the Slovak heritage and inform the public. Some had formed social clubs, others held language classes, while still others tried to get articles in their local papers on what the Slovaks in the community were doing. Another point discussed was the question of why there exists today so many different fraternal organizations. The concensus was that the unification of all fraternals into one large body with a substantial financial power could be a great new force in Slovak circles. We felt that the days of the dues-paying fraternals were numbered and that only one giant organization could keep the youth involved and interested in the ideals on which those many fraternals were originally founded. The third and most important point stressed throughout those morning discussions was the new Ethnic Heritage Studies Programs Act which had been passed by Congress in 1972. To date, however, no governmental funds have as yet been appropriated. Everyone agreed that the establishment of a Slovak ethnic studies center and the further government funding of existing academic, library, and Slovak language facilities was the most constructive way of educating the public and more important of providing our own youth with the educational opportunities (language courses, majors in Slovak studies for college students, a possible central publishing house and extensive monthly magazine or Slovak newspaper on events happening in Slovakia, etc.) to thoroughly investigate all aspects of the Slovak heritage and identity. The youth members present also requested the entire conference and heads of fraternals to support this Act by publishing in their journals, newspapers, and magazines a letter to encourage all readers to write to their legislators 94 SLOVAKIA to put pressure on the executive branch to fund these centers. During lunch, we heard a distinguished guest speaker, State Senator Michael A. O'Pake, of Pennsylvania. He encouraged us all to be proud of our Slovak heritage. Himself half Slovak, he pointed out the qualities in the Slovak people which we should be most proud of and pleaded to the assembly and to all Slovaks to become involved in the governmental system. He stated that, unlike other ethnic groups, the Slovaks never really took an interest in politics and it is high time that they did, as a group and as individuals. He also requested that we support local Slovak candidates for office. After lunch was over, we all assembled for a general meeting in which the youth and the older members informed one another of what had been discussed during their morning session. At the close of business, the Conference adjourned until next year. As I left the Statler Hilton Hotel, where the Conference had taken place, I had a feeling of rejuvenation, as if something inside of me had been reborn. I was also quite ashamed of my lack of knowledge of many aspects of Slovak culture as well as my almost total uncomprehension of the talks given in Slovak in which I could only catch a glimpse of a word here and there. I resolved to rectify both situations immediately. While riding home on the train, many ideas and thoughts for next year's Conference began to form in my mind and I would like to share them here. The major problem among the youth that I found when discussing a topic was the large age difference of the participants. Young people from 15 to 35 years of age were there and many discussions were beyond some. I feel that a Conference should be held for those ranging in age from 14 to 18 (high school level) and supervised by the young adult group. Or, at least next year, there should be separation into three age groups rather than two. As a college student and an M.A. candidate, I would hope to see in the near future a more scholarly symposium lasting perhaps a weekend with guest lecturers and speakers SLOVAKIA 95 (university professors, Slovak political leaders, from here and from abroad, if possible, authors of books on Slovakia, etc.) in which students, teachers, and other interested parties could meet to discuss problems and topics on Slovak history, politics, language, literature and art. I would also like to see a weekend cultural fair as part of the Conference. It could include displays on all aspects of Slovak art, crafts, costumes, dancing, music as well as many others so that the non-Slovak public could also come and learn. Finally, I would like to see a quarterly or, if possible, monthly newsleter published for the young adult age group of 19 to 35. In it could be articles on what groups throughout the country were doing. This newsletter might also serve as a directory, constantly being up-dated, of, for example, where Slovak could be learned, what universities and colleges give courses in aspects of Slovak culture and ethnic studies, the availability of guest lecturers for groups, any news of trips to Slovakia, news of Slovak arts and crafts exhibits at local museums, etc., as well as language lessons, news items on what is happening in Slovakia from the press, and a listing of the latest books and articles published on Slovakia. I have tried to relate my own experiences at the 1973 Slovak League of America Conference. I have also made suggestions for future Conferences, proposed some new ideas. I would welcome any criticisms or further suggestions regarding the proposals I have presented. In summation I can say that this Conference has only wet my appetite to learn more about my Slovak heritage and my role as a Slovak-American. I look forward to the 1974 Conference with great anticipation and would encourage more youth to attend and voice their opinions. THE NOV .A SCENA dramatic company premiered Ivan Stodola's original ''Diogenes" version on the stage in Bratislava last May to celebrate the Slovak playwright's 85th birthday.  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Some Personal Observations on the 1973 Slovak League of America Conference Description An account of the resource Susan Pojer, B.A. Slovakia, Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974 pp. 92-95 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Pojer, Susan Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 name https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/1df83948b28be53f41f1a49d27467cd0.pdf 64cadc0dbdfe4aaeb00fb33597bbf71f PDF Text Text 96 SLOVAKIA One Species, Many Cultures Michael N ov ak Bounded by the slow Danube River on the south and by the rugged Carpathian Mountains on the north, the ancestral land of the Slovak people lies at the axis of Westem lcivilization. For centuries, the vast armies of Attila, Genghis Khan, the Turks, the Germans and the Russians have risen like a tide toward Europe and in due course have been broken in or near the mountains of Slovakia. In the ninth century, Saints Cyril and Methodius established there the Byzantine influence of the Cyrillic alphabet and the Old Slavonic liturgy; but ambitious German rulers later imposed the Latin language, in order to draw Slovakia back toward the West. The rivers of Slovakia run southward and the cultivation of grapes makes Slovakia a wine-drinking nation; the sensibility pf the Slovaks is partly Mediterranean and partly Nordic. For two thousand years, the Slovak people, often to their woe, have abhorred large governmental units and preferred local rule. For a thousand years they have endured almost unbroken political oppression. Just before the Johnstown flood of 1889, one of my grandfathers came from Slovakia to the United States; within a few years, all three of my other grandparents had done the same. During the thirty-nine years from 1875 to 1914, nearly a third of the population of Slovakia emigrated. They left from sheer hunger, to escape military conscription in the h~ted Hungarian army, to find some was to break the political oppression of Hungarian "magyarization," "" and to 'fulfill the ancient Slovak legends and myths of freedom. The Slovaks, like many other Slavs, tend to be suspicious of governments, activism and politicians. "Every official has a tail, to sweep in goods," runs a Slovak proverb. Better to concentrate on home, family and work. No other Slavic people is so inventive in song; over fifteen thousand folk songs Qf the Slovaks have been catalogued, and a Slavic saying goes: "See. a Slovak, hear a song." Nearly all the arts of the Slovaks focus on the home. �SLOVAKIA 97 The great Slovak names Svatopluk, Janosik, Benovsky and Stefanik mean little to most Americans. But this is only to say that an ordinary American education is remarkably ethnocentric. About one-third of our population is of Anglo-Saxon ancestry. Yet so far is our nation from fulfilling its own pluralistic destiny that our education is almost entirely Anglo-American. (Indeed, not even all social classes, religious traditions, or regions of Anglo-Americans are equally represented in our educational cultures-"rednecks," evangelicals, Appalachians, for example.) Perhaps the dominance of Anglo-Saxon ethnocentrism in the past necessitates its continued dominance; it has shaped our history. Every American should learn about and, to some extent, assimilate English political history and literature. But is a virtually total concentration on the upper-class culture based in the northeastern section of the nation a sufficient intellectual guide to actual American life, or to the character of the other cultures on this planet? Not long ago, "the humanities" meant, not humanity, but "Western civilization." More than that, it meant "Western civilization as seen through English, Protestant, upperclass eyes." Not many of the graduates of Harvard, Princeton and Yale now in their fifties learned very much in their college days about the other cultures of the world - about Buddhism, or Slavic history, or Jewish family life, or Chinese civilization, or Latin America, or the history of slavery. What they were instructed in as "liberal arts" was not quite fully liberating; what passed before their eyes as "the humanities" was, rather astonishingly, a mirror image of their own ethnicity. The phrase "our common culture" has in recent years been used with more glibness than hard reflection. A culture is not put on like a suit of clothes. One can mimic a culture, absorb it, even use it as a vehicle of one's own self-expression. If, however, the culture does not flow out of one's own tutored instincts and aspirations, it is not yet one's own and does not yet exhaust one's own intelligence, perceptions or dreams. So for many millions of immigrants and their descendants-for a majority of Americans-what is currently available as "mainstream culture" does not spring from the heart. Hundreds of thousands of freshmen tapping their feet in classrooms in Providence, Buffalo, �98 SLOVAKIA Pittsburgh, Detroit, Miami, Houston and Los Angeles do not hear, in the voice of their professors, their own voices - and this is not only because of television, or a generation gap, or the collapsing of "the great tradition." The great tradition itself has been in America too narrowly, too ethnocentrically, perceived. I concur, there is a great tradition. There is a "common" Western culture, distinct from other cultures. But ever since Kant, scholars have sought this tradition in a premature and inaccurately projected "universality." They have tried to emphasize what is common in all men, what is universal, those qualities in which we all share and are alike, those characteristics that do not divide, but rather unite us. A laudable but grievously mistaken impulse. A profound irony is involved in our common identity as members of the human species. The species to which we belong in a historical species; it possesses consciousness, and this consciousness is at once symbolic and concrete. That is, our species lives not only within the physical atmosphere surrounding this blue green planet but also within a variety of concrete, historical cultures. We are the species that lives within cultures - within spheres of meaning, sensibility, selective perception and patterned action. What we have in common is that we are diverse. Our diversity is proof that we are human. We are not so many ants crawling on a soundless orb, nor so many apes obeying laws of natural selection. We generate distinctive cultures. Within cultures, we develop endlessly complex, distinctive individuals. We live within symbolic worlds all our own, both as individuals and as cultures. In the twentieth century (which is itself, a friend reminds me, a somewhat "culture-bound" concept), the relativity of each of our identities is borne in upon us because we inescapably encounter so many who differ from us. In this relativity we meet a second and novel kind of common identity. What we have in common are our finitude and interdependence. Our diversity does not mean we are intrinsically divided from each other, only that we are intrinsically different from each other. Our future unity lies not in "overcoming our differences" but in seeing how they are analogous: in learning to see that my struggle to become a moral human being is rather like (not the same �SLOVAKIA 99 as, only analogous to) your struggle to become a moral human being. In a word, the way to become moral is not to become universal, but to become concrete. I need not become the same as you. But my struggle to realize my own moral identity - solely my own, concrete, unique - has many parallels to your struggle to realize your own identity. We face, for example, many similar obstacles: social inequities, ill fortune, self-deception, aging, death. How you face these obstacles in your life illuminates possibilities by which I may, allowing for our differences, conduct my life as well. A nun may define her life around her chastity, as a chosen symbol of God's transcendent love; whereas I, a sensual man, may see in her struggles to protect virginity (of spirit and of flesh) illumination for the perplexities surrounding the central value by which I define my life. The world's literature opens up for me a world of analogy, where flashes of illumination ricochet in unpredictable patterns off a thousand mirrors. The critic of literature who reads Nietzsche after having learned Goethe may catch different reflections from one who reads him after studying Russell, Hare and Austin. What "the great tradition" concerns is wisdom, the voyages individuals take toward moral maturity and moral growth, and the analogous "stages on the way," the analogous "moves," the analogous "dilemmas," "ironies" and "tragedies" they encounter. These words, of course, are already heavy with cultural specificity; they conjure up Aeschylus, Kierkegaard, Hesse and a hundred German scholars. Still, every human life is a structuring of time; each begins with birth, each ends. "Voyage," therefore, is a universal motif. It is the kind of motif that allows for infinite variation, for concrete diversity, for cultural and personal uniqueness. Cultures structure time quite differently. Cultures imagine the model of human fulfillment differently. Yet in every culture individuals voyage from birth to death, and from moral beginnings to moral development. Many of our present perplexities arise from two confusions: one is a misperception of class, the other a misperception of culture. Some young blacks from Hough may not be literate, but that does not mean that the basic human voyage is closed to them. Both the Autobiography �100 SLOVAKIA of Malcolm X and Sou l on Ice are classically Greek and Christian in the metanoia they narrate, and in the structure of decision and liberation they exhibit. (Note even their chapter headings.) It is a mistake to hold that the fundamental moral struggle is restricted to upper-class AngloSaxons - or to the "oppressed." Whatever one's social class, the struggle against self-deception (never decisively won), the struggle for clear vision, and the struggle to respect concrete human persons different from oneself is always present. Bourgeois morality, the morality of appearances and proprieties, must be distinguished from fundamental human morality. "The habit doth not make the monk." One may be an attorney general of the United States without becoming a moral hero to whom others look for illumination on how to become a moral man. It is not easy to be moral simply because one is wellborn, nor simply because one is born in a slum. The voyage toward moral development in either case is analogous to the others - essentially different, yet sufficiently parallel to cast mutual illumination. No human life is so different from all others that it cannot shed morally profitable light; thus the fascination of stories even about moral monsters. When a culture is highly articulated, a "cultivated" person is skilled both in discerning movements of the soul and in giving names to them. He will have a full range of references and allusions with which to speak of what he feels. It is not enough, for example, to be "an atheist." Like Sartre? Or like Merleau-Ponty? Or like Malraux? Or like Camus? Like John Dewey? Or like Corliss Lamont? Or like some churchgoer going through empty motions? The state of soul is remarkably various in every case. Nevertheless, a lack of words does not necessarily indicate an incapacity of soul. It is true (it certainly seems true) that many persons are indeed shallow of soul and contemptuous of introspection. It does not necessarily follow that an abundance of words indicates greatness of soul, or poverty of words powerty of spirit. There are some professors, disdainful of the "cultural deprivation" of those they are obliged to instruct, who are sterile of soul; and in some of their students there are depths untongued. Among some of the Indian chiefs of American history, �SLOVAKIA 101 for example, there is an eloquence, dignity and precision of speech worthy of the ancient Greeks. Or, to state the matter differently, some of the heroes of Homer utter sentiments worthy of the Indian nations. Want of reading does not disbar human beings from profound moral insight or from classical eloquence. One does not have to read Greek to encounter ancient wisdom. (The American Indians produced no Aristotle; neither has New York.) On the other hand, a university education in the humanities today is not aimed at profound moral insight or classical eloquence. They are lucky indeed whose insight and eloquence are not destroyed by a university education today. For the culture of the universities today is not the culture of "the great tradition," not the culture of Western civilization, not even the culture of upper-class Anglo-Americans. In some few persons, it may be these things. In most administrators, professors, teaching assistants and students a university education exhibits a different culture altogether. Let me call it "the culture of the professionals" and attempt to draw attention to its pervasiveness. Not long ago, a major corporation took an ad in the Wall Street Journal to honor one of its employees. Above his picture was a single word, "Professionalism ... " and below it a definition: "More than education ... More than experience . . . More than training ... it's a state of mind." Who today are proud to call themselves professionals? Football players, stockbrockers, doctors, lawyers, journal• ists, gangsters and professors of literature, philosophy and other fields. "Professionalism. " "State of Mind." These are terms of considerable power. Implied are choices, special• izations, narrowings down for purposes of efficiency and effect. Implied, indeed, is the disciplining of an entire life, a concentration upon a limited field of expertise. "A state of mind." "A way of life." A major, driving, powerful culture in our midst is the culture of professionals. Football is its major public liturgy, its dramatic expression, its mirror-image festival. In the daily world of politics, the word "professional" is used in fascinating ways. Of some lifelong politicians, an informed opinion of their performance is "hack" or "fake." By contrast, the most sober and comforting praise �102 SLOVAKIA for a public figure or for this or that person on his staff is, "He's a real pro." An intermediate word of praise, spoken with a faintly baffled sort of affection, is the phrase, "an old pro." The meaning is that the person in question - Senator Sam Ervin, let us say - lacks some of the technical sophistication and scientific art of modern professionalism, but is, so to speak, an artist of an older style, in a different sort of way, and by God, admirable nevertheless. He "knows his way around," "knows what he's doing," and so one "shouldn't be fooled" by his apparent naivete or folksy style. There are some jobs, among some constituencies, that maybe "the old pro" tackles with a surer grasp that "the real pro." It's a very good feeling to be called by one's peers "a pro." Certification (college degrees, a tough job assignment) confers the objective status. But not all who have the certification are truly considered by their peers to be "the real pros." Such hints suggest that an accurate discussion of culture must move on several levels. The first meaning of culture applies to the "state of mind," or the "way of life," of our professional classes. This is the class that manages our institutions of certification the schools, the universities, the media and the new institutes of research, development and consultantship. This same class also manages many of our traditional institutions - business corporations, government, foundations, churches and national organizations. By no means a majority of Americans experiences the culture of professionalizatio n. But most of the high-salaried and/or organizing, articulating, managing and "influential" people do. "Above" the level of the professional culture lies the "high culture" of family tradition, and/or money, and/ or dedication to the classical, recognized arts. Nurture in a certain kind of family tradition - children of Cabots or Lodges, or of concert violinists or professors of the clasics - sometimes provides the requisite sensibility. Money that can buy a new generation the education denied its parents may provide it. (There are many "middle-brow" participants in high culture who enjoy its fruits without being creators.) Finally, sheer talent and desire, an "innate" capacity for the flowering of one's spirit, and the good �SLOVAKIA 103 fortune of schooling of some sort may provide it. Thus, not a few of our ablest artists and scholars today, like Abraham Lincoln and William Shakespeare, although not "wellborn," have advanced the reaches of the human spirit. It is true that the "high culture," once it has been achieved, is in some respects more accessible to the wealthy than to the poor. The wealthy can travel. They have leisure. They are provided with instruction. They finance artists and scholars. They buy the materials, the time spent and the fruits of artistic endeavor; they are the patrons of art and learning. Yet by their nature the achievements of high culture speak to - and belong to - the human spirit, not to wealth. Instrumentally both a society and individuals require sufficient wealth to gain that freedom from necessity without which there are no liberal arts. Such wealth can be very modest. Even in the caves, humans began to draw, and already by the fireside the spirit of Lincoln was being forged. High culture, nonetheless, requires a culture in which leisure is available; it requires wealth. This instrumental tie between wealth and high culture occasions a certain embarrassment in a ruthlessly egalitarian society. Common speech, we recall, distinguishes several kinds of professional performance. The main force of the word "professional" points toward a specialized commitment: one professes one line of work rather than another. A "hack" is a fellow who has not really mastered all the skills he needs, or else does not really commit the whole of himself to the skills does possess. A "slick professional," or "operator," or apparatchik is a fellow who has the skills but no larger commitment to the whole reality of the world within which he operates, he is "a gun for hire." We respect his skills, but not the spirit of their use. When we say "real pro," however, we mean that the person has not been distorted by his specialized techniques. We mean that his intelligence and instincts reach out for all the complex, ambiguous, even mysterious elements of the social realities within which he operates. We mean that, both regarding himself and regarding the world of his activities, he maintains a certain realism. He is "in touch." His professionalism is an instrument of his commitment to reality, not a defense against that reality. He is neither an operator, nor a hack, nor a mere specialist. �104 SLOVAKIA Hacks are easy to understand but what is the culture of the operator? We are afflicted with operators in America. As testimony to their "cultivation," they may take homemovies, or become amateur photographers, or be buffs of considerable artistic skill in one field or another. They may attend concerts or go to all the arty flicks. They may be articulate and even, in some sense, well and broadly educated. Yet there is a sense in which, used in this context, the word "culture" gives off a tinny ring. No doubt anthropologists should study their "culture," too; in a perfectly neutral scene, they represent a "state of mind," a "way of life," as surely as do primitive tribes in New Guinea. But in some way they are rootless, rudderless, without depth. They have made themselves rather into instruments than into ends. The phrase "new barbarians" points to their shallowness. It suggests that smooth, civil persons, persons of considerable education and articulateness, are somehow empty and lacking. Empty of what? Lacking what? No tradition, it seems, lives in them; no long-range, virtually unchangeable, perennial values guide them; their moral universe is without a center; no passionate inwardness directs them. They are, in a sense, larger than David Riesman intended, "other-directed." Success, power, expertise - their guides are extrinsic, changeable, consulted for the short term. The social realities of our "temporary society" do not discourage the flexibility such men exemplify. The state, as Plato says, is man writ large; so men are often their society writ small. Operators, then, are quintessentially American; their role has been mythically established in Huck Finn and in Melville's The Confidence Man. They are outsiders, from the city (or the university), traveling salesmen, "experts." But what about the local cultures, those millions who admire and understand "the old pros" but dislike operators? When Senator Sam Ervin quotes the Bible and Shakespeare, he makes reverberate a network of trustworthy and illuminating traditions. He plays on symbolic strings that have shaped the consciousness of perhaps eightly million Americans. Many, indeed, find the language of a "country lawyer" a good deal more persuasive than the language of the new professionals. Many, indeed, can scarcely discriminate among the several languages of the new professionals. To �SLOVAKIA 105 them, they are all the same: the smooth articulateness of John Dean and Gary Hart, of David Brinkley and Professor Galbraith, of Doctor Kildare and Doctor Spock, of Jeb Stuart Magruder and William Coffin. Often today ideology does not divide people (liberal versus conservative) so much as cultural style does. The old pros remain connected to the symbolic worlds of this nation's many diverse cultures; the operators leave and "do not go home again." Region, ethnicity, religion, race and other cultural factors shape symbolic consciousness in different ways. The Irish of Boston are not exactly like those of Minnesota or Texas; contrasts among John Kennedy, Eugene McCarthy, Joseph McCarthy, Richard Daley and John Connally suggest several of the most significant Irish traditions in the nation. Both George McGovern and George Wallace spring from fundamentalist Scotch-Irish traditions, but in regions whose history has been profoundly different. The symbolic worlds within which they speak set off intense but opposite vibrations. Of the French-Canadians of New Hampshire and Maine; the Appalachians of West Virginia and Kentucky, the poor whites of Alabama and the Florida Panhandle; the AngloAmericans of Wyoming and Idaho; the Oregonians; the Mormons of Utah; the Slavic farmers of Illinois and Nebraska, contrasted with the Slavic miners and millworkers of Pennsylvania, Ohio and Michigan; the Italians contrasted with the upper-class and the lower-class Jews of New York City; the Anglo-American Protestants who supported George Wallace in the 1968 Indiana primary in proportions far heavier than did German-American Protestants of similar economic class - of such diverse and crisscross variety is this nation composed. Among blacks, there are differences depending on origins in Africa: on the generations of colonial experience whether in the West Indies, or rural Mississippi, or the cities of the South; and on length of time in the urban North. The Spanish-speaking population of Miami, New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, San Antonio and Albuquerque are significantly different. The experiences of Oriental Americans - including, without benefit of "Protestant ethic," their astonishing capacity for work and for success - are better admitted into consciousness if one approaches �106 SLOVAKIA American pluralism from Hawaii and California, than from Boston and New York. The variety of cultural worlds in the United States is a powerful, subterranean influence in our national life. It remains subterranean because it is often repressed, as thought it were something "dirty," disfunctional, and doomed to disappear. In its place, a "national" ideology has been created, divided into three parts. First, there is the ideology of "the American way of life," popular, patriotic, capitalistic, chauvinistic. Second, there is the ideology of the mobile, educated, "committed," professional classes what one writer has called "the ideocracy." Third, there is the ideology of the neutral, meritocratic, incommitted, objective professional classes, neither conservative nor liberal, but comfortably in charge. All three of these ideologies, for their own various purposes, try to eliminate cultural diversity. Each carries with it its own ethnic and regional biases. Some, for example, make provision for black, Hispanic and Indian diversity - and, pressed a little, perhaps, they might expand the list. But the terms of their analyses do not give cultural diversity the prominence reality demands. It is true, we have seen, that there is a "common culture" in the West, a set of achievements that represents the most profound insights, wrested from suffering, that Western peoples for some five millennia have attained. But it is not true that even highly educated people in any part of the West are well versed in all the subtraditions of this "common culture." A young Italian from New Jersey who attends the University of Notre Dame will have as part of the furniture of his mind and sensibility materials that the young Jew from Brooklyn who attends City College of New York will not share, and vice versa. When I compare, for example, my years of reading in St. Augustine, St. Bernard, Thomas Aquinas, Cardinal Newman and others, my virtual neglect of Marx, and my dislike of Enlightenment writers like Kant and Mill, with the reading patterns exhibited by, say, Irving Howe, it is vividly clear to me that American intellectual life is profoundly diverse. So it is also with Protestant colleagues of mine in philosophy and religious studies who respond in significantly different ways to materials we jointly consider. Other colleagues have �SLOVAKIA 107 interests and training in the sciences or social sciences; their symbolic world is, again, quite different from mine. "Where did you grow up? Where did you go to school? What is your religious and ethnic background? What do these mean to you?" These are important questions, not for purpose of stereotyping, but for intelligent and sensitive perception. In order to come to learn and to appreciate the cultural background within which the words of others gain their full and familiar meaning, we must be able to answer such questions. What we have most to gain from each other is generated by our mutual differences. The different horizon, standpoint and way of perceiving we each bring to our common world are instruments of spiritual wealth. Consider the following propositions: 1. There is a common Western culture of high intellectual and humanizing potency, instructing all who journey into it in inexhaustible wisdom, insight and spiritual depth. 2. This common culture is composed of many related but divergent traditions, and no one can master all of them. 3. Beyond the boundaries of Western culture, there are also other "common cultures" of great complexity and diversity. In some of these non-Western riches, westerners are also beginning to share in ways both superficial and serious. 4. In higher education and in museums and other instrumentalities of culture in the United States, Protestant traditions within the common culture have been favored over Catholic and Jewish traditions. English literature and philosophy have been favored over Continental literatures and philosophies. Post-Enlightenment materials have virtually driven pre-Enlightenment materials from the field. Agnostic or atheistic materials are favored over religious materials. A rather positivistic ideology of the modern, the progressive and the "factual" has dominated our dictionaries and encyclopedias, as well as our schools, our journalism and our business world. (Dictionaries do not list under "rose" one of its most important cultural meanings: that it is the flower of love, fate and war.) 5. Education is commonly regarded, not as a device for strengthening and benefiting by local, regional, ethnic and religious differences but for "overcoming" them, �108 SLOVAKIA for replacing them with a more or less universal culture. The underlying model for this "universal" ideological outlook is not perfectly neutral as regards those who enter into it. Even if they are of equal talent, some will find cultural models, heroes, texts and materials related to their own cultural background, and others will not. 6. The preferred and most prestigious model for the "high culture" in the United States coincides with the background of our most wealthy and powerful citizens. This model illustrates the history of some, at least, of our major institutions, and partially grounds the dominant language of the land. Hence even though it is biased, it cannot be ignored. Let us attend, first, to proposition 6. Andover, Groton, Milton, Choate and the other prestigious private schools nurture a good part of one major wing of the nation's financial and governmental elites. Yet with every year that passes, in order to understand American reality, students have to go further beyond the limits of Anglo-American traditions. How can one understand Mailer, Malamud, Trilling, Chomsky or Howe without understanding the Jewish traditions of Eastern Europe and America? How can one understand Kennedy, McCarthy or Daley without learning about the Irish experience in America? Will anyone comprehend Detroit without learning about black history in America and Polish history in America - two out of every three citizens of that city being either black or Polish, while virtually all the wealth and power of the city's elites remain Anglo-American and Jewish? Power in America is essentially Anglo-American, hence it is a condition of survival (and of eventual justice) that all the others penetrate the intricacies of the Anglo-American mind. The Yankee pride in "candor," fo example, has generated unique deceptions, especially self-deceptions, whose routes must be painfully traced and plainly marked Yankee appeals to "morality" and leadership" and "integrity" require most careful scrutiny; these are the banners of the most powerful elites. Thus those whose heritage is not Anglo-American, have every right (and duty) both to assimilate all that is good in Anglo-American culture, and to be clear-eyed about what assimilation entails. Two years ago, Irving Howe quoted in these pages �SLOVAKIA 109 the argument of Louis Kampf that "initiating the 'underpriviledged' to the cultural treasures of the West could be a form of oppression - a weapon in the hands of those who rule . .. High culture itself ... tends to reinforce the given alignments of powers within the society." Against Kampf, Howe is able to quote Trotsky: "Mastery of the art of the past is ... a necessary precondition not only for the creation of new art but also for the building of a new society . . . If we were groundlessly to repudiate the art of the past, we should at once become poorer spiritually." Cultural backwardness is not required for political advance. And yet, what is meant by "backwardness"? In order to be fully moral man must one be a professor, or at minimum a college graduate? Is it necessary to have read many books? "Man is not saved by dialectics," a Christian aphorism insists. The simple, too, have their own precious wisdom and the learned their patent foolishness. It is not necessary to romanticize either side in order to recognize that there are analogies between the life stories of the uneducated and those of the college trained. A democracy needs an early discernment system, to spot young persons of talent in every social condition. But it also needs a way to encourage young persons of talent to remain (if they so wish) in living contact with their own roots. They should encouraged not to be parochial, and yet to be rooted. Neither our egalitarians nor our meritocrats, it seems, have a sufficiently cultural perspective; both proceed somewhat atomically, somewhat mechanically. According to egalitarian sentimentality, any student admitted to college through "open admissions" has within him the makings of a student. According to meritocratic arrogance, each student should be judged according to his own performance. The egalitarian forgets that a university is an institution not all citizens are graced with the talent to appreciate; perhaps not one person in ten ought to be admitted to a genuine university. The meritocrat forgets that persons are not individuals merely but also creatures of culture, and that the institutions of high culture in the United States are inequitably and inhumanely ethnocentric. When as a young Slovak-American I read ( with eagerness and delight) "English literature," I learned as well �110 SLOVAKIA a latent message: "These are the kinds of people literature is about; not about families like yours, feeling like yours, dilemmas like yours." Literature was not (except by analogy) about myself; it was about those fascinating, foreign "others." In our part of town, when I was very young, we called them "the Americans." (With less than accurate perception, we included the Irish among "the Americans." We seldom dealt directly with Anglo-Americans.) The heart of the matter comes down to this. There are three main locations of culture. The actual ways of life of ordinary people, in their diverse, loose and permeable communities are one location. The humanities are, in this sense, not primarily what is written down in books, or celebrated in works of art, but what is lived. Those relatively few artists, scholars and critical persons in whom a genuinely high culture is alive are a second location. The swarming army of professionals, highly educated but not necessarily in tune with the high traditions of the past, are a third location. Among these new professionals are many who call themselves humanists . Each of these groups is to be taken seriously. Each enhances our own identity. We need, in America, a public and popular humanities - a pluralism of stories, myths, accurate histories, detailed studies that touch our various peopl8 in all their variety. As a boy, I wish I had learned of the exploits of Janosik as well as of Robin Hood, and had been taught in public and parochial school of the democratic traditions of the early Slovak tribes. I wish I had learned that, after the origins of feudalism, my ancestors endured a thousand-year struggle against oppression that is not yet complete. I wish I had learned officially and fully of the bitter deaths of so many of my countrymen in the mills and mines and strikes of Pennsylvania. (The murder of the Jablonski.s of the United Mine Workers is a recent episode in a hundredyear war.) My sense of injustice and untruth in America would have come earlier than it did. I would have learned earlier both a tragic sense of life and fierce desire to remedy injustice. I would have had a way to discern what made me culturally different, and what my peculiar contribution might have been. I would have had personal parallels by which to judge more accurately what America had done to the Indians, blacks and others in Amei:ica. (What was �SLOVAKIA 111 I doing, cheering for Custer in They Died with Their Boots On?) We also need, of course, a high culture. We need continuity with the visions and sources of judgment upon us that derive from the great spiritual achievements of our past. In many American towns, counties and cities, one family or a small number of families controls the politics, economics and media of communication. Against their vulgar power, the arts and critical skills of the high culture are as powerful a threat as human beings have. Indeed even our highest national elites, our best and our brightest, suffer embarrassment compared to the best our race has seen before. I recognize that our elites sometimes use "taste" and "culture" as weapon of intimidation, which only proves their own vulgarity. The proof that a person has attained a genuine high culture in his unselfconscious respect for the moral analogies between his life and those of others. Portrayed in myth and narrative as the nobleman at home with peasants, the saint with sinners, the learned doctor with children and the ignorant, the political leader sharing his people's crusts of bread, this is the excellence by which our culture measures us. It is not exactly an egalitarian standard, for differences of station and talent are not blurred, but it is, at least, a standard of fraternity, and of the human spirit's radical equality in the eyes of God. Finally, we need the professionals. It is true that concerning the large and important issues, they are almost always wrong. But this is exactly what we should expect; it is their profession to attend scrupulously to a part of the whole; they almost necessarily distort. Yet specialization is no cause for excommunication. Professionals are our brothers, too. We need their powerful skills. One could wish that more of them would turn their skills toward many neglected problems. To mention but one: toward the history and culture of each of the diverse peoples of the United States. Toward an accurate history of our actual pluralism. '' From 1896 to 1908, 508 Slovaks were arrested and convicted for using the Slovak language in public. (Reprinted from The American Scholar, Volume 43, Number 1, Winter, 1973-74. Copyright 1973 by the United Chapters of Phi Beta Kappa. By permission of the publishers.) � 96 SLOVAKIA One Species, Many Cultures Michael N ov ak Bounded by the slow Danube River on the south and by the rugged Carpathian Mountains on the north, the ancestral land of the Slovak people lies at the axis of Westem lcivilization. For centuries, the vast armies of Attila, Genghis Khan, the Turks, the Germans and the Russians have risen like a tide toward Europe and in due course have been broken in or near the mountains of Slovakia. In the ninth century, Saints Cyril and Methodius established there the Byzantine influence of the Cyrillic alphabet and the Old Slavonic liturgy; but ambitious German rulers later imposed the Latin language, in order to draw Slovakia back toward the West. The rivers of Slovakia run southward and the cultivation of grapes makes Slovakia a wine-drinking nation; the sensibility pf the Slovaks is partly Mediterranean and partly Nordic. For two thousand years, the Slovak people, often to their woe, have abhorred large governmental units and preferred local rule. For a thousand years they have endured almost unbroken political oppression. Just before the Johnstown flood of 1889, one of my grandfathers came from Slovakia to the United States; within a few years, all three of my other grandparents had done the same. During the thirty-nine years from 1875 to 1914, nearly a third of the population of Slovakia emigrated. They left from sheer hunger, to escape military conscription in the h~ted Hungarian army, to find some was to break the political oppression of Hungarian "magyarization," "" and to 'fulfill the ancient Slovak legends and myths of freedom. The Slovaks, like many other Slavs, tend to be suspicious of governments, activism and politicians. "Every official has a tail, to sweep in goods," runs a Slovak proverb. Better to concentrate on home, family and work. No other Slavic people is so inventive in song; over fifteen thousand folk songs Qf the Slovaks have been catalogued, and a Slavic saying goes: "See. a Slovak, hear a song." Nearly all the arts of the Slovaks focus on the home. �SLOVAKIA 97 The great Slovak names Svatopluk, Janosik, Benovsky and Stefanik mean little to most Americans. But this is only to say that an ordinary American education is remarkably ethnocentric. About one-third of our population is of Anglo-Saxon ancestry. Yet so far is our nation from fulfilling its own pluralistic destiny that our education is almost entirely Anglo-American. (Indeed, not even all social classes, religious traditions, or regions of Anglo-Americans are equally represented in our educational cultures-"rednecks," evangelicals, Appalachians, for example.) Perhaps the dominance of Anglo-Saxon ethnocentrism in the past necessitates its continued dominance; it has shaped our history. Every American should learn about and, to some extent, assimilate English political history and literature. But is a virtually total concentration on the upper-class culture based in the northeastern section of the nation a sufficient intellectual guide to actual American life, or to the character of the other cultures on this planet? Not long ago, "the humanities" meant, not humanity, but "Western civilization." More than that, it meant "Western civilization as seen through English, Protestant, upperclass eyes." Not many of the graduates of Harvard, Princeton and Yale now in their fifties learned very much in their college days about the other cultures of the world - about Buddhism, or Slavic history, or Jewish family life, or Chinese civilization, or Latin America, or the history of slavery. What they were instructed in as "liberal arts" was not quite fully liberating; what passed before their eyes as "the humanities" was, rather astonishingly, a mirror image of their own ethnicity. The phrase "our common culture" has in recent years been used with more glibness than hard reflection. A culture is not put on like a suit of clothes. One can mimic a culture, absorb it, even use it as a vehicle of one's own self-expression. If, however, the culture does not flow out of one's own tutored instincts and aspirations, it is not yet one's own and does not yet exhaust one's own intelligence, perceptions or dreams. So for many millions of immigrants and their descendants-for a majority of Americans-what is currently available as "mainstream culture" does not spring from the heart. Hundreds of thousands of freshmen tapping their feet in classrooms in Providence, Buffalo, �98 SLOVAKIA Pittsburgh, Detroit, Miami, Houston and Los Angeles do not hear, in the voice of their professors, their own voices - and this is not only because of television, or a generation gap, or the collapsing of "the great tradition." The great tradition itself has been in America too narrowly, too ethnocentrically, perceived. I concur, there is a great tradition. There is a "common" Western culture, distinct from other cultures. But ever since Kant, scholars have sought this tradition in a premature and inaccurately projected "universality." They have tried to emphasize what is common in all men, what is universal, those qualities in which we all share and are alike, those characteristics that do not divide, but rather unite us. A laudable but grievously mistaken impulse. A profound irony is involved in our common identity as members of the human species. The species to which we belong in a historical species; it possesses consciousness, and this consciousness is at once symbolic and concrete. That is, our species lives not only within the physical atmosphere surrounding this blue green planet but also within a variety of concrete, historical cultures. We are the species that lives within cultures - within spheres of meaning, sensibility, selective perception and patterned action. What we have in common is that we are diverse. Our diversity is proof that we are human. We are not so many ants crawling on a soundless orb, nor so many apes obeying laws of natural selection. We generate distinctive cultures. Within cultures, we develop endlessly complex, distinctive individuals. We live within symbolic worlds all our own, both as individuals and as cultures. In the twentieth century (which is itself, a friend reminds me, a somewhat "culture-bound" concept), the relativity of each of our identities is borne in upon us because we inescapably encounter so many who differ from us. In this relativity we meet a second and novel kind of common identity. What we have in common are our finitude and interdependence. Our diversity does not mean we are intrinsically divided from each other, only that we are intrinsically different from each other. Our future unity lies not in "overcoming our differences" but in seeing how they are analogous: in learning to see that my struggle to become a moral human being is rather like (not the same �SLOVAKIA 99 as, only analogous to) your struggle to become a moral human being. In a word, the way to become moral is not to become universal, but to become concrete. I need not become the same as you. But my struggle to realize my own moral identity - solely my own, concrete, unique - has many parallels to your struggle to realize your own identity. We face, for example, many similar obstacles: social inequities, ill fortune, self-deception, aging, death. How you face these obstacles in your life illuminates possibilities by which I may, allowing for our differences, conduct my life as well. A nun may define her life around her chastity, as a chosen symbol of God's transcendent love; whereas I, a sensual man, may see in her struggles to protect virginity (of spirit and of flesh) illumination for the perplexities surrounding the central value by which I define my life. The world's literature opens up for me a world of analogy, where flashes of illumination ricochet in unpredictable patterns off a thousand mirrors. The critic of literature who reads Nietzsche after having learned Goethe may catch different reflections from one who reads him after studying Russell, Hare and Austin. What "the great tradition" concerns is wisdom, the voyages individuals take toward moral maturity and moral growth, and the analogous "stages on the way," the analogous "moves," the analogous "dilemmas," "ironies" and "tragedies" they encounter. These words, of course, are already heavy with cultural specificity; they conjure up Aeschylus, Kierkegaard, Hesse and a hundred German scholars. Still, every human life is a structuring of time; each begins with birth, each ends. "Voyage," therefore, is a universal motif. It is the kind of motif that allows for infinite variation, for concrete diversity, for cultural and personal uniqueness. Cultures structure time quite differently. Cultures imagine the model of human fulfillment differently. Yet in every culture individuals voyage from birth to death, and from moral beginnings to moral development. Many of our present perplexities arise from two confusions: one is a misperception of class, the other a misperception of culture. Some young blacks from Hough may not be literate, but that does not mean that the basic human voyage is closed to them. Both the Autobiography �100 SLOVAKIA of Malcolm X and Sou l on Ice are classically Greek and Christian in the metanoia they narrate, and in the structure of decision and liberation they exhibit. (Note even their chapter headings.) It is a mistake to hold that the fundamental moral struggle is restricted to upper-class AngloSaxons - or to the "oppressed." Whatever one's social class, the struggle against self-deception (never decisively won), the struggle for clear vision, and the struggle to respect concrete human persons different from oneself is always present. Bourgeois morality, the morality of appearances and proprieties, must be distinguished from fundamental human morality. "The habit doth not make the monk." One may be an attorney general of the United States without becoming a moral hero to whom others look for illumination on how to become a moral man. It is not easy to be moral simply because one is wellborn, nor simply because one is born in a slum. The voyage toward moral development in either case is analogous to the others - essentially different, yet sufficiently parallel to cast mutual illumination. No human life is so different from all others that it cannot shed morally profitable light; thus the fascination of stories even about moral monsters. When a culture is highly articulated, a "cultivated" person is skilled both in discerning movements of the soul and in giving names to them. He will have a full range of references and allusions with which to speak of what he feels. It is not enough, for example, to be "an atheist." Like Sartre? Or like Merleau-Ponty? Or like Malraux? Or like Camus? Like John Dewey? Or like Corliss Lamont? Or like some churchgoer going through empty motions? The state of soul is remarkably various in every case. Nevertheless, a lack of words does not necessarily indicate an incapacity of soul. It is true (it certainly seems true) that many persons are indeed shallow of soul and contemptuous of introspection. It does not necessarily follow that an abundance of words indicates greatness of soul, or poverty of words powerty of spirit. There are some professors, disdainful of the "cultural deprivation" of those they are obliged to instruct, who are sterile of soul; and in some of their students there are depths untongued. Among some of the Indian chiefs of American history, �SLOVAKIA 101 for example, there is an eloquence, dignity and precision of speech worthy of the ancient Greeks. Or, to state the matter differently, some of the heroes of Homer utter sentiments worthy of the Indian nations. Want of reading does not disbar human beings from profound moral insight or from classical eloquence. One does not have to read Greek to encounter ancient wisdom. (The American Indians produced no Aristotle; neither has New York.) On the other hand, a university education in the humanities today is not aimed at profound moral insight or classical eloquence. They are lucky indeed whose insight and eloquence are not destroyed by a university education today. For the culture of the universities today is not the culture of "the great tradition," not the culture of Western civilization, not even the culture of upper-class Anglo-Americans. In some few persons, it may be these things. In most administrators, professors, teaching assistants and students a university education exhibits a different culture altogether. Let me call it "the culture of the professionals" and attempt to draw attention to its pervasiveness. Not long ago, a major corporation took an ad in the Wall Street Journal to honor one of its employees. Above his picture was a single word, "Professionalism ... " and below it a definition: "More than education ... More than experience . . . More than training ... it's a state of mind." Who today are proud to call themselves professionals? Football players, stockbrockers, doctors, lawyers, journal• ists, gangsters and professors of literature, philosophy and other fields. "Professionalism. " "State of Mind." These are terms of considerable power. Implied are choices, special• izations, narrowings down for purposes of efficiency and effect. Implied, indeed, is the disciplining of an entire life, a concentration upon a limited field of expertise. "A state of mind." "A way of life." A major, driving, powerful culture in our midst is the culture of professionals. Football is its major public liturgy, its dramatic expression, its mirror-image festival. In the daily world of politics, the word "professional" is used in fascinating ways. Of some lifelong politicians, an informed opinion of their performance is "hack" or "fake." By contrast, the most sober and comforting praise �102 SLOVAKIA for a public figure or for this or that person on his staff is, "He's a real pro." An intermediate word of praise, spoken with a faintly baffled sort of affection, is the phrase, "an old pro." The meaning is that the person in question - Senator Sam Ervin, let us say - lacks some of the technical sophistication and scientific art of modern professionalism, but is, so to speak, an artist of an older style, in a different sort of way, and by God, admirable nevertheless. He "knows his way around," "knows what he's doing," and so one "shouldn't be fooled" by his apparent naivete or folksy style. There are some jobs, among some constituencies, that maybe "the old pro" tackles with a surer grasp that "the real pro." It's a very good feeling to be called by one's peers "a pro." Certification (college degrees, a tough job assignment) confers the objective status. But not all who have the certification are truly considered by their peers to be "the real pros." Such hints suggest that an accurate discussion of culture must move on several levels. The first meaning of culture applies to the "state of mind," or the "way of life," of our professional classes. This is the class that manages our institutions of certification the schools, the universities, the media and the new institutes of research, development and consultantship. This same class also manages many of our traditional institutions - business corporations, government, foundations, churches and national organizations. By no means a majority of Americans experiences the culture of professionalizatio n. But most of the high-salaried and/or organizing, articulating, managing and "influential" people do. "Above" the level of the professional culture lies the "high culture" of family tradition, and/or money, and/ or dedication to the classical, recognized arts. Nurture in a certain kind of family tradition - children of Cabots or Lodges, or of concert violinists or professors of the clasics - sometimes provides the requisite sensibility. Money that can buy a new generation the education denied its parents may provide it. (There are many "middle-brow" participants in high culture who enjoy its fruits without being creators.) Finally, sheer talent and desire, an "innate" capacity for the flowering of one's spirit, and the good �SLOVAKIA 103 fortune of schooling of some sort may provide it. Thus, not a few of our ablest artists and scholars today, like Abraham Lincoln and William Shakespeare, although not "wellborn," have advanced the reaches of the human spirit. It is true that the "high culture," once it has been achieved, is in some respects more accessible to the wealthy than to the poor. The wealthy can travel. They have leisure. They are provided with instruction. They finance artists and scholars. They buy the materials, the time spent and the fruits of artistic endeavor; they are the patrons of art and learning. Yet by their nature the achievements of high culture speak to - and belong to - the human spirit, not to wealth. Instrumentally both a society and individuals require sufficient wealth to gain that freedom from necessity without which there are no liberal arts. Such wealth can be very modest. Even in the caves, humans began to draw, and already by the fireside the spirit of Lincoln was being forged. High culture, nonetheless, requires a culture in which leisure is available; it requires wealth. This instrumental tie between wealth and high culture occasions a certain embarrassment in a ruthlessly egalitarian society. Common speech, we recall, distinguishes several kinds of professional performance. The main force of the word "professional" points toward a specialized commitment: one professes one line of work rather than another. A "hack" is a fellow who has not really mastered all the skills he needs, or else does not really commit the whole of himself to the skills does possess. A "slick professional," or "operator," or apparatchik is a fellow who has the skills but no larger commitment to the whole reality of the world within which he operates, he is "a gun for hire." We respect his skills, but not the spirit of their use. When we say "real pro," however, we mean that the person has not been distorted by his specialized techniques. We mean that his intelligence and instincts reach out for all the complex, ambiguous, even mysterious elements of the social realities within which he operates. We mean that, both regarding himself and regarding the world of his activities, he maintains a certain realism. He is "in touch." His professionalism is an instrument of his commitment to reality, not a defense against that reality. He is neither an operator, nor a hack, nor a mere specialist. �104 SLOVAKIA Hacks are easy to understand but what is the culture of the operator? We are afflicted with operators in America. As testimony to their "cultivation," they may take homemovies, or become amateur photographers, or be buffs of considerable artistic skill in one field or another. They may attend concerts or go to all the arty flicks. They may be articulate and even, in some sense, well and broadly educated. Yet there is a sense in which, used in this context, the word "culture" gives off a tinny ring. No doubt anthropologists should study their "culture," too; in a perfectly neutral scene, they represent a "state of mind," a "way of life," as surely as do primitive tribes in New Guinea. But in some way they are rootless, rudderless, without depth. They have made themselves rather into instruments than into ends. The phrase "new barbarians" points to their shallowness. It suggests that smooth, civil persons, persons of considerable education and articulateness, are somehow empty and lacking. Empty of what? Lacking what? No tradition, it seems, lives in them; no long-range, virtually unchangeable, perennial values guide them; their moral universe is without a center; no passionate inwardness directs them. They are, in a sense, larger than David Riesman intended, "other-directed." Success, power, expertise - their guides are extrinsic, changeable, consulted for the short term. The social realities of our "temporary society" do not discourage the flexibility such men exemplify. The state, as Plato says, is man writ large; so men are often their society writ small. Operators, then, are quintessentially American; their role has been mythically established in Huck Finn and in Melville's The Confidence Man. They are outsiders, from the city (or the university), traveling salesmen, "experts." But what about the local cultures, those millions who admire and understand "the old pros" but dislike operators? When Senator Sam Ervin quotes the Bible and Shakespeare, he makes reverberate a network of trustworthy and illuminating traditions. He plays on symbolic strings that have shaped the consciousness of perhaps eightly million Americans. Many, indeed, find the language of a "country lawyer" a good deal more persuasive than the language of the new professionals. Many, indeed, can scarcely discriminate among the several languages of the new professionals. To �SLOVAKIA 105 them, they are all the same: the smooth articulateness of John Dean and Gary Hart, of David Brinkley and Professor Galbraith, of Doctor Kildare and Doctor Spock, of Jeb Stuart Magruder and William Coffin. Often today ideology does not divide people (liberal versus conservative) so much as cultural style does. The old pros remain connected to the symbolic worlds of this nation's many diverse cultures; the operators leave and "do not go home again." Region, ethnicity, religion, race and other cultural factors shape symbolic consciousness in different ways. The Irish of Boston are not exactly like those of Minnesota or Texas; contrasts among John Kennedy, Eugene McCarthy, Joseph McCarthy, Richard Daley and John Connally suggest several of the most significant Irish traditions in the nation. Both George McGovern and George Wallace spring from fundamentalist Scotch-Irish traditions, but in regions whose history has been profoundly different. The symbolic worlds within which they speak set off intense but opposite vibrations. Of the French-Canadians of New Hampshire and Maine; the Appalachians of West Virginia and Kentucky, the poor whites of Alabama and the Florida Panhandle; the AngloAmericans of Wyoming and Idaho; the Oregonians; the Mormons of Utah; the Slavic farmers of Illinois and Nebraska, contrasted with the Slavic miners and millworkers of Pennsylvania, Ohio and Michigan; the Italians contrasted with the upper-class and the lower-class Jews of New York City; the Anglo-American Protestants who supported George Wallace in the 1968 Indiana primary in proportions far heavier than did German-American Protestants of similar economic class - of such diverse and crisscross variety is this nation composed. Among blacks, there are differences depending on origins in Africa: on the generations of colonial experience whether in the West Indies, or rural Mississippi, or the cities of the South; and on length of time in the urban North. The Spanish-speaking population of Miami, New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, San Antonio and Albuquerque are significantly different. The experiences of Oriental Americans - including, without benefit of "Protestant ethic," their astonishing capacity for work and for success - are better admitted into consciousness if one approaches �106 SLOVAKIA American pluralism from Hawaii and California, than from Boston and New York. The variety of cultural worlds in the United States is a powerful, subterranean influence in our national life. It remains subterranean because it is often repressed, as thought it were something "dirty," disfunctional, and doomed to disappear. In its place, a "national" ideology has been created, divided into three parts. First, there is the ideology of "the American way of life," popular, patriotic, capitalistic, chauvinistic. Second, there is the ideology of the mobile, educated, "committed," professional classes what one writer has called "the ideocracy." Third, there is the ideology of the neutral, meritocratic, incommitted, objective professional classes, neither conservative nor liberal, but comfortably in charge. All three of these ideologies, for their own various purposes, try to eliminate cultural diversity. Each carries with it its own ethnic and regional biases. Some, for example, make provision for black, Hispanic and Indian diversity - and, pressed a little, perhaps, they might expand the list. But the terms of their analyses do not give cultural diversity the prominence reality demands. It is true, we have seen, that there is a "common culture" in the West, a set of achievements that represents the most profound insights, wrested from suffering, that Western peoples for some five millennia have attained. But it is not true that even highly educated people in any part of the West are well versed in all the subtraditions of this "common culture." A young Italian from New Jersey who attends the University of Notre Dame will have as part of the furniture of his mind and sensibility materials that the young Jew from Brooklyn who attends City College of New York will not share, and vice versa. When I compare, for example, my years of reading in St. Augustine, St. Bernard, Thomas Aquinas, Cardinal Newman and others, my virtual neglect of Marx, and my dislike of Enlightenment writers like Kant and Mill, with the reading patterns exhibited by, say, Irving Howe, it is vividly clear to me that American intellectual life is profoundly diverse. So it is also with Protestant colleagues of mine in philosophy and religious studies who respond in significantly different ways to materials we jointly consider. Other colleagues have �SLOVAKIA 107 interests and training in the sciences or social sciences; their symbolic world is, again, quite different from mine. "Where did you grow up? Where did you go to school? What is your religious and ethnic background? What do these mean to you?" These are important questions, not for purpose of stereotyping, but for intelligent and sensitive perception. In order to come to learn and to appreciate the cultural background within which the words of others gain their full and familiar meaning, we must be able to answer such questions. What we have most to gain from each other is generated by our mutual differences. The different horizon, standpoint and way of perceiving we each bring to our common world are instruments of spiritual wealth. Consider the following propositions: 1. There is a common Western culture of high intellectual and humanizing potency, instructing all who journey into it in inexhaustible wisdom, insight and spiritual depth. 2. This common culture is composed of many related but divergent traditions, and no one can master all of them. 3. Beyond the boundaries of Western culture, there are also other "common cultures" of great complexity and diversity. In some of these non-Western riches, westerners are also beginning to share in ways both superficial and serious. 4. In higher education and in museums and other instrumentalities of culture in the United States, Protestant traditions within the common culture have been favored over Catholic and Jewish traditions. English literature and philosophy have been favored over Continental literatures and philosophies. Post-Enlightenment materials have virtually driven pre-Enlightenment materials from the field. Agnostic or atheistic materials are favored over religious materials. A rather positivistic ideology of the modern, the progressive and the "factual" has dominated our dictionaries and encyclopedias, as well as our schools, our journalism and our business world. (Dictionaries do not list under "rose" one of its most important cultural meanings: that it is the flower of love, fate and war.) 5. Education is commonly regarded, not as a device for strengthening and benefiting by local, regional, ethnic and religious differences but for "overcoming" them, �108 SLOVAKIA for replacing them with a more or less universal culture. The underlying model for this "universal" ideological outlook is not perfectly neutral as regards those who enter into it. Even if they are of equal talent, some will find cultural models, heroes, texts and materials related to their own cultural background, and others will not. 6. The preferred and most prestigious model for the "high culture" in the United States coincides with the background of our most wealthy and powerful citizens. This model illustrates the history of some, at least, of our major institutions, and partially grounds the dominant language of the land. Hence even though it is biased, it cannot be ignored. Let us attend, first, to proposition 6. Andover, Groton, Milton, Choate and the other prestigious private schools nurture a good part of one major wing of the nation's financial and governmental elites. Yet with every year that passes, in order to understand American reality, students have to go further beyond the limits of Anglo-American traditions. How can one understand Mailer, Malamud, Trilling, Chomsky or Howe without understanding the Jewish traditions of Eastern Europe and America? How can one understand Kennedy, McCarthy or Daley without learning about the Irish experience in America? Will anyone comprehend Detroit without learning about black history in America and Polish history in America - two out of every three citizens of that city being either black or Polish, while virtually all the wealth and power of the city's elites remain Anglo-American and Jewish? Power in America is essentially Anglo-American, hence it is a condition of survival (and of eventual justice) that all the others penetrate the intricacies of the Anglo-American mind. The Yankee pride in "candor," fo example, has generated unique deceptions, especially self-deceptions, whose routes must be painfully traced and plainly marked Yankee appeals to "morality" and leadership" and "integrity" require most careful scrutiny; these are the banners of the most powerful elites. Thus those whose heritage is not Anglo-American, have every right (and duty) both to assimilate all that is good in Anglo-American culture, and to be clear-eyed about what assimilation entails. Two years ago, Irving Howe quoted in these pages �SLOVAKIA 109 the argument of Louis Kampf that "initiating the 'underpriviledged' to the cultural treasures of the West could be a form of oppression - a weapon in the hands of those who rule . .. High culture itself ... tends to reinforce the given alignments of powers within the society." Against Kampf, Howe is able to quote Trotsky: "Mastery of the art of the past is ... a necessary precondition not only for the creation of new art but also for the building of a new society . . . If we were groundlessly to repudiate the art of the past, we should at once become poorer spiritually." Cultural backwardness is not required for political advance. And yet, what is meant by "backwardness"? In order to be fully moral man must one be a professor, or at minimum a college graduate? Is it necessary to have read many books? "Man is not saved by dialectics," a Christian aphorism insists. The simple, too, have their own precious wisdom and the learned their patent foolishness. It is not necessary to romanticize either side in order to recognize that there are analogies between the life stories of the uneducated and those of the college trained. A democracy needs an early discernment system, to spot young persons of talent in every social condition. But it also needs a way to encourage young persons of talent to remain (if they so wish) in living contact with their own roots. They should encouraged not to be parochial, and yet to be rooted. Neither our egalitarians nor our meritocrats, it seems, have a sufficiently cultural perspective; both proceed somewhat atomically, somewhat mechanically. According to egalitarian sentimentality, any student admitted to college through "open admissions" has within him the makings of a student. According to meritocratic arrogance, each student should be judged according to his own performance. The egalitarian forgets that a university is an institution not all citizens are graced with the talent to appreciate; perhaps not one person in ten ought to be admitted to a genuine university. The meritocrat forgets that persons are not individuals merely but also creatures of culture, and that the institutions of high culture in the United States are inequitably and inhumanely ethnocentric. When as a young Slovak-American I read ( with eagerness and delight) "English literature," I learned as well �110 SLOVAKIA a latent message: "These are the kinds of people literature is about; not about families like yours, feeling like yours, dilemmas like yours." Literature was not (except by analogy) about myself; it was about those fascinating, foreign "others." In our part of town, when I was very young, we called them "the Americans." (With less than accurate perception, we included the Irish among "the Americans." We seldom dealt directly with Anglo-Americans.) The heart of the matter comes down to this. There are three main locations of culture. The actual ways of life of ordinary people, in their diverse, loose and permeable communities are one location. The humanities are, in this sense, not primarily what is written down in books, or celebrated in works of art, but what is lived. Those relatively few artists, scholars and critical persons in whom a genuinely high culture is alive are a second location. The swarming army of professionals, highly educated but not necessarily in tune with the high traditions of the past, are a third location. Among these new professionals are many who call themselves humanists . Each of these groups is to be taken seriously. Each enhances our own identity. We need, in America, a public and popular humanities - a pluralism of stories, myths, accurate histories, detailed studies that touch our various peopl8 in all their variety. As a boy, I wish I had learned of the exploits of Janosik as well as of Robin Hood, and had been taught in public and parochial school of the democratic traditions of the early Slovak tribes. I wish I had learned that, after the origins of feudalism, my ancestors endured a thousand-year struggle against oppression that is not yet complete. I wish I had learned officially and fully of the bitter deaths of so many of my countrymen in the mills and mines and strikes of Pennsylvania. (The murder of the Jablonski.s of the United Mine Workers is a recent episode in a hundredyear war.) My sense of injustice and untruth in America would have come earlier than it did. I would have learned earlier both a tragic sense of life and fierce desire to remedy injustice. I would have had a way to discern what made me culturally different, and what my peculiar contribution might have been. I would have had personal parallels by which to judge more accurately what America had done to the Indians, blacks and others in Amei:ica. (What was �SLOVAKIA 111 I doing, cheering for Custer in They Died with Their Boots On?) We also need, of course, a high culture. We need continuity with the visions and sources of judgment upon us that derive from the great spiritual achievements of our past. In many American towns, counties and cities, one family or a small number of families controls the politics, economics and media of communication. Against their vulgar power, the arts and critical skills of the high culture are as powerful a threat as human beings have. Indeed even our highest national elites, our best and our brightest, suffer embarrassment compared to the best our race has seen before. I recognize that our elites sometimes use "taste" and "culture" as weapon of intimidation, which only proves their own vulgarity. The proof that a person has attained a genuine high culture in his unselfconscious respect for the moral analogies between his life and those of others. Portrayed in myth and narrative as the nobleman at home with peasants, the saint with sinners, the learned doctor with children and the ignorant, the political leader sharing his people's crusts of bread, this is the excellence by which our culture measures us. It is not exactly an egalitarian standard, for differences of station and talent are not blurred, but it is, at least, a standard of fraternity, and of the human spirit's radical equality in the eyes of God. Finally, we need the professionals. It is true that concerning the large and important issues, they are almost always wrong. But this is exactly what we should expect; it is their profession to attend scrupulously to a part of the whole; they almost necessarily distort. Yet specialization is no cause for excommunication. Professionals are our brothers, too. We need their powerful skills. One could wish that more of them would turn their skills toward many neglected problems. To mention but one: toward the history and culture of each of the diverse peoples of the United States. Toward an accurate history of our actual pluralism. '' From 1896 to 1908, 508 Slovaks were arrested and convicted for using the Slovak language in public. (Reprinted from The American Scholar, Volume 43, Number 1, Winter, 1973-74. Copyright 1973 by the United Chapters of Phi Beta Kappa. By permission of the publishers.) � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1974, Vol. 24 Description An account of the resource Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document 96 SLOVAKIA One Species, Many Cultures Michael N ov ak Bounded by the slow Danube River on the south and by the rugged Carpathian Mountains on the north, the ancestral land of the Slovak people lies at the axis of Westem lcivilization. For centuries, the vast armies of Attila, Genghis Khan, the Turks, the Germans and the Russians have risen like a tide toward Europe and in due course have been broken in or near the mountains of Slovakia. In the ninth century, Saints Cyril and Methodius established there the Byzantine influence of the Cyrillic alphabet and the Old Slavonic liturgy; but ambitious German rulers later imposed the Latin language, in order to draw Slovakia back toward the West. The rivers of Slovakia run southward and the cultivation of grapes makes Slovakia a wine-drinking nation; the sensibility pf the Slovaks is partly Mediterranean and partly Nordic. For two thousand years, the Slovak people, often to their woe, have abhorred large governmental units and preferred local rule. For a thousand years they have endured almost unbroken political oppression. Just before the Johnstown flood of 1889, one of my grandfathers came from Slovakia to the United States; within a few years, all three of my other grandparents had done the same. During the thirty-nine years from 1875 to 1914, nearly a third of the population of Slovakia emigrated. They left from sheer hunger, to escape military conscription in the h~ted Hungarian army, to find some was to break the political oppression of Hungarian "magyarization," "" and to 'fulfill the ancient Slovak legends and myths of freedom. The Slovaks, like many other Slavs, tend to be suspicious of governments, activism and politicians. "Every official has a tail, to sweep in goods," runs a Slovak proverb. Better to concentrate on home, family and work. No other Slavic people is so inventive in song; over fifteen thousand folk songs Qf the Slovaks have been catalogued, and a Slavic saying goes: "See. a Slovak, hear a song." Nearly all the arts of the Slovaks focus on the home. SLOVAKIA 97 The great Slovak names Svatopluk, Janosik, Benovsky and Stefanik mean little to most Americans. But this is only to say that an ordinary American education is remarkably ethnocentric. About one-third of our population is of Anglo-Saxon ancestry. Yet so far is our nation from fulfilling its own pluralistic destiny that our education is almost entirely Anglo-American. (Indeed, not even all social classes, religious traditions, or regions of Anglo-Americans are equally represented in our educational cultures-"rednecks," evangelicals, Appalachians, for example.) Perhaps the dominance of Anglo-Saxon ethnocentrism in the past necessitates its continued dominance; it has shaped our history. Every American should learn about and, to some extent, assimilate English political history and literature. But is a virtually total concentration on the upper-class culture based in the northeastern section of the nation a sufficient intellectual guide to actual American life, or to the character of the other cultures on this planet? Not long ago, "the humanities" meant, not humanity, but "Western civilization." More than that, it meant "Western civilization as seen through English, Protestant, upperclass eyes." Not many of the graduates of Harvard, Princeton and Yale now in their fifties learned very much in their college days about the other cultures of the world - about Buddhism, or Slavic history, or Jewish family life, or Chinese civilization, or Latin America, or the history of slavery. What they were instructed in as "liberal arts" was not quite fully liberating; what passed before their eyes as "the humanities" was, rather astonishingly, a mirror image of their own ethnicity. The phrase "our common culture" has in recent years been used with more glibness than hard reflection. A culture is not put on like a suit of clothes. One can mimic a culture, absorb it, even use it as a vehicle of one's own self-expression. If, however, the culture does not flow out of one's own tutored instincts and aspirations, it is not yet one's own and does not yet exhaust one's own intelligence, perceptions or dreams. So for many millions of immigrants and their descendants-for a majority of Americans-what is currently available as "mainstream culture" does not spring from the heart. Hundreds of thousands of freshmen tapping their feet in classrooms in Providence, Buffalo, 98 SLOVAKIA Pittsburgh, Detroit, Miami, Houston and Los Angeles do not hear, in the voice of their professors, their own voices - and this is not only because of television, or a generation gap, or the collapsing of "the great tradition." The great tradition itself has been in America too narrowly, too ethnocentrically, perceived. I concur, there is a great tradition. There is a "common" Western culture, distinct from other cultures. But ever since Kant, scholars have sought this tradition in a premature and inaccurately projected "universality." They have tried to emphasize what is common in all men, what is universal, those qualities in which we all share and are alike, those characteristics that do not divide, but rather unite us. A laudable but grievously mistaken impulse. A profound irony is involved in our common identity as members of the human species. The species to which we belong in a historical species; it possesses consciousness, and this consciousness is at once symbolic and concrete. That is, our species lives not only within the physical atmosphere surrounding this blue green planet but also within a variety of concrete, historical cultures. We are the species that lives within cultures - within spheres of meaning, sensibility, selective perception and patterned action. What we have in common is that we are diverse. Our diversity is proof that we are human. We are not so many ants crawling on a soundless orb, nor so many apes obeying laws of natural selection. We generate distinctive cultures. Within cultures, we develop endlessly complex, distinctive individuals. We live within symbolic worlds all our own, both as individuals and as cultures. In the twentieth century (which is itself, a friend reminds me, a somewhat "culture-bound" concept), the relativity of each of our identities is borne in upon us because we inescapably encounter so many who differ from us. In this relativity we meet a second and novel kind of common identity. What we have in common are our finitude and interdependence. Our diversity does not mean we are intrinsically divided from each other, only that we are intrinsically different from each other. Our future unity lies not in "overcoming our differences" but in seeing how they are analogous: in learning to see that my struggle to become a moral human being is rather like (not the same SLOVAKIA 99 as, only analogous to) your struggle to become a moral human being. In a word, the way to become moral is not to become universal, but to become concrete. I need not become the same as you. But my struggle to realize my own moral identity - solely my own, concrete, unique - has many parallels to your struggle to realize your own identity. We face, for example, many similar obstacles: social inequities, ill fortune, self-deception, aging, death. How you face these obstacles in your life illuminates possibilities by which I may, allowing for our differences, conduct my life as well. A nun may define her life around her chastity, as a chosen symbol of God's transcendent love; whereas I, a sensual man, may see in her struggles to protect virginity (of spirit and of flesh) illumination for the perplexities surrounding the central value by which I define my life. The world's literature opens up for me a world of analogy, where flashes of illumination ricochet in unpredictable patterns off a thousand mirrors. The critic of literature who reads Nietzsche after having learned Goethe may catch different reflections from one who reads him after studying Russell, Hare and Austin. What "the great tradition" concerns is wisdom, the voyages individuals take toward moral maturity and moral growth, and the analogous "stages on the way," the analogous "moves," the analogous "dilemmas," "ironies" and "tragedies" they encounter. These words, of course, are already heavy with cultural specificity; they conjure up Aeschylus, Kierkegaard, Hesse and a hundred German scholars. Still, every human life is a structuring of time; each begins with birth, each ends. "Voyage," therefore, is a universal motif. It is the kind of motif that allows for infinite variation, for concrete diversity, for cultural and personal uniqueness. Cultures structure time quite differently. Cultures imagine the model of human fulfillment differently. Yet in every culture individuals voyage from birth to death, and from moral beginnings to moral development. Many of our present perplexities arise from two confusions: one is a misperception of class, the other a misperception of culture. Some young blacks from Hough may not be literate, but that does not mean that the basic human voyage is closed to them. Both the Autobiography 100 SLOVAKIA of Malcolm X and Sou l on Ice are classically Greek and Christian in the metanoia they narrate, and in the structure of decision and liberation they exhibit. (Note even their chapter headings.) It is a mistake to hold that the fundamental moral struggle is restricted to upper-class AngloSaxons - or to the "oppressed." Whatever one's social class, the struggle against self-deception (never decisively won), the struggle for clear vision, and the struggle to respect concrete human persons different from oneself is always present. Bourgeois morality, the morality of appearances and proprieties, must be distinguished from fundamental human morality. "The habit doth not make the monk." One may be an attorney general of the United States without becoming a moral hero to whom others look for illumination on how to become a moral man. It is not easy to be moral simply because one is wellborn, nor simply because one is born in a slum. The voyage toward moral development in either case is analogous to the others - essentially different, yet sufficiently parallel to cast mutual illumination. No human life is so different from all others that it cannot shed morally profitable light; thus the fascination of stories even about moral monsters. When a culture is highly articulated, a "cultivated" person is skilled both in discerning movements of the soul and in giving names to them. He will have a full range of references and allusions with which to speak of what he feels. It is not enough, for example, to be "an atheist." Like Sartre? Or like Merleau-Ponty? Or like Malraux? Or like Camus? Like John Dewey? Or like Corliss Lamont? Or like some churchgoer going through empty motions? The state of soul is remarkably various in every case. Nevertheless, a lack of words does not necessarily indicate an incapacity of soul. It is true (it certainly seems true) that many persons are indeed shallow of soul and contemptuous of introspection. It does not necessarily follow that an abundance of words indicates greatness of soul, or poverty of words powerty of spirit. There are some professors, disdainful of the "cultural deprivation" of those they are obliged to instruct, who are sterile of soul; and in some of their students there are depths untongued. Among some of the Indian chiefs of American history, SLOVAKIA 101 for example, there is an eloquence, dignity and precision of speech worthy of the ancient Greeks. Or, to state the matter differently, some of the heroes of Homer utter sentiments worthy of the Indian nations. Want of reading does not disbar human beings from profound moral insight or from classical eloquence. One does not have to read Greek to encounter ancient wisdom. (The American Indians produced no Aristotle; neither has New York.) On the other hand, a university education in the humanities today is not aimed at profound moral insight or classical eloquence. They are lucky indeed whose insight and eloquence are not destroyed by a university education today. For the culture of the universities today is not the culture of "the great tradition," not the culture of Western civilization, not even the culture of upper-class Anglo-Americans. In some few persons, it may be these things. In most administrators, professors, teaching assistants and students a university education exhibits a different culture altogether. Let me call it "the culture of the professionals" and attempt to draw attention to its pervasiveness. Not long ago, a major corporation took an ad in the Wall Street Journal to honor one of its employees. Above his picture was a single word, "Professionalism ... " and below it a definition: "More than education ... More than experience . . . More than training ... it's a state of mind." Who today are proud to call themselves professionals? Football players, stockbrockers, doctors, lawyers, journal• ists, gangsters and professors of literature, philosophy and other fields. "Professionalism. " "State of Mind." These are terms of considerable power. Implied are choices, special• izations, narrowings down for purposes of efficiency and effect. Implied, indeed, is the disciplining of an entire life, a concentration upon a limited field of expertise. "A state of mind." "A way of life." A major, driving, powerful culture in our midst is the culture of professionals. Football is its major public liturgy, its dramatic expression, its mirror-image festival. In the daily world of politics, the word "professional" is used in fascinating ways. Of some lifelong politicians, an informed opinion of their performance is "hack" or "fake." By contrast, the most sober and comforting praise 102 SLOVAKIA for a public figure or for this or that person on his staff is, "He's a real pro." An intermediate word of praise, spoken with a faintly baffled sort of affection, is the phrase, "an old pro." The meaning is that the person in question - Senator Sam Ervin, let us say - lacks some of the technical sophistication and scientific art of modern professionalism, but is, so to speak, an artist of an older style, in a different sort of way, and by God, admirable nevertheless. He "knows his way around," "knows what he's doing," and so one "shouldn't be fooled" by his apparent naivete or folksy style. There are some jobs, among some constituencies, that maybe "the old pro" tackles with a surer grasp that "the real pro." It's a very good feeling to be called by one's peers "a pro." Certification (college degrees, a tough job assignment) confers the objective status. But not all who have the certification are truly considered by their peers to be "the real pros." Such hints suggest that an accurate discussion of culture must move on several levels. The first meaning of culture applies to the "state of mind," or the "way of life," of our professional classes. This is the class that manages our institutions of certification the schools, the universities, the media and the new institutes of research, development and consultantship. This same class also manages many of our traditional institutions - business corporations, government, foundations, churches and national organizations. By no means a majority of Americans experiences the culture of professionalizatio n. But most of the high-salaried and/or organizing, articulating, managing and "influential" people do. "Above" the level of the professional culture lies the "high culture" of family tradition, and/or money, and/ or dedication to the classical, recognized arts. Nurture in a certain kind of family tradition - children of Cabots or Lodges, or of concert violinists or professors of the clasics - sometimes provides the requisite sensibility. Money that can buy a new generation the education denied its parents may provide it. (There are many "middle-brow" participants in high culture who enjoy its fruits without being creators.) Finally, sheer talent and desire, an "innate" capacity for the flowering of one's spirit, and the good SLOVAKIA 103 fortune of schooling of some sort may provide it. Thus, not a few of our ablest artists and scholars today, like Abraham Lincoln and William Shakespeare, although not "wellborn," have advanced the reaches of the human spirit. It is true that the "high culture," once it has been achieved, is in some respects more accessible to the wealthy than to the poor. The wealthy can travel. They have leisure. They are provided with instruction. They finance artists and scholars. They buy the materials, the time spent and the fruits of artistic endeavor; they are the patrons of art and learning. Yet by their nature the achievements of high culture speak to - and belong to - the human spirit, not to wealth. Instrumentally both a society and individuals require sufficient wealth to gain that freedom from necessity without which there are no liberal arts. Such wealth can be very modest. Even in the caves, humans began to draw, and already by the fireside the spirit of Lincoln was being forged. High culture, nonetheless, requires a culture in which leisure is available; it requires wealth. This instrumental tie between wealth and high culture occasions a certain embarrassment in a ruthlessly egalitarian society. Common speech, we recall, distinguishes several kinds of professional performance. The main force of the word "professional" points toward a specialized commitment: one professes one line of work rather than another. A "hack" is a fellow who has not really mastered all the skills he needs, or else does not really commit the whole of himself to the skills does possess. A "slick professional," or "operator," or apparatchik is a fellow who has the skills but no larger commitment to the whole reality of the world within which he operates, he is "a gun for hire." We respect his skills, but not the spirit of their use. When we say "real pro," however, we mean that the person has not been distorted by his specialized techniques. We mean that his intelligence and instincts reach out for all the complex, ambiguous, even mysterious elements of the social realities within which he operates. We mean that, both regarding himself and regarding the world of his activities, he maintains a certain realism. He is "in touch." His professionalism is an instrument of his commitment to reality, not a defense against that reality. He is neither an operator, nor a hack, nor a mere specialist. 104 SLOVAKIA Hacks are easy to understand but what is the culture of the operator? We are afflicted with operators in America. As testimony to their "cultivation," they may take homemovies, or become amateur photographers, or be buffs of considerable artistic skill in one field or another. They may attend concerts or go to all the arty flicks. They may be articulate and even, in some sense, well and broadly educated. Yet there is a sense in which, used in this context, the word "culture" gives off a tinny ring. No doubt anthropologists should study their "culture," too; in a perfectly neutral scene, they represent a "state of mind," a "way of life," as surely as do primitive tribes in New Guinea. But in some way they are rootless, rudderless, without depth. They have made themselves rather into instruments than into ends. The phrase "new barbarians" points to their shallowness. It suggests that smooth, civil persons, persons of considerable education and articulateness, are somehow empty and lacking. Empty of what? Lacking what? No tradition, it seems, lives in them; no long-range, virtually unchangeable, perennial values guide them; their moral universe is without a center; no passionate inwardness directs them. They are, in a sense, larger than David Riesman intended, "other-directed." Success, power, expertise - their guides are extrinsic, changeable, consulted for the short term. The social realities of our "temporary society" do not discourage the flexibility such men exemplify. The state, as Plato says, is man writ large; so men are often their society writ small. Operators, then, are quintessentially American; their role has been mythically established in Huck Finn and in Melville's The Confidence Man. They are outsiders, from the city (or the university), traveling salesmen, "experts." But what about the local cultures, those millions who admire and understand "the old pros" but dislike operators? When Senator Sam Ervin quotes the Bible and Shakespeare, he makes reverberate a network of trustworthy and illuminating traditions. He plays on symbolic strings that have shaped the consciousness of perhaps eightly million Americans. Many, indeed, find the language of a "country lawyer" a good deal more persuasive than the language of the new professionals. Many, indeed, can scarcely discriminate among the several languages of the new professionals. To SLOVAKIA 105 them, they are all the same: the smooth articulateness of John Dean and Gary Hart, of David Brinkley and Professor Galbraith, of Doctor Kildare and Doctor Spock, of Jeb Stuart Magruder and William Coffin. Often today ideology does not divide people (liberal versus conservative) so much as cultural style does. The old pros remain connected to the symbolic worlds of this nation's many diverse cultures; the operators leave and "do not go home again." Region, ethnicity, religion, race and other cultural factors shape symbolic consciousness in different ways. The Irish of Boston are not exactly like those of Minnesota or Texas; contrasts among John Kennedy, Eugene McCarthy, Joseph McCarthy, Richard Daley and John Connally suggest several of the most significant Irish traditions in the nation. Both George McGovern and George Wallace spring from fundamentalist Scotch-Irish traditions, but in regions whose history has been profoundly different. The symbolic worlds within which they speak set off intense but opposite vibrations. Of the French-Canadians of New Hampshire and Maine; the Appalachians of West Virginia and Kentucky, the poor whites of Alabama and the Florida Panhandle; the AngloAmericans of Wyoming and Idaho; the Oregonians; the Mormons of Utah; the Slavic farmers of Illinois and Nebraska, contrasted with the Slavic miners and millworkers of Pennsylvania, Ohio and Michigan; the Italians contrasted with the upper-class and the lower-class Jews of New York City; the Anglo-American Protestants who supported George Wallace in the 1968 Indiana primary in proportions far heavier than did German-American Protestants of similar economic class - of such diverse and crisscross variety is this nation composed. Among blacks, there are differences depending on origins in Africa: on the generations of colonial experience whether in the West Indies, or rural Mississippi, or the cities of the South; and on length of time in the urban North. The Spanish-speaking population of Miami, New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, San Antonio and Albuquerque are significantly different. The experiences of Oriental Americans - including, without benefit of "Protestant ethic," their astonishing capacity for work and for success - are better admitted into consciousness if one approaches 106 SLOVAKIA American pluralism from Hawaii and California, than from Boston and New York. The variety of cultural worlds in the United States is a powerful, subterranean influence in our national life. It remains subterranean because it is often repressed, as thought it were something "dirty," disfunctional, and doomed to disappear. In its place, a "national" ideology has been created, divided into three parts. First, there is the ideology of "the American way of life," popular, patriotic, capitalistic, chauvinistic. Second, there is the ideology of the mobile, educated, "committed," professional classes what one writer has called "the ideocracy." Third, there is the ideology of the neutral, meritocratic, incommitted, objective professional classes, neither conservative nor liberal, but comfortably in charge. All three of these ideologies, for their own various purposes, try to eliminate cultural diversity. Each carries with it its own ethnic and regional biases. Some, for example, make provision for black, Hispanic and Indian diversity - and, pressed a little, perhaps, they might expand the list. But the terms of their analyses do not give cultural diversity the prominence reality demands. It is true, we have seen, that there is a "common culture" in the West, a set of achievements that represents the most profound insights, wrested from suffering, that Western peoples for some five millennia have attained. But it is not true that even highly educated people in any part of the West are well versed in all the subtraditions of this "common culture." A young Italian from New Jersey who attends the University of Notre Dame will have as part of the furniture of his mind and sensibility materials that the young Jew from Brooklyn who attends City College of New York will not share, and vice versa. When I compare, for example, my years of reading in St. Augustine, St. Bernard, Thomas Aquinas, Cardinal Newman and others, my virtual neglect of Marx, and my dislike of Enlightenment writers like Kant and Mill, with the reading patterns exhibited by, say, Irving Howe, it is vividly clear to me that American intellectual life is profoundly diverse. So it is also with Protestant colleagues of mine in philosophy and religious studies who respond in significantly different ways to materials we jointly consider. Other colleagues have SLOVAKIA 107 interests and training in the sciences or social sciences; their symbolic world is, again, quite different from mine. "Where did you grow up? Where did you go to school? What is your religious and ethnic background? What do these mean to you?" These are important questions, not for purpose of stereotyping, but for intelligent and sensitive perception. In order to come to learn and to appreciate the cultural background within which the words of others gain their full and familiar meaning, we must be able to answer such questions. What we have most to gain from each other is generated by our mutual differences. The different horizon, standpoint and way of perceiving we each bring to our common world are instruments of spiritual wealth. Consider the following propositions: 1. There is a common Western culture of high intellectual and humanizing potency, instructing all who journey into it in inexhaustible wisdom, insight and spiritual depth. 2. This common culture is composed of many related but divergent traditions, and no one can master all of them. 3. Beyond the boundaries of Western culture, there are also other "common cultures" of great complexity and diversity. In some of these non-Western riches, westerners are also beginning to share in ways both superficial and serious. 4. In higher education and in museums and other instrumentalities of culture in the United States, Protestant traditions within the common culture have been favored over Catholic and Jewish traditions. English literature and philosophy have been favored over Continental literatures and philosophies. Post-Enlightenment materials have virtually driven pre-Enlightenment materials from the field. Agnostic or atheistic materials are favored over religious materials. A rather positivistic ideology of the modern, the progressive and the "factual" has dominated our dictionaries and encyclopedias, as well as our schools, our journalism and our business world. (Dictionaries do not list under "rose" one of its most important cultural meanings: that it is the flower of love, fate and war.) 5. Education is commonly regarded, not as a device for strengthening and benefiting by local, regional, ethnic and religious differences but for "overcoming" them, 108 SLOVAKIA for replacing them with a more or less universal culture. The underlying model for this "universal" ideological outlook is not perfectly neutral as regards those who enter into it. Even if they are of equal talent, some will find cultural models, heroes, texts and materials related to their own cultural background, and others will not. 6. The preferred and most prestigious model for the "high culture" in the United States coincides with the background of our most wealthy and powerful citizens. This model illustrates the history of some, at least, of our major institutions, and partially grounds the dominant language of the land. Hence even though it is biased, it cannot be ignored. Let us attend, first, to proposition 6. Andover, Groton, Milton, Choate and the other prestigious private schools nurture a good part of one major wing of the nation's financial and governmental elites. Yet with every year that passes, in order to understand American reality, students have to go further beyond the limits of Anglo-American traditions. How can one understand Mailer, Malamud, Trilling, Chomsky or Howe without understanding the Jewish traditions of Eastern Europe and America? How can one understand Kennedy, McCarthy or Daley without learning about the Irish experience in America? Will anyone comprehend Detroit without learning about black history in America and Polish history in America - two out of every three citizens of that city being either black or Polish, while virtually all the wealth and power of the city's elites remain Anglo-American and Jewish? Power in America is essentially Anglo-American, hence it is a condition of survival (and of eventual justice) that all the others penetrate the intricacies of the Anglo-American mind. The Yankee pride in "candor," fo example, has generated unique deceptions, especially self-deceptions, whose routes must be painfully traced and plainly marked Yankee appeals to "morality" and leadership" and "integrity" require most careful scrutiny; these are the banners of the most powerful elites. Thus those whose heritage is not Anglo-American, have every right (and duty) both to assimilate all that is good in Anglo-American culture, and to be clear-eyed about what assimilation entails. Two years ago, Irving Howe quoted in these pages SLOVAKIA 109 the argument of Louis Kampf that "initiating the 'underpriviledged' to the cultural treasures of the West could be a form of oppression - a weapon in the hands of those who rule . .. High culture itself ... tends to reinforce the given alignments of powers within the society." Against Kampf, Howe is able to quote Trotsky: "Mastery of the art of the past is ... a necessary precondition not only for the creation of new art but also for the building of a new society . . . If we were groundlessly to repudiate the art of the past, we should at once become poorer spiritually." Cultural backwardness is not required for political advance. And yet, what is meant by "backwardness"? In order to be fully moral man must one be a professor, or at minimum a college graduate? Is it necessary to have read many books? "Man is not saved by dialectics," a Christian aphorism insists. The simple, too, have their own precious wisdom and the learned their patent foolishness. It is not necessary to romanticize either side in order to recognize that there are analogies between the life stories of the uneducated and those of the college trained. A democracy needs an early discernment system, to spot young persons of talent in every social condition. But it also needs a way to encourage young persons of talent to remain (if they so wish) in living contact with their own roots. They should encouraged not to be parochial, and yet to be rooted. Neither our egalitarians nor our meritocrats, it seems, have a sufficiently cultural perspective; both proceed somewhat atomically, somewhat mechanically. According to egalitarian sentimentality, any student admitted to college through "open admissions" has within him the makings of a student. According to meritocratic arrogance, each student should be judged according to his own performance. The egalitarian forgets that a university is an institution not all citizens are graced with the talent to appreciate; perhaps not one person in ten ought to be admitted to a genuine university. The meritocrat forgets that persons are not individuals merely but also creatures of culture, and that the institutions of high culture in the United States are inequitably and inhumanely ethnocentric. When as a young Slovak-American I read ( with eagerness and delight) "English literature," I learned as well 110 SLOVAKIA a latent message: "These are the kinds of people literature is about; not about families like yours, feeling like yours, dilemmas like yours." Literature was not (except by analogy) about myself; it was about those fascinating, foreign "others." In our part of town, when I was very young, we called them "the Americans." (With less than accurate perception, we included the Irish among "the Americans." We seldom dealt directly with Anglo-Americans.) The heart of the matter comes down to this. There are three main locations of culture. The actual ways of life of ordinary people, in their diverse, loose and permeable communities are one location. The humanities are, in this sense, not primarily what is written down in books, or celebrated in works of art, but what is lived. Those relatively few artists, scholars and critical persons in whom a genuinely high culture is alive are a second location. The swarming army of professionals, highly educated but not necessarily in tune with the high traditions of the past, are a third location. Among these new professionals are many who call themselves humanists . Each of these groups is to be taken seriously. Each enhances our own identity. We need, in America, a public and popular humanities - a pluralism of stories, myths, accurate histories, detailed studies that touch our various peopl8 in all their variety. As a boy, I wish I had learned of the exploits of Janosik as well as of Robin Hood, and had been taught in public and parochial school of the democratic traditions of the early Slovak tribes. I wish I had learned that, after the origins of feudalism, my ancestors endured a thousand-year struggle against oppression that is not yet complete. I wish I had learned officially and fully of the bitter deaths of so many of my countrymen in the mills and mines and strikes of Pennsylvania. (The murder of the Jablonski.s of the United Mine Workers is a recent episode in a hundredyear war.) My sense of injustice and untruth in America would have come earlier than it did. I would have learned earlier both a tragic sense of life and fierce desire to remedy injustice. I would have had a way to discern what made me culturally different, and what my peculiar contribution might have been. I would have had personal parallels by which to judge more accurately what America had done to the Indians, blacks and others in Amei:ica. (What was SLOVAKIA 111 I doing, cheering for Custer in They Died with Their Boots On?) We also need, of course, a high culture. We need continuity with the visions and sources of judgment upon us that derive from the great spiritual achievements of our past. In many American towns, counties and cities, one family or a small number of families controls the politics, economics and media of communication. Against their vulgar power, the arts and critical skills of the high culture are as powerful a threat as human beings have. Indeed even our highest national elites, our best and our brightest, suffer embarrassment compared to the best our race has seen before. I recognize that our elites sometimes use "taste" and "culture" as weapon of intimidation, which only proves their own vulgarity. The proof that a person has attained a genuine high culture in his unselfconscious respect for the moral analogies between his life and those of others. Portrayed in myth and narrative as the nobleman at home with peasants, the saint with sinners, the learned doctor with children and the ignorant, the political leader sharing his people's crusts of bread, this is the excellence by which our culture measures us. It is not exactly an egalitarian standard, for differences of station and talent are not blurred, but it is, at least, a standard of fraternity, and of the human spirit's radical equality in the eyes of God. Finally, we need the professionals. It is true that concerning the large and important issues, they are almost always wrong. But this is exactly what we should expect; it is their profession to attend scrupulously to a part of the whole; they almost necessarily distort. Yet specialization is no cause for excommunication. Professionals are our brothers, too. We need their powerful skills. One could wish that more of them would turn their skills toward many neglected problems. To mention but one: toward the history and culture of each of the diverse peoples of the United States. Toward an accurate history of our actual pluralism. '' From 1896 to 1908, 508 Slovaks were arrested and convicted for using the Slovak language in public. (Reprinted from The American Scholar, Volume 43, Number 1, Winter, 1973-74. Copyright 1973 by the United Chapters of Phi Beta Kappa. By permission of the publishers.)  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource One Species, Many Cultures Description An account of the resource Michael Novak Slovakia, Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974 pp. 96-111 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Novak, Michael, 1933-2017 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 LCNAF+dates https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/2665a947275bb254be9e3a566380943b.pdf 735a3280b60052bd52944c0d480379ca PDF Text Text 112 SLOVAKIA The Artful Dodgers: Directors of Ethnic Studies Programs By Paul F e n c h a k In Dickens' novel Oliver Twist, Jack Dawkins, called the Artful Dodger, is a teacher - albeit one who taught the art of pickpocketing to innocent youngsters such as Oliver Twist. His motive: personal gain. The writer of this article is convinced that the counterparts of the Artful Dodger are today directing ethnic studies programs in the public schools of the United States. Seemingly they are no more altruistic towards needful ethnic groups in America than the Artful Dodger was toward the welfare of Oliver Twist. Formulators of ethnic studies programs dodge no small number of ethnic groups as they label "minority groups" to the Blacks, Indians, Spanish Americans, and Orientals. Frequently space is also given to Jews, Germans, Italians, and Poles. Scholars who would talk of Ukrainians, Slovaks, Croatians, Bulgarians, Lithuanians, Latvians, and Rumanians, among others, are judged to be divining in some dark, mysterious regions, presided over by pagan gods who, midst Gog and Magog, are all agog in exotic studies about areas considered to be "powder kegs" and "tinderboxes" - "balkanized" beyond comprehension to sensible people. The powerful National Education Association boasts of having a "strong program to improve the lot of minority groups, including Blacks, Indians, Spanish Americans, and other bi-lingual groups." Often Croatians, Byelorussians, Ukrainians, Slovaks, Lithuanians, Finns, et al., are more bi-lingual than some groups cited by the NEA, yet the amount of coverage given East European-Americ ans is usually nil. In 1972 the writer wrote the State Superintendents of Schools of the fifty state education departments requesting copies of curriculum guides, brochures, bulletins, etc., �SLOVAKIA 113 dealing with racial, cultural, multi-cultural, inter-cultural, disadvantaged, etc., matters of ethnics in America. For sundry reasons the responses were not rapid in arriving. To date 24 of 50 state education departments have either forwarded materials or have indicated that materials will be forthcoming. In summary of the vast amount of ethnic studies promoted by state education departments, one conclusion can easily be made: East European ethnics do not exist in the United States. Even Pennsylvania, the most Slavic of the fifty states, with fraternal, religious, and educational institutions located throughout the commonwealth in large numbers, is guilty of producing ethnic materials that are absolutely ignominous to the mass of citizens of East European ancestry living within the state. In Pennsylvania one need just travel from town to town, stopping to examine the names of those who served and those who died for the United States in both World Wars, as registered on community Honor Rolls. Seemingly then, the non-sense of excluding East Europeans would end - and even the very productive efforts of these peoples in the mines, mills, and farms, in athletics, in scholarship, and in good citizenship would then be recognized. The map of Pennsylvania already recognizes these peoples: Mazeppa, Kossuth, Pulaski, Po1and Mines, Dalmatia, Zelienople, Gallitzin, Livonia, St. Petersburg, and Slovan, among others. The bulk of the state curriculum guides, with Texas being a noteworthy exception, on ethnic and racial/cultural studies focus on the groups cited by the National Education Association: Blacks, Indians, and Spanish-Americans. Orientals and Jews are reasonably well-covered as are Italians, Irish, English, Germans, and French. It is always interesting to observe how state and local education experts use the term "minority group." One county in Maryland that contains thousands of Poles, Slovaks, Ukrainians, Czechs, et al., admits having "5,603 black students and another 706 pupils from various other minority groups." The thruth is that in most states the term "minority groups" as presented in curriculum guides excludes Americans of East European ancestry and consequently millions of Americans are being denied the �114 SLOVAKIA opportunity of studying their heritages. Likewise, they are being denied opportunity in employment quests and, worst of all, some Americans are being deprived of the opportunity of attaining optimum psychological and emotional growth. Whereas the successful guidance counselor can help students to correctly answer the important question, "Whom am I?," counselors rarely talk about, or know anything about, Slavic languages, Finno-Ugric languages, Baltic languages, etc. But it is ever so fashionable in American schools to talk about the pleasantries of French, Spanish, German, and Latin. Evidently one of the major problems in education re ethnics is that the artful dodgers are not honest enough to admit that they need re-trained in order to be able to properly assemble the American mosaic. How many Slavic-Americans live in Peoria, Illinois? Frankly, the writer doesn't know, yet he assumes that in an industrial area of ca. 150,000 some Croatians, Bulgarians, Czechs, Poles, et al., do live and work. (All cities always have Russans!) Given the resources of the Peoria educational system the writer could develop reasonably accurate projections of the ethnic composition for Peoria; the same could be done for Paducah, Kentucky, or Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania. Why then the mystique about the manifold ethnic groups that comprise America? It appears that our ethnic directors are hiding and confusing issues. They are run by a system that relegated East Europeans. How negatively runs the cross-examination when an East European scholar seeks to get more considerations from librarians, curriculum directors, supervisors, administrators, editors, and other educators. Sooner or later the question emerges: How many Ukrainians (Czechs, Finns, et. al.) are then in Peoria? Yet these same specialists are able to calculate that there are certain numbers of Blacks and Spanish~speaking in their areas. How strange! The writer has heard this tactic so many times that he refuses to dignify such questions, presenting instead a general response that there are many Slavs, Finno-Ugrics, Baltics, etc., in a political sub-division, if such is the case. If the specialist is persistent in wanting to know the exact number of Czechs in Peoria, the writer usually asks .the specialist to secure �SLOVAKIA 115 that data for him, using the resources of people who should know. It is patently obvious that ethnic analysts do not want t o know how many East European-Americans live in various communities, as there is absolutely nothing stopping them from researching such data for East Europeans. The Texas Education Agency is to be commended for having produced an interesting curriculum guide: Czecho-Slovakia: Information Minimum. This booklet (71 pages) contains important facts about Czecho-Slovakia, especially as they relate to the history and culture of the United States. With its excellent maps, drawings, alphabets, data summaries, etc., it is the type of guide needed by more groups in more states. Unfortunately, of the 24 states that responded with materials, only Texas submitted any recognizable booklet doing justice to East Europeans. The catty Polish jokes seem to have nine lives. In years gone by the same tripe was slurred against Jews, Italians, and Irish. Yet the time length of the ethnic joke being in vogue was never so long. The Polish joke has been in circulation so long now that it is possible that a student my have entered kindergarten, completed grade school and junior high school, and have been graduated from high school while hearing no ethnic jokes other than the Polish variety. The tragedy of this attitude is supported by the extremely weak collection of literature available about East European peoples in American schools. This despite the fact that there are in America today some 35,000,000 Americans of East European ancestry. A stigma of the Polish joke is that some Americans who are not Poles also are labelled as Poles for purposes of jibing, e.g., the writer's daughter who as a third grade student was continually chided by her WASP classmates as being "Polish." "No need to explain that you are a Ukrainian-Slovak-American, Marcia! You're Polish! Ha! Ha! Ha!" (Marcia learned how to counter such diatribes by asking, "How many of you know Polish?" Response: "None of us." "How does it feel to be dumber than a Pole?") This is cited as the last Polish joke. That "Russian" studies receive top billing in American �116 SLOVAKIA schools goes without saying. Soviet Life is the most popular periodical in school libraries, so from such "reliable" sources students learn how the Germans killed 10,000 Polish army officers in the Katyn Forest, as an article early in 1971 indicated. After reading the Soviet account of how the Germans killed the Polish officers, the author wrote a letter to Soviet Life asking how accusations against the Russians can be disproved. Nicholai Zhiltsov, managing editor of Soviet Life, submitted the following reply on June 1, 1971: "Please excuse the delay in answering your letter which we have forwarded to our Moscow Editorial Board for their comments." Needless to say, by late 1973 a reply has not yet arrived. Barbara Mikulski, Polish-American and member of the City Council of Baltimore, spoke clearly and honestly about many situations when she stated, "When we ask for something, we are either put off, put out, or put down." Ask for books for the library and the librarian will write off your requests as "Not in Books in Print." Ask that East European specialists be invited to participate in social studies workshops, and your letter goes unanswered. Suggest that an Ethnic Library be started, with coverage for all ethnics, and again your letter is unanswered. Apply for a position in human relations and you are told that the emphasis is on black studies. Period. A frequently used dodge by curriculum formulators is the statement that they do not desire to approach East European studies, as, if they do, then it will be necessary to analyze all other ethnic groups in the United States. In a sense this attitude translates as "East Europeans don't burn, don't riot, don't act like rowdies ... so nobody pays any attention to them." That deceit shows through current ethnic analyses is obvious enough as in legal provisions for the teaching about ethnic studies in most states, no groups are expressly excluded. When prices in America continue to skyrocket as a result of expanded trade with East European nations, a need for better understanding about East Europeans is more imperative than ever. The current campaign by Jews in America to identify the lack of liberties accorded their brethre.n in the Soviet Union could in some ways be made �SLOVAKIA 117 to appear rather miniscule if injustices perpetrated against Slovaks, Lithuanians, Ukrainians, Byelorussians, et. al., were similarly examined. Freedom still remains undebatable despite the economic strategems of government and big business. At home, one of principal educational problems may be that big business is too much in the saddle in influencing ethnic studies programs. No champions from business arose to exhort the cause of ethnics when the Schweiker ethnic studies bill was not approved for funding by tlie White House, yet industrial support was hardly lacking for both parties. Michael Novak in The Rise of the Unmeltable Ethnics speaks of the possibility of Blacks and ethnics forming a coalition for mutual gain. It cannot be assumed that because Blacks have been afforded study programs and given some economic assistance, that power groups in America are genuinely interested in their welfare. Nobody volunteered any help to the Blacks and it can be reasonably assumed that nothing will be given East Europeans unless they demand considerations. One of the greatest problems confronting East Europeans is that textbook purchasers know too little about non-Russian-oriented publications; they buy primarily from the big, conventional publishing houses. East European publishers need to wage a campaign to bring their publications to the school systems throughout the country. The fact is that numerous administrators know as much about East Europeans as a dog knows about mathematics. An example: The late Prof. Roman Smal-Stocki, when at Marquette University, used to begin his classes with an anonymous quiz, one of the questions of which was: List the Slavic nationalities or peoples in Europe. The usual answer ran like this: Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Rumania, Albania, Turkey, Austria, Russians, Bavarians, Bolsheviks, "Lower Slobovia" (Li'l Abner's contribution) and "Carpathia" (Marilyn Monroe's contribution from the movie, "The Prince and the Showgirl"). On July 11, 1954, the New York Times altered geography of Europe with the following headline: Rising Danube Flood Hits Prague. The Baltimore Sun had an interesting article (some �118 SLOVAKIA reporters are more discerning than many of our educators) on December 4, 1935, written by R. P. Harriss, "All Others." Harriss states, "The official census for Baltimore is a curious intensely interesting document, both for what it reveals and for what it leaves out. It lists some 14,000 nonexistent Russians and contains vague hints of a polygenous percentage which it does not bother to define." True enough. In an article in the Baltimore Sun on February 13, 1967, a native of Kazan, Russia, is quoted: "There are probably not more than five or six families of true Russians in Baltimore." Yet the article speaks of Russians from Galicia, Byelorussia, Carpatho-Ukraine. Seems that census officials and educators have in America done a magician's job of creating 'Russians.' How some of the mysteries regarding census data will be clarified remains a monumental task for the artful dodgers who have compiled the data thus far. Quoting again the Harriss article of 1935: "Officially there are 1,637 Hungarians in Baltimore, 1,441 Ruman.ians, and no Ukrainians, no Serbs." Harriss was candid enough to realize that by 1935 there were three Ukrainian churches, plus other institutions, in the Baltimore area and he was smart enough to see that the census data was akin to ethnic studies programs of today. Surely nobody would suspect that the Russians built the Ukrainian churches! The situation in literary studies is not much better than in the social sciences. To be sure "Russian Literature" units are taught in many schools, yet in "World Literature" courses very little is presented to develop the genius of Slovak, Czech, Ukrainian, Finnish, Polish, et. al., writers. Likewise the study of art and music suffer from non-coverage and from misconceptions. Now is the time to clear the muddied waters. East Europeans must declare themselves. They need to write more, question more, educate P.T.A. groups, civic organizations, education councils (on which they are rarely represented), etc. The "education crisis" should be recognized immediately. Forget about token appointments and honorary ethnic banquets (which cost you $100) in Washington where ethnic foods and cultural items are displayed. Begin a program called "Operation Hometown." Organize East European �SLOVAKIA 119 festivals as was done at Harpur College in Binghamton, New York. Show films. Present books and audio-visual aids to libraries. Request relevant books at your public libraries. Have cultural groups perform at YMCA's, schools, colleges, charity events, etc. It is important that school book lists be examined and that books by and about East Europeans be added. Music departments should be exhorted to sound to the tunes of rhapsodies, mazurkas, kolomajykas, polkas. Home economic departments would win adherents by presenting samplings of pirohy, halusky, makovnik, etc. Courses of study need to be expanded to include information about the great contributions of East Europeans to America, as, in the words of Michael Novak, "America is becoming America." The name of the game for East Europeans is "catch-up." Don't wait for the artful dodgers to structure your ethnic studies as you are excluded from their terminology. In the words of Dickens " ... You must get up very early in the morning, to win against the Dodger." "Morning!" said Charley Bates; "you must put your boots on over-night, and have a telescope at each eye, and a opera-glass between your shoulders, if you want to come over him." The U.S. flight crew for the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project visited Russia for two weeks in November 1973 to familiarize themselves with the Soyuz spacecraft system that will link up with their Apollo in 1975. Most of their activities were conducted in the J . A. Gagarin Center of Cosmonaut Training at Zvezdny Goroduk, or Star City, near Moscow. Making the trip were the three Apollo crewmen, Brig. Gen. Thomas P. Stafford, Vance D. Brand and Donald K. Slayton; backup crewmen, Capt. Alan L. Bean, Capt. Ronald E. Evans and Maj. Jack R. Lousma; support crewmen, Lt. Col. Robert F. Overmyer and Lt. Col. Karol J. Bobko; and Capt. Eugene A. Ceman, Special Assistant to the U.S. ASTP Technical Director. Bobko and Cer:nan are Slovaks. � 112 SLOVAKIA The Artful Dodgers: Directors of Ethnic Studies Programs By Paul F e n c h a k In Dickens' novel Oliver Twist, Jack Dawkins, called the Artful Dodger, is a teacher - albeit one who taught the art of pickpocketing to innocent youngsters such as Oliver Twist. His motive: personal gain. The writer of this article is convinced that the counterparts of the Artful Dodger are today directing ethnic studies programs in the public schools of the United States. Seemingly they are no more altruistic towards needful ethnic groups in America than the Artful Dodger was toward the welfare of Oliver Twist. Formulators of ethnic studies programs dodge no small number of ethnic groups as they label "minority groups" to the Blacks, Indians, Spanish Americans, and Orientals. Frequently space is also given to Jews, Germans, Italians, and Poles. Scholars who would talk of Ukrainians, Slovaks, Croatians, Bulgarians, Lithuanians, Latvians, and Rumanians, among others, are judged to be divining in some dark, mysterious regions, presided over by pagan gods who, midst Gog and Magog, are all agog in exotic studies about areas considered to be "powder kegs" and "tinderboxes" - "balkanized" beyond comprehension to sensible people. The powerful National Education Association boasts of having a "strong program to improve the lot of minority groups, including Blacks, Indians, Spanish Americans, and other bi-lingual groups." Often Croatians, Byelorussians, Ukrainians, Slovaks, Lithuanians, Finns, et al., are more bi-lingual than some groups cited by the NEA, yet the amount of coverage given East European-Americ ans is usually nil. In 1972 the writer wrote the State Superintendents of Schools of the fifty state education departments requesting copies of curriculum guides, brochures, bulletins, etc., �SLOVAKIA 113 dealing with racial, cultural, multi-cultural, inter-cultural, disadvantaged, etc., matters of ethnics in America. For sundry reasons the responses were not rapid in arriving. To date 24 of 50 state education departments have either forwarded materials or have indicated that materials will be forthcoming. In summary of the vast amount of ethnic studies promoted by state education departments, one conclusion can easily be made: East European ethnics do not exist in the United States. Even Pennsylvania, the most Slavic of the fifty states, with fraternal, religious, and educational institutions located throughout the commonwealth in large numbers, is guilty of producing ethnic materials that are absolutely ignominous to the mass of citizens of East European ancestry living within the state. In Pennsylvania one need just travel from town to town, stopping to examine the names of those who served and those who died for the United States in both World Wars, as registered on community Honor Rolls. Seemingly then, the non-sense of excluding East Europeans would end - and even the very productive efforts of these peoples in the mines, mills, and farms, in athletics, in scholarship, and in good citizenship would then be recognized. The map of Pennsylvania already recognizes these peoples: Mazeppa, Kossuth, Pulaski, Po1and Mines, Dalmatia, Zelienople, Gallitzin, Livonia, St. Petersburg, and Slovan, among others. The bulk of the state curriculum guides, with Texas being a noteworthy exception, on ethnic and racial/cultural studies focus on the groups cited by the National Education Association: Blacks, Indians, and Spanish-Americans. Orientals and Jews are reasonably well-covered as are Italians, Irish, English, Germans, and French. It is always interesting to observe how state and local education experts use the term "minority group." One county in Maryland that contains thousands of Poles, Slovaks, Ukrainians, Czechs, et al., admits having "5,603 black students and another 706 pupils from various other minority groups." The thruth is that in most states the term "minority groups" as presented in curriculum guides excludes Americans of East European ancestry and consequently millions of Americans are being denied the �114 SLOVAKIA opportunity of studying their heritages. Likewise, they are being denied opportunity in employment quests and, worst of all, some Americans are being deprived of the opportunity of attaining optimum psychological and emotional growth. Whereas the successful guidance counselor can help students to correctly answer the important question, "Whom am I?," counselors rarely talk about, or know anything about, Slavic languages, Finno-Ugric languages, Baltic languages, etc. But it is ever so fashionable in American schools to talk about the pleasantries of French, Spanish, German, and Latin. Evidently one of the major problems in education re ethnics is that the artful dodgers are not honest enough to admit that they need re-trained in order to be able to properly assemble the American mosaic. How many Slavic-Americans live in Peoria, Illinois? Frankly, the writer doesn't know, yet he assumes that in an industrial area of ca. 150,000 some Croatians, Bulgarians, Czechs, Poles, et al., do live and work. (All cities always have Russans!) Given the resources of the Peoria educational system the writer could develop reasonably accurate projections of the ethnic composition for Peoria; the same could be done for Paducah, Kentucky, or Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania. Why then the mystique about the manifold ethnic groups that comprise America? It appears that our ethnic directors are hiding and confusing issues. They are run by a system that relegated East Europeans. How negatively runs the cross-examination when an East European scholar seeks to get more considerations from librarians, curriculum directors, supervisors, administrators, editors, and other educators. Sooner or later the question emerges: How many Ukrainians (Czechs, Finns, et. al.) are then in Peoria? Yet these same specialists are able to calculate that there are certain numbers of Blacks and Spanish~speaking in their areas. How strange! The writer has heard this tactic so many times that he refuses to dignify such questions, presenting instead a general response that there are many Slavs, Finno-Ugrics, Baltics, etc., in a political sub-division, if such is the case. If the specialist is persistent in wanting to know the exact number of Czechs in Peoria, the writer usually asks .the specialist to secure �SLOVAKIA 115 that data for him, using the resources of people who should know. It is patently obvious that ethnic analysts do not want t o know how many East European-Americans live in various communities, as there is absolutely nothing stopping them from researching such data for East Europeans. The Texas Education Agency is to be commended for having produced an interesting curriculum guide: Czecho-Slovakia: Information Minimum. This booklet (71 pages) contains important facts about Czecho-Slovakia, especially as they relate to the history and culture of the United States. With its excellent maps, drawings, alphabets, data summaries, etc., it is the type of guide needed by more groups in more states. Unfortunately, of the 24 states that responded with materials, only Texas submitted any recognizable booklet doing justice to East Europeans. The catty Polish jokes seem to have nine lives. In years gone by the same tripe was slurred against Jews, Italians, and Irish. Yet the time length of the ethnic joke being in vogue was never so long. The Polish joke has been in circulation so long now that it is possible that a student my have entered kindergarten, completed grade school and junior high school, and have been graduated from high school while hearing no ethnic jokes other than the Polish variety. The tragedy of this attitude is supported by the extremely weak collection of literature available about East European peoples in American schools. This despite the fact that there are in America today some 35,000,000 Americans of East European ancestry. A stigma of the Polish joke is that some Americans who are not Poles also are labelled as Poles for purposes of jibing, e.g., the writer's daughter who as a third grade student was continually chided by her WASP classmates as being "Polish." "No need to explain that you are a Ukrainian-Slovak-American, Marcia! You're Polish! Ha! Ha! Ha!" (Marcia learned how to counter such diatribes by asking, "How many of you know Polish?" Response: "None of us." "How does it feel to be dumber than a Pole?") This is cited as the last Polish joke. That "Russian" studies receive top billing in American �116 SLOVAKIA schools goes without saying. Soviet Life is the most popular periodical in school libraries, so from such "reliable" sources students learn how the Germans killed 10,000 Polish army officers in the Katyn Forest, as an article early in 1971 indicated. After reading the Soviet account of how the Germans killed the Polish officers, the author wrote a letter to Soviet Life asking how accusations against the Russians can be disproved. Nicholai Zhiltsov, managing editor of Soviet Life, submitted the following reply on June 1, 1971: "Please excuse the delay in answering your letter which we have forwarded to our Moscow Editorial Board for their comments." Needless to say, by late 1973 a reply has not yet arrived. Barbara Mikulski, Polish-American and member of the City Council of Baltimore, spoke clearly and honestly about many situations when she stated, "When we ask for something, we are either put off, put out, or put down." Ask for books for the library and the librarian will write off your requests as "Not in Books in Print." Ask that East European specialists be invited to participate in social studies workshops, and your letter goes unanswered. Suggest that an Ethnic Library be started, with coverage for all ethnics, and again your letter is unanswered. Apply for a position in human relations and you are told that the emphasis is on black studies. Period. A frequently used dodge by curriculum formulators is the statement that they do not desire to approach East European studies, as, if they do, then it will be necessary to analyze all other ethnic groups in the United States. In a sense this attitude translates as "East Europeans don't burn, don't riot, don't act like rowdies ... so nobody pays any attention to them." That deceit shows through current ethnic analyses is obvious enough as in legal provisions for the teaching about ethnic studies in most states, no groups are expressly excluded. When prices in America continue to skyrocket as a result of expanded trade with East European nations, a need for better understanding about East Europeans is more imperative than ever. The current campaign by Jews in America to identify the lack of liberties accorded their brethre.n in the Soviet Union could in some ways be made �SLOVAKIA 117 to appear rather miniscule if injustices perpetrated against Slovaks, Lithuanians, Ukrainians, Byelorussians, et. al., were similarly examined. Freedom still remains undebatable despite the economic strategems of government and big business. At home, one of principal educational problems may be that big business is too much in the saddle in influencing ethnic studies programs. No champions from business arose to exhort the cause of ethnics when the Schweiker ethnic studies bill was not approved for funding by tlie White House, yet industrial support was hardly lacking for both parties. Michael Novak in The Rise of the Unmeltable Ethnics speaks of the possibility of Blacks and ethnics forming a coalition for mutual gain. It cannot be assumed that because Blacks have been afforded study programs and given some economic assistance, that power groups in America are genuinely interested in their welfare. Nobody volunteered any help to the Blacks and it can be reasonably assumed that nothing will be given East Europeans unless they demand considerations. One of the greatest problems confronting East Europeans is that textbook purchasers know too little about non-Russian-oriented publications; they buy primarily from the big, conventional publishing houses. East European publishers need to wage a campaign to bring their publications to the school systems throughout the country. The fact is that numerous administrators know as much about East Europeans as a dog knows about mathematics. An example: The late Prof. Roman Smal-Stocki, when at Marquette University, used to begin his classes with an anonymous quiz, one of the questions of which was: List the Slavic nationalities or peoples in Europe. The usual answer ran like this: Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Rumania, Albania, Turkey, Austria, Russians, Bavarians, Bolsheviks, "Lower Slobovia" (Li'l Abner's contribution) and "Carpathia" (Marilyn Monroe's contribution from the movie, "The Prince and the Showgirl"). On July 11, 1954, the New York Times altered geography of Europe with the following headline: Rising Danube Flood Hits Prague. The Baltimore Sun had an interesting article (some �118 SLOVAKIA reporters are more discerning than many of our educators) on December 4, 1935, written by R. P. Harriss, "All Others." Harriss states, "The official census for Baltimore is a curious intensely interesting document, both for what it reveals and for what it leaves out. It lists some 14,000 nonexistent Russians and contains vague hints of a polygenous percentage which it does not bother to define." True enough. In an article in the Baltimore Sun on February 13, 1967, a native of Kazan, Russia, is quoted: "There are probably not more than five or six families of true Russians in Baltimore." Yet the article speaks of Russians from Galicia, Byelorussia, Carpatho-Ukraine. Seems that census officials and educators have in America done a magician's job of creating 'Russians.' How some of the mysteries regarding census data will be clarified remains a monumental task for the artful dodgers who have compiled the data thus far. Quoting again the Harriss article of 1935: "Officially there are 1,637 Hungarians in Baltimore, 1,441 Ruman.ians, and no Ukrainians, no Serbs." Harriss was candid enough to realize that by 1935 there were three Ukrainian churches, plus other institutions, in the Baltimore area and he was smart enough to see that the census data was akin to ethnic studies programs of today. Surely nobody would suspect that the Russians built the Ukrainian churches! The situation in literary studies is not much better than in the social sciences. To be sure "Russian Literature" units are taught in many schools, yet in "World Literature" courses very little is presented to develop the genius of Slovak, Czech, Ukrainian, Finnish, Polish, et. al., writers. Likewise the study of art and music suffer from non-coverage and from misconceptions. Now is the time to clear the muddied waters. East Europeans must declare themselves. They need to write more, question more, educate P.T.A. groups, civic organizations, education councils (on which they are rarely represented), etc. The "education crisis" should be recognized immediately. Forget about token appointments and honorary ethnic banquets (which cost you $100) in Washington where ethnic foods and cultural items are displayed. Begin a program called "Operation Hometown." Organize East European �SLOVAKIA 119 festivals as was done at Harpur College in Binghamton, New York. Show films. Present books and audio-visual aids to libraries. Request relevant books at your public libraries. Have cultural groups perform at YMCA's, schools, colleges, charity events, etc. It is important that school book lists be examined and that books by and about East Europeans be added. Music departments should be exhorted to sound to the tunes of rhapsodies, mazurkas, kolomajykas, polkas. Home economic departments would win adherents by presenting samplings of pirohy, halusky, makovnik, etc. Courses of study need to be expanded to include information about the great contributions of East Europeans to America, as, in the words of Michael Novak, "America is becoming America." The name of the game for East Europeans is "catch-up." Don't wait for the artful dodgers to structure your ethnic studies as you are excluded from their terminology. In the words of Dickens " ... You must get up very early in the morning, to win against the Dodger." "Morning!" said Charley Bates; "you must put your boots on over-night, and have a telescope at each eye, and a opera-glass between your shoulders, if you want to come over him." The U.S. flight crew for the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project visited Russia for two weeks in November 1973 to familiarize themselves with the Soyuz spacecraft system that will link up with their Apollo in 1975. Most of their activities were conducted in the J . A. Gagarin Center of Cosmonaut Training at Zvezdny Goroduk, or Star City, near Moscow. Making the trip were the three Apollo crewmen, Brig. Gen. Thomas P. Stafford, Vance D. Brand and Donald K. Slayton; backup crewmen, Capt. Alan L. Bean, Capt. Ronald E. Evans and Maj. Jack R. Lousma; support crewmen, Lt. Col. Robert F. Overmyer and Lt. Col. Karol J. Bobko; and Capt. Eugene A. Ceman, Special Assistant to the U.S. ASTP Technical Director. Bobko and Cer:nan are Slovaks. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1974, Vol. 24 Description An account of the resource Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document 112 SLOVAKIA The Artful Dodgers: Directors of Ethnic Studies Programs By Paul F e n c h a k In Dickens' novel Oliver Twist, Jack Dawkins, called the Artful Dodger, is a teacher - albeit one who taught the art of pickpocketing to innocent youngsters such as Oliver Twist. His motive: personal gain. The writer of this article is convinced that the counterparts of the Artful Dodger are today directing ethnic studies programs in the public schools of the United States. Seemingly they are no more altruistic towards needful ethnic groups in America than the Artful Dodger was toward the welfare of Oliver Twist. Formulators of ethnic studies programs dodge no small number of ethnic groups as they label "minority groups" to the Blacks, Indians, Spanish Americans, and Orientals. Frequently space is also given to Jews, Germans, Italians, and Poles. Scholars who would talk of Ukrainians, Slovaks, Croatians, Bulgarians, Lithuanians, Latvians, and Rumanians, among others, are judged to be divining in some dark, mysterious regions, presided over by pagan gods who, midst Gog and Magog, are all agog in exotic studies about areas considered to be "powder kegs" and "tinderboxes" - "balkanized" beyond comprehension to sensible people. The powerful National Education Association boasts of having a "strong program to improve the lot of minority groups, including Blacks, Indians, Spanish Americans, and other bi-lingual groups." Often Croatians, Byelorussians, Ukrainians, Slovaks, Lithuanians, Finns, et al., are more bi-lingual than some groups cited by the NEA, yet the amount of coverage given East European-Americ ans is usually nil. In 1972 the writer wrote the State Superintendents of Schools of the fifty state education departments requesting copies of curriculum guides, brochures, bulletins, etc., SLOVAKIA 113 dealing with racial, cultural, multi-cultural, inter-cultural, disadvantaged, etc., matters of ethnics in America. For sundry reasons the responses were not rapid in arriving. To date 24 of 50 state education departments have either forwarded materials or have indicated that materials will be forthcoming. In summary of the vast amount of ethnic studies promoted by state education departments, one conclusion can easily be made: East European ethnics do not exist in the United States. Even Pennsylvania, the most Slavic of the fifty states, with fraternal, religious, and educational institutions located throughout the commonwealth in large numbers, is guilty of producing ethnic materials that are absolutely ignominous to the mass of citizens of East European ancestry living within the state. In Pennsylvania one need just travel from town to town, stopping to examine the names of those who served and those who died for the United States in both World Wars, as registered on community Honor Rolls. Seemingly then, the non-sense of excluding East Europeans would end - and even the very productive efforts of these peoples in the mines, mills, and farms, in athletics, in scholarship, and in good citizenship would then be recognized. The map of Pennsylvania already recognizes these peoples: Mazeppa, Kossuth, Pulaski, Po1and Mines, Dalmatia, Zelienople, Gallitzin, Livonia, St. Petersburg, and Slovan, among others. The bulk of the state curriculum guides, with Texas being a noteworthy exception, on ethnic and racial/cultural studies focus on the groups cited by the National Education Association: Blacks, Indians, and Spanish-Americans. Orientals and Jews are reasonably well-covered as are Italians, Irish, English, Germans, and French. It is always interesting to observe how state and local education experts use the term "minority group." One county in Maryland that contains thousands of Poles, Slovaks, Ukrainians, Czechs, et al., admits having "5,603 black students and another 706 pupils from various other minority groups." The thruth is that in most states the term "minority groups" as presented in curriculum guides excludes Americans of East European ancestry and consequently millions of Americans are being denied the 114 SLOVAKIA opportunity of studying their heritages. Likewise, they are being denied opportunity in employment quests and, worst of all, some Americans are being deprived of the opportunity of attaining optimum psychological and emotional growth. Whereas the successful guidance counselor can help students to correctly answer the important question, "Whom am I?," counselors rarely talk about, or know anything about, Slavic languages, Finno-Ugric languages, Baltic languages, etc. But it is ever so fashionable in American schools to talk about the pleasantries of French, Spanish, German, and Latin. Evidently one of the major problems in education re ethnics is that the artful dodgers are not honest enough to admit that they need re-trained in order to be able to properly assemble the American mosaic. How many Slavic-Americans live in Peoria, Illinois? Frankly, the writer doesn't know, yet he assumes that in an industrial area of ca. 150,000 some Croatians, Bulgarians, Czechs, Poles, et al., do live and work. (All cities always have Russans!) Given the resources of the Peoria educational system the writer could develop reasonably accurate projections of the ethnic composition for Peoria; the same could be done for Paducah, Kentucky, or Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania. Why then the mystique about the manifold ethnic groups that comprise America? It appears that our ethnic directors are hiding and confusing issues. They are run by a system that relegated East Europeans. How negatively runs the cross-examination when an East European scholar seeks to get more considerations from librarians, curriculum directors, supervisors, administrators, editors, and other educators. Sooner or later the question emerges: How many Ukrainians (Czechs, Finns, et. al.) are then in Peoria? Yet these same specialists are able to calculate that there are certain numbers of Blacks and Spanish~speaking in their areas. How strange! The writer has heard this tactic so many times that he refuses to dignify such questions, presenting instead a general response that there are many Slavs, Finno-Ugrics, Baltics, etc., in a political sub-division, if such is the case. If the specialist is persistent in wanting to know the exact number of Czechs in Peoria, the writer usually asks .the specialist to secure SLOVAKIA 115 that data for him, using the resources of people who should know. It is patently obvious that ethnic analysts do not want t o know how many East European-Americans live in various communities, as there is absolutely nothing stopping them from researching such data for East Europeans. The Texas Education Agency is to be commended for having produced an interesting curriculum guide: Czecho-Slovakia: Information Minimum. This booklet (71 pages) contains important facts about Czecho-Slovakia, especially as they relate to the history and culture of the United States. With its excellent maps, drawings, alphabets, data summaries, etc., it is the type of guide needed by more groups in more states. Unfortunately, of the 24 states that responded with materials, only Texas submitted any recognizable booklet doing justice to East Europeans. The catty Polish jokes seem to have nine lives. In years gone by the same tripe was slurred against Jews, Italians, and Irish. Yet the time length of the ethnic joke being in vogue was never so long. The Polish joke has been in circulation so long now that it is possible that a student my have entered kindergarten, completed grade school and junior high school, and have been graduated from high school while hearing no ethnic jokes other than the Polish variety. The tragedy of this attitude is supported by the extremely weak collection of literature available about East European peoples in American schools. This despite the fact that there are in America today some 35,000,000 Americans of East European ancestry. A stigma of the Polish joke is that some Americans who are not Poles also are labelled as Poles for purposes of jibing, e.g., the writer's daughter who as a third grade student was continually chided by her WASP classmates as being "Polish." "No need to explain that you are a Ukrainian-Slovak-American, Marcia! You're Polish! Ha! Ha! Ha!" (Marcia learned how to counter such diatribes by asking, "How many of you know Polish?" Response: "None of us." "How does it feel to be dumber than a Pole?") This is cited as the last Polish joke. That "Russian" studies receive top billing in American 116 SLOVAKIA schools goes without saying. Soviet Life is the most popular periodical in school libraries, so from such "reliable" sources students learn how the Germans killed 10,000 Polish army officers in the Katyn Forest, as an article early in 1971 indicated. After reading the Soviet account of how the Germans killed the Polish officers, the author wrote a letter to Soviet Life asking how accusations against the Russians can be disproved. Nicholai Zhiltsov, managing editor of Soviet Life, submitted the following reply on June 1, 1971: "Please excuse the delay in answering your letter which we have forwarded to our Moscow Editorial Board for their comments." Needless to say, by late 1973 a reply has not yet arrived. Barbara Mikulski, Polish-American and member of the City Council of Baltimore, spoke clearly and honestly about many situations when she stated, "When we ask for something, we are either put off, put out, or put down." Ask for books for the library and the librarian will write off your requests as "Not in Books in Print." Ask that East European specialists be invited to participate in social studies workshops, and your letter goes unanswered. Suggest that an Ethnic Library be started, with coverage for all ethnics, and again your letter is unanswered. Apply for a position in human relations and you are told that the emphasis is on black studies. Period. A frequently used dodge by curriculum formulators is the statement that they do not desire to approach East European studies, as, if they do, then it will be necessary to analyze all other ethnic groups in the United States. In a sense this attitude translates as "East Europeans don't burn, don't riot, don't act like rowdies ... so nobody pays any attention to them." That deceit shows through current ethnic analyses is obvious enough as in legal provisions for the teaching about ethnic studies in most states, no groups are expressly excluded. When prices in America continue to skyrocket as a result of expanded trade with East European nations, a need for better understanding about East Europeans is more imperative than ever. The current campaign by Jews in America to identify the lack of liberties accorded their brethre.n in the Soviet Union could in some ways be made SLOVAKIA 117 to appear rather miniscule if injustices perpetrated against Slovaks, Lithuanians, Ukrainians, Byelorussians, et. al., were similarly examined. Freedom still remains undebatable despite the economic strategems of government and big business. At home, one of principal educational problems may be that big business is too much in the saddle in influencing ethnic studies programs. No champions from business arose to exhort the cause of ethnics when the Schweiker ethnic studies bill was not approved for funding by tlie White House, yet industrial support was hardly lacking for both parties. Michael Novak in The Rise of the Unmeltable Ethnics speaks of the possibility of Blacks and ethnics forming a coalition for mutual gain. It cannot be assumed that because Blacks have been afforded study programs and given some economic assistance, that power groups in America are genuinely interested in their welfare. Nobody volunteered any help to the Blacks and it can be reasonably assumed that nothing will be given East Europeans unless they demand considerations. One of the greatest problems confronting East Europeans is that textbook purchasers know too little about non-Russian-oriented publications; they buy primarily from the big, conventional publishing houses. East European publishers need to wage a campaign to bring their publications to the school systems throughout the country. The fact is that numerous administrators know as much about East Europeans as a dog knows about mathematics. An example: The late Prof. Roman Smal-Stocki, when at Marquette University, used to begin his classes with an anonymous quiz, one of the questions of which was: List the Slavic nationalities or peoples in Europe. The usual answer ran like this: Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Rumania, Albania, Turkey, Austria, Russians, Bavarians, Bolsheviks, "Lower Slobovia" (Li'l Abner's contribution) and "Carpathia" (Marilyn Monroe's contribution from the movie, "The Prince and the Showgirl"). On July 11, 1954, the New York Times altered geography of Europe with the following headline: Rising Danube Flood Hits Prague. The Baltimore Sun had an interesting article (some 118 SLOVAKIA reporters are more discerning than many of our educators) on December 4, 1935, written by R. P. Harriss, "All Others." Harriss states, "The official census for Baltimore is a curious intensely interesting document, both for what it reveals and for what it leaves out. It lists some 14,000 nonexistent Russians and contains vague hints of a polygenous percentage which it does not bother to define." True enough. In an article in the Baltimore Sun on February 13, 1967, a native of Kazan, Russia, is quoted: "There are probably not more than five or six families of true Russians in Baltimore." Yet the article speaks of Russians from Galicia, Byelorussia, Carpatho-Ukraine. Seems that census officials and educators have in America done a magician's job of creating 'Russians.' How some of the mysteries regarding census data will be clarified remains a monumental task for the artful dodgers who have compiled the data thus far. Quoting again the Harriss article of 1935: "Officially there are 1,637 Hungarians in Baltimore, 1,441 Ruman.ians, and no Ukrainians, no Serbs." Harriss was candid enough to realize that by 1935 there were three Ukrainian churches, plus other institutions, in the Baltimore area and he was smart enough to see that the census data was akin to ethnic studies programs of today. Surely nobody would suspect that the Russians built the Ukrainian churches! The situation in literary studies is not much better than in the social sciences. To be sure "Russian Literature" units are taught in many schools, yet in "World Literature" courses very little is presented to develop the genius of Slovak, Czech, Ukrainian, Finnish, Polish, et. al., writers. Likewise the study of art and music suffer from non-coverage and from misconceptions. Now is the time to clear the muddied waters. East Europeans must declare themselves. They need to write more, question more, educate P.T.A. groups, civic organizations, education councils (on which they are rarely represented), etc. The "education crisis" should be recognized immediately. Forget about token appointments and honorary ethnic banquets (which cost you $100) in Washington where ethnic foods and cultural items are displayed. Begin a program called "Operation Hometown." Organize East European SLOVAKIA 119 festivals as was done at Harpur College in Binghamton, New York. Show films. Present books and audio-visual aids to libraries. Request relevant books at your public libraries. Have cultural groups perform at YMCA's, schools, colleges, charity events, etc. It is important that school book lists be examined and that books by and about East Europeans be added. Music departments should be exhorted to sound to the tunes of rhapsodies, mazurkas, kolomajykas, polkas. Home economic departments would win adherents by presenting samplings of pirohy, halusky, makovnik, etc. Courses of study need to be expanded to include information about the great contributions of East Europeans to America, as, in the words of Michael Novak, "America is becoming America." The name of the game for East Europeans is "catch-up." Don't wait for the artful dodgers to structure your ethnic studies as you are excluded from their terminology. In the words of Dickens " ... You must get up very early in the morning, to win against the Dodger." "Morning!" said Charley Bates; "you must put your boots on over-night, and have a telescope at each eye, and a opera-glass between your shoulders, if you want to come over him." The U.S. flight crew for the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project visited Russia for two weeks in November 1973 to familiarize themselves with the Soyuz spacecraft system that will link up with their Apollo in 1975. Most of their activities were conducted in the J . A. Gagarin Center of Cosmonaut Training at Zvezdny Goroduk, or Star City, near Moscow. Making the trip were the three Apollo crewmen, Brig. Gen. Thomas P. Stafford, Vance D. Brand and Donald K. Slayton; backup crewmen, Capt. Alan L. Bean, Capt. Ronald E. Evans and Maj. Jack R. Lousma; support crewmen, Lt. Col. Robert F. Overmyer and Lt. Col. Karol J. Bobko; and Capt. Eugene A. Ceman, Special Assistant to the U.S. ASTP Technical Director. Bobko and Cer:nan are Slovaks.  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Artful Dodgers: Directors of Ethnic Studies Programs Description An account of the resource Paul Fenchak Slovakia, Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974 pp. 112-119 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Fenchak, Paul Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 LCNAF https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/3bd6b8d67e6244e70a9cfdeafefe3d2f.pdf 3159be9185a023845d86ca8c2474ffcf PDF Text Text 120 SLOVAKIA Survey Research and Ethnic Studies Steven I. M i l l e r , Ph.D. The basic purpose of survey research ( or broadly speaking, empirical research) is to find relationships be tween variables. 1 If a relationship, or association, can be established, than it becomes possible to predict one variable from another. Thus, if we know that the variable IQ and achievement test scores are related to one another, it then becomes possible (within limits) to predict one from the other. That is, if we know a person's IQ score, we can say with some degree of certainty what his score may be on the particular achievement test. 2 The idea of accurate prediction is one of the most important assumptions underlying the scientific method in general, and its specific applications to the field of social science. In addition to prediction, however, the idea of a relationship between two variables gives us other important information. For one, it tells us that two things that we probably did not think were associated in any meaningful way turn out to be so. We might find out, for instance, that there is a relationship between the arrival of various Slovak immigrants and their political behavior; or that compared to Polish immigrants, Slovak immigrants have voted more consistently for a particular political party.3 The idea of looking for a relationships also has consequences in terms of constructing a coherent body of propositions that can give us a clear and comprehensive picture of a field of study, i.e., Slovak immigrant behavior. In a similar view, if it is possible to establish valid empirical generalization about a specific group, then it may be possible to extend these findings to other groups. In this way, it is possible to extend the theoretical base for a field of inquiry. 4 �SLOVAKIA 121 THE LOGIC OF PROCEDURE In the search for relationship in the social world, there is a definite procedure that can be utilized. There are certain logical steps that help us proceed with the investigation in such a way so as to determine the meaning of our problem. 5 The first step, then, would be to identify a problem that is of interest to us. The area of investigation should be one that is in need of clarification. Let us choose for our problem the following: Do all Slovaks concern themselves in similar ways with the political and religious problems of Slovakia? Why choose this particular issue? That would entirely depend on what we were concerned with? There are, of course, hundreds of different issues that we could turn our direction to. But let us assume that the present one is important to us because we suspect (for whatever reason) that interest in political and religious affairs in Slovakia is decreasing; it could also be the opposite: interest is increasing. Perhaps, however, we believe the first assertion is correct. Furthermore, we have some previous information from which to draw on which indicates that immigrants who have lived in their adopted country for a period of time will become socialized into the norms of that society, and will increasingly become interested in the concerns of their adopted country rather than their native one. If we had a larger context in which to place our specific problem, then, in a very broad sense, we have some type of theory. Having a "theory" of behavior enables us to focus our attention more clearly on the specific problem, as well as presenting possibilities of generalizing from our findings .6 Once we have the problem in focus, the next step is to place it in more precise and formal language. This is called an hypothesis. An hypothesis is "a conjectural statement about the relationship between two or more variables." 7 We can state the problem in the following way: there is a relationship between length of residence in the adopted country and interest in political (religious) affairs of the �122 SLOVAKIA native country. This is, of course, a very broad hypothesis, but it sets the boundaries of our investigation. It tells us, minimally, that we are interested in determining a relationship between two things: length of residence and political interest. There are many other aspects that are left open to investigation. We will examine these a little later. LOOKING FOR A RELATIONSHIP The first step is to determine whether our two variables are related. We want to know, in other words, if the independent variable length of residence is affecting the dependent variable, political interest. Residence is our independent variable because we can see that a person's length of residence may influence his political beliefs, but a person's political beliefs would not normally "cause" his length of residence. 8 To see if the variables are associated, it is necessary to show that the independent variable can be divided into at least two mutually exhaustive and inclusive categories.9 For instance, we could divide our independent variable into the categories of "old residents" and "new residents," or into more precise categories of years-perhaps every ten years. For our purposes, let us say "old residents" will be those coming to the United States from 1939 to 1950, while "new" residents will be those coming from 1950 to 1970. Let us further assume that we are dealing only with those individuals who were at least fifteen years or older when they emigrated, and who were therefore at last somewhat politically aware. To continue, let us also say that we have gotten a representative sample of Slovaks, and that through the use of a questionaire information has been received on a range of topics. In terms of political interest, we could ask, for example, whether or not they have a strong, personal interest in the political affairs of Slovakia. The responses could be measured by constructing a scale that would be a valid and reliable measure of this particular attitude. 10 Let us represent our hypothetical findings by the following table: �123 SLOVAKIA TABLE 1 Interest in Slovak Political Affairs by Length of Residence in United States (Hypothetical Data) PERCENTAGE STRONGLY INTERESTED IN POLITICAL AFFAIRS "Old" Residents 35% (1000) "New" Residents 75% (1000) Residence The table shows us that our two variables are related.11 There is a 40 percentage point difference indicating that the newer residents are more interested in Slovak political affairs than the older residents. Now if we found this type of relationship in our data, we would report the relationship and leave it at that. This would give us some information, but it would be a very restricted sort of information. One logical question we might want to ask is "why is there such a relationship?" Once we ask the "why," we are in the realm of explanatory research.12 That is, we are now interested in extending our original findings. But how can we explain the original relationship? There are many possibilities. We may argue, for example, that our original independent and dependent variables were not clearly defined, and therefore, our findings is incorrect; or that our sampling was not done correctly. These, of course, could be legitimate criticisms. But let us assume that we have satifactorily overcome these problems. We must now attempt to find another reason why the original relationship is there. To do this requires thinking of some other factors that may be of importance. One may be age. We could argue that the "older" residents are chronologically older than the "younger" residents and that the difference in political interest is simply one of the effects of age. It would, of course, be helpful to have some type of theory or data which suggests a relationship between age and political interest. When we think another factor is responsible for our original relationship, and we wish to see if it is having any effect on the original relationship, then we say we are "controlling for," or "holding constant" this factor. 13 Or �124 SLOVAKIA put somewhat differently, we are saying "were it not for age, the original relationsb,ip would disappear or be substantially reduced." That is, we think that age is the reason why there is a relationship between residence and political interest. What we want to do, then, is to make people "alike" on age and see what happens. How shall we divide people in our sample by age? A very rough measure would be to look at people over sixty and under sixty years of age. This is represented in the following Table. TABLE 2 The Relationship of Political Interest and Residence by Age (Hypothetical Data) % STRONG POLITICAL INTEREST Old -60 10 (300) New 40 (600) Age 10 (700) Residence 40 (400) The table shows that even when we control for age, the original relationship is maintained: new residents are still more likely to have strong political interests regardless of age. How it is possible that when we controlled for age the original relationship could have "disappeared." 14 If this had happened, we would have concluded that age was the reason for the association, and that our original finding had been "spurious." 15 Since age is not the factor we are looking for, other variables must be considered. For example, one possibility would be a person's sex. That is, the reason why we observed the original relationship was because there were differences among men and women in terms of political interest. There may, of course, be many other potential explanatory variables-educational level, rural-urban residence, level of intelligence, socioeconomic status to mention just a few. No matter what variable(s) we decide to use as test factors, there should be some (often tbere is not) a priori reason for selecting them. 16 Tn return to our example, let us say we chose educational level as our test factor. OUr guess is that a person's �125 SLOVAKIA educational level is related to political interest regardless of whether or not he has resided in the United States a particular period of time. Table three illustrates this. TABLE 3 Relationship of Political Interest and Residence by Education (Hypothetical Data) % STRONG POLITlCAL INTEREST Less than H.S. Educational Level High School College Old 20 (400) 30 (300) 50 (100) New 20 (200) 30 (500) 40 (500) Residence Table three shows that when educational level is introduced as a test factor, our original relationship between residence and political activity disappears. What we are saying is that while there were more college-educated Slovaks that had a high degree of political interest, it did not matter, at any educational level whether or not the Slovaks were new or old residents. Our educational breakdowns, are of course, rather crude, and it is seldom the case that a table would appear as it does above. In addition, there would be some other problems that would require additional attention. We would want to know, for the new residents as well as the old, at what point in time the highest educational level was being measured. Thus, it would be possible to have certain members of the new residents who had not completed their formal education at the time of the study. It is also possible, for our old residents, to have a significant number fifteen years old in 1940. It would, however, be possible to ask for the highest educational level attained. Thus, one could still determine the amount of education received by the old residents after 1940. If, on the other hand, there was a large group of fifteen-year-olds who arrived in 1968, and assuming the study was done around that time, it would be possible through other means, to estimate their highest educational level of attainment. �126 SLOVAKIA EXTENDING RELATIONSHIPS: INTERVENING ANTECEDENT AND EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES A point worth noting is that if we were interested in understanding the behavior of Slovaks, and if the empirical method were chosen to do this, then the type of information received is only one segment of a larger causal chain. What we attempt to do is to examine only one part of a large and very complex pattern of behavior, and possibly relate the findings to other patterns so as to form a complete picture. Again we are asking, "why is this variable influencing that variable?" Even when we find that two variables are related, we are still faced with several problems of interpretation. For instance, in our previous example, it was found that when educational level was controlled, the original relationship disappeared. Well, what does it mean to say that the original relationship "disappears?" There are several possibilities here. One is the search for intervening variables. 17 This means that the original relationship is "caused" by the intervention of a third variable. This third variable, however, is related to the independent and dependent variables in a special way. It logically comes between the independent and dependent variables, and when controlled for, makes the original relationship disappear. For example, we might discover that Slovak-Americans and Polish-Americans differ in the amount of "ethnic consciousness" they display. 13 Let us assume that Slovak-Americans demonstrate higher levels of ethnic consciousness. We now have an original relationship between the independent variable "ethnicity" and the dependent variable "ethnic consciousness." We are again faced with the problem of trying to explain the relationship. One way would be to search for an intervening variable. The intervening variable is in effect another independent variable. The intervening variable must also logically come after the original independent variable. For our example, such a variable could be education. We could argue that ethnicity precedes education, and that education has an effect on level of consciousness. The relationship would look like the following: Ethnicity ♦ (Independent) Education ♦ (Intervening) Consciousness (Dependent) �127 SLOVAKIA We are saying here that a person's ethnic background is related to his level of education and his level of education is responsible for his degree of ethnic consciousness. Let us look at some other possiblities. One principal objective of survey research is to trace out a "causal chain." This means that in addition to looking for intervening variables, we are also finding a causal link in which a variable precedes the original independent variable, is related to it, and in which the original independent variable is then related to the dependent variable. In order to construct this chain of events, Rosenberg lists three conditions that must be set. 19 1. All three variables must be related. 2. When the antecedent variable is controlled, the relationship between the independent and dependent variables should not disappear. 3. When the independent variable is controlled, the relationship between the antecedent and dependent variables should disappear. As an illustration, let us suppose that we find a relationship between liberal and conservative Slovak-Americans and degree of alienation. Specifically, we find that conservative Slovak-Americans are more alienated. In this case, however, we are interested in looking for an antecedent variable; one that comes before political orientation and is related to it. We might postulate that such a variable could be religion. Thus, we are saying that a person's religion influences his political orientation and his political orientation influence his degree of alienation. Schematically it would be as follows: Religion • (Antecedent) Political Orientation (Independent) • Alienation (Dependent ) In order to be considered a true antecedent relationship, it would have to meet all three of Rosenberg's conditions. We would first control on religion. If the relationship is maintained between political orientation and alienation, then we are on the right track. We would next want to control on political orientation. If the relationship between religion and alienation disappears, we have found the correct antecedent variable. Let us consider one additional relationship before �SLOVAKIA 128 closing the discussion. This is called looking the extraneous variables. The logic here is this: we find a relationship between two variables, introduce a test factor, and the original relationship disappears. Let us assume further that the test factor precedes the independent factor, and therefore, is not an intervening one. If the relationship disappears, we then conclude that it was "spurious"-that another variable ( the test factor) was producing the original results. For instance, in our original example, we found that Slovaks who were "newer" residents had a higher level of political interest than "older" residents. We concluded that the reason was education. Education, in this instance, could be considered an extraneous variable. That is, there is no inherent link between the original independent and dependent variables. Rather, both are related separately to the extraneous variable education.20 The relationship would be as follows: ♦ Residence (Independent) ♦ Political Interest (Dependent) Education (Extraneous) Here we are saying that the reason why residence was associated with political interest was because education was separately related to residence and to political interest. The newer residents had more education than the older ones, and people who have lower levels of education may be less politically motivated. SUMMARY If Slovaks, whether native-born or American, are interested in maintaining their ethnic heritage, then new research efforts must be undertaken. These research efforts should at least in part use the logic and methodology of the social sciences. Although this is only one of many approaches to the understanding of social phenomena, it is an important one because it enables us to probe deeply into the motivations underlying human behavior. The above has been an elementary attempt to show some of the thinking, or logic of procedure, behind that part of empirical inquiry called survey analysis. While the procedure has many and complex facets to it, in its most �SLOVAKIA 129 general form it attempts to establish relationships between variables and then elaborates on those relationships . REFERENC ES 1) Stephen Cole, The Sociological Method (Chicago: Markham, 1972), Ch. 4. 2) Harry L. Miller and Roger R. Woock, Social Foundations of Urban Education (Hindale, Ill.: The Dryden Press, 1970), pp. 401-412. 3) See, for example, Djuro J. Vrga, "Different Associational Involvement of Successive Ethnic Immigrants: An Indicator of Ethno-Religious Factionalism and Alienation of Immigrants," Social Forces, 50 (December, 1971), pp. 239-249. 4) See, generally, Richard S. Rudner, Philosophy of Social Science (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1966), Ch. 1 and 2. 5) One of the best volumes in this connection is Morris Rosenberg, The Logic of Survey Analysis (New York: Basic Books, 1968). I will draw heavily from Rosenberg in the remaining discussion. 6) For theory building in the social sciences, see Robert Dubin, Theory Building (New York: The Free Press, 1969) , Ch. 1 and 2. 7) Fred N. Kerlinger, Foundations of Behavioral Research (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965), p. 20. 8) Cole, The Sociological Method, Ch. 2. 9) James A. Davis, Elementary Survey Analysis (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1971), pp. 9-10. 10) See Max D. Engelhart, Methods of Educational Research (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1972), Ch. 7. 11) Here we are only interested in establishing a percentage point difference. We are not analyzing all the cells (4) of the table, nor are we discussing "significant" differences. There are appropriate methods for this that go beyond this discussion. 12) Cole, The Sociological Method, pp. 101-106. 13) Travis Hirschi and Hanan C. Selven, Delinquency Research: An Appraisal of Analytical Methods (New York: The Free Press, 1967) , pp. 37-51; and Rosenberg, The Logic of Survey Analysis, Ch. 2 and 3. 14) "Disappear" in this context usually means that an original relationship is substantially reduced when the test factor is introduced. 15) Cole and Rosenberg give this term a slightly different meaning. We are using it in Rosenberg's sense of a relationship existing because it is an effect of a common cause, pp. 23-82. 16) Rosenberg, The Logic of Survey Analysis, pp. 37-39. 17) Ibid., pp. 54-82. 18 ) We will assume there is some way of measuring "ethnic consciousness." 19) Rosenberg, Logic of Survey Analysis, pp. 68-69. 20) Ibid., pp. 27-4-0. � 120 SLOVAKIA Survey Research and Ethnic Studies Steven I. M i l l e r , Ph.D. The basic purpose of survey research ( or broadly speaking, empirical research) is to find relationships be tween variables. 1 If a relationship, or association, can be established, than it becomes possible to predict one variable from another. Thus, if we know that the variable IQ and achievement test scores are related to one another, it then becomes possible (within limits) to predict one from the other. That is, if we know a person's IQ score, we can say with some degree of certainty what his score may be on the particular achievement test. 2 The idea of accurate prediction is one of the most important assumptions underlying the scientific method in general, and its specific applications to the field of social science. In addition to prediction, however, the idea of a relationship between two variables gives us other important information. For one, it tells us that two things that we probably did not think were associated in any meaningful way turn out to be so. We might find out, for instance, that there is a relationship between the arrival of various Slovak immigrants and their political behavior; or that compared to Polish immigrants, Slovak immigrants have voted more consistently for a particular political party.3 The idea of looking for a relationships also has consequences in terms of constructing a coherent body of propositions that can give us a clear and comprehensive picture of a field of study, i.e., Slovak immigrant behavior. In a similar view, if it is possible to establish valid empirical generalization about a specific group, then it may be possible to extend these findings to other groups. In this way, it is possible to extend the theoretical base for a field of inquiry. 4 �SLOVAKIA 121 THE LOGIC OF PROCEDURE In the search for relationship in the social world, there is a definite procedure that can be utilized. There are certain logical steps that help us proceed with the investigation in such a way so as to determine the meaning of our problem. 5 The first step, then, would be to identify a problem that is of interest to us. The area of investigation should be one that is in need of clarification. Let us choose for our problem the following: Do all Slovaks concern themselves in similar ways with the political and religious problems of Slovakia? Why choose this particular issue? That would entirely depend on what we were concerned with? There are, of course, hundreds of different issues that we could turn our direction to. But let us assume that the present one is important to us because we suspect (for whatever reason) that interest in political and religious affairs in Slovakia is decreasing; it could also be the opposite: interest is increasing. Perhaps, however, we believe the first assertion is correct. Furthermore, we have some previous information from which to draw on which indicates that immigrants who have lived in their adopted country for a period of time will become socialized into the norms of that society, and will increasingly become interested in the concerns of their adopted country rather than their native one. If we had a larger context in which to place our specific problem, then, in a very broad sense, we have some type of theory. Having a "theory" of behavior enables us to focus our attention more clearly on the specific problem, as well as presenting possibilities of generalizing from our findings .6 Once we have the problem in focus, the next step is to place it in more precise and formal language. This is called an hypothesis. An hypothesis is "a conjectural statement about the relationship between two or more variables." 7 We can state the problem in the following way: there is a relationship between length of residence in the adopted country and interest in political (religious) affairs of the �122 SLOVAKIA native country. This is, of course, a very broad hypothesis, but it sets the boundaries of our investigation. It tells us, minimally, that we are interested in determining a relationship between two things: length of residence and political interest. There are many other aspects that are left open to investigation. We will examine these a little later. LOOKING FOR A RELATIONSHIP The first step is to determine whether our two variables are related. We want to know, in other words, if the independent variable length of residence is affecting the dependent variable, political interest. Residence is our independent variable because we can see that a person's length of residence may influence his political beliefs, but a person's political beliefs would not normally "cause" his length of residence. 8 To see if the variables are associated, it is necessary to show that the independent variable can be divided into at least two mutually exhaustive and inclusive categories.9 For instance, we could divide our independent variable into the categories of "old residents" and "new residents," or into more precise categories of years-perhaps every ten years. For our purposes, let us say "old residents" will be those coming to the United States from 1939 to 1950, while "new" residents will be those coming from 1950 to 1970. Let us further assume that we are dealing only with those individuals who were at least fifteen years or older when they emigrated, and who were therefore at last somewhat politically aware. To continue, let us also say that we have gotten a representative sample of Slovaks, and that through the use of a questionaire information has been received on a range of topics. In terms of political interest, we could ask, for example, whether or not they have a strong, personal interest in the political affairs of Slovakia. The responses could be measured by constructing a scale that would be a valid and reliable measure of this particular attitude. 10 Let us represent our hypothetical findings by the following table: �123 SLOVAKIA TABLE 1 Interest in Slovak Political Affairs by Length of Residence in United States (Hypothetical Data) PERCENTAGE STRONGLY INTERESTED IN POLITICAL AFFAIRS "Old" Residents 35% (1000) "New" Residents 75% (1000) Residence The table shows us that our two variables are related.11 There is a 40 percentage point difference indicating that the newer residents are more interested in Slovak political affairs than the older residents. Now if we found this type of relationship in our data, we would report the relationship and leave it at that. This would give us some information, but it would be a very restricted sort of information. One logical question we might want to ask is "why is there such a relationship?" Once we ask the "why," we are in the realm of explanatory research.12 That is, we are now interested in extending our original findings. But how can we explain the original relationship? There are many possibilities. We may argue, for example, that our original independent and dependent variables were not clearly defined, and therefore, our findings is incorrect; or that our sampling was not done correctly. These, of course, could be legitimate criticisms. But let us assume that we have satifactorily overcome these problems. We must now attempt to find another reason why the original relationship is there. To do this requires thinking of some other factors that may be of importance. One may be age. We could argue that the "older" residents are chronologically older than the "younger" residents and that the difference in political interest is simply one of the effects of age. It would, of course, be helpful to have some type of theory or data which suggests a relationship between age and political interest. When we think another factor is responsible for our original relationship, and we wish to see if it is having any effect on the original relationship, then we say we are "controlling for," or "holding constant" this factor. 13 Or �124 SLOVAKIA put somewhat differently, we are saying "were it not for age, the original relationsb,ip would disappear or be substantially reduced." That is, we think that age is the reason why there is a relationship between residence and political interest. What we want to do, then, is to make people "alike" on age and see what happens. How shall we divide people in our sample by age? A very rough measure would be to look at people over sixty and under sixty years of age. This is represented in the following Table. TABLE 2 The Relationship of Political Interest and Residence by Age (Hypothetical Data) % STRONG POLITICAL INTEREST Old -60 10 (300) New 40 (600) Age 10 (700) Residence 40 (400) The table shows that even when we control for age, the original relationship is maintained: new residents are still more likely to have strong political interests regardless of age. How it is possible that when we controlled for age the original relationship could have "disappeared." 14 If this had happened, we would have concluded that age was the reason for the association, and that our original finding had been "spurious." 15 Since age is not the factor we are looking for, other variables must be considered. For example, one possibility would be a person's sex. That is, the reason why we observed the original relationship was because there were differences among men and women in terms of political interest. There may, of course, be many other potential explanatory variables-educational level, rural-urban residence, level of intelligence, socioeconomic status to mention just a few. No matter what variable(s) we decide to use as test factors, there should be some (often tbere is not) a priori reason for selecting them. 16 Tn return to our example, let us say we chose educational level as our test factor. OUr guess is that a person's �125 SLOVAKIA educational level is related to political interest regardless of whether or not he has resided in the United States a particular period of time. Table three illustrates this. TABLE 3 Relationship of Political Interest and Residence by Education (Hypothetical Data) % STRONG POLITlCAL INTEREST Less than H.S. Educational Level High School College Old 20 (400) 30 (300) 50 (100) New 20 (200) 30 (500) 40 (500) Residence Table three shows that when educational level is introduced as a test factor, our original relationship between residence and political activity disappears. What we are saying is that while there were more college-educated Slovaks that had a high degree of political interest, it did not matter, at any educational level whether or not the Slovaks were new or old residents. Our educational breakdowns, are of course, rather crude, and it is seldom the case that a table would appear as it does above. In addition, there would be some other problems that would require additional attention. We would want to know, for the new residents as well as the old, at what point in time the highest educational level was being measured. Thus, it would be possible to have certain members of the new residents who had not completed their formal education at the time of the study. It is also possible, for our old residents, to have a significant number fifteen years old in 1940. It would, however, be possible to ask for the highest educational level attained. Thus, one could still determine the amount of education received by the old residents after 1940. If, on the other hand, there was a large group of fifteen-year-olds who arrived in 1968, and assuming the study was done around that time, it would be possible through other means, to estimate their highest educational level of attainment. �126 SLOVAKIA EXTENDING RELATIONSHIPS: INTERVENING ANTECEDENT AND EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES A point worth noting is that if we were interested in understanding the behavior of Slovaks, and if the empirical method were chosen to do this, then the type of information received is only one segment of a larger causal chain. What we attempt to do is to examine only one part of a large and very complex pattern of behavior, and possibly relate the findings to other patterns so as to form a complete picture. Again we are asking, "why is this variable influencing that variable?" Even when we find that two variables are related, we are still faced with several problems of interpretation. For instance, in our previous example, it was found that when educational level was controlled, the original relationship disappeared. Well, what does it mean to say that the original relationship "disappears?" There are several possibilities here. One is the search for intervening variables. 17 This means that the original relationship is "caused" by the intervention of a third variable. This third variable, however, is related to the independent and dependent variables in a special way. It logically comes between the independent and dependent variables, and when controlled for, makes the original relationship disappear. For example, we might discover that Slovak-Americans and Polish-Americans differ in the amount of "ethnic consciousness" they display. 13 Let us assume that Slovak-Americans demonstrate higher levels of ethnic consciousness. We now have an original relationship between the independent variable "ethnicity" and the dependent variable "ethnic consciousness." We are again faced with the problem of trying to explain the relationship. One way would be to search for an intervening variable. The intervening variable is in effect another independent variable. The intervening variable must also logically come after the original independent variable. For our example, such a variable could be education. We could argue that ethnicity precedes education, and that education has an effect on level of consciousness. The relationship would look like the following: Ethnicity ♦ (Independent) Education ♦ (Intervening) Consciousness (Dependent) �127 SLOVAKIA We are saying here that a person's ethnic background is related to his level of education and his level of education is responsible for his degree of ethnic consciousness. Let us look at some other possiblities. One principal objective of survey research is to trace out a "causal chain." This means that in addition to looking for intervening variables, we are also finding a causal link in which a variable precedes the original independent variable, is related to it, and in which the original independent variable is then related to the dependent variable. In order to construct this chain of events, Rosenberg lists three conditions that must be set. 19 1. All three variables must be related. 2. When the antecedent variable is controlled, the relationship between the independent and dependent variables should not disappear. 3. When the independent variable is controlled, the relationship between the antecedent and dependent variables should disappear. As an illustration, let us suppose that we find a relationship between liberal and conservative Slovak-Americans and degree of alienation. Specifically, we find that conservative Slovak-Americans are more alienated. In this case, however, we are interested in looking for an antecedent variable; one that comes before political orientation and is related to it. We might postulate that such a variable could be religion. Thus, we are saying that a person's religion influences his political orientation and his political orientation influence his degree of alienation. Schematically it would be as follows: Religion • (Antecedent) Political Orientation (Independent) • Alienation (Dependent ) In order to be considered a true antecedent relationship, it would have to meet all three of Rosenberg's conditions. We would first control on religion. If the relationship is maintained between political orientation and alienation, then we are on the right track. We would next want to control on political orientation. If the relationship between religion and alienation disappears, we have found the correct antecedent variable. Let us consider one additional relationship before �SLOVAKIA 128 closing the discussion. This is called looking the extraneous variables. The logic here is this: we find a relationship between two variables, introduce a test factor, and the original relationship disappears. Let us assume further that the test factor precedes the independent factor, and therefore, is not an intervening one. If the relationship disappears, we then conclude that it was "spurious"-that another variable ( the test factor) was producing the original results. For instance, in our original example, we found that Slovaks who were "newer" residents had a higher level of political interest than "older" residents. We concluded that the reason was education. Education, in this instance, could be considered an extraneous variable. That is, there is no inherent link between the original independent and dependent variables. Rather, both are related separately to the extraneous variable education.20 The relationship would be as follows: ♦ Residence (Independent) ♦ Political Interest (Dependent) Education (Extraneous) Here we are saying that the reason why residence was associated with political interest was because education was separately related to residence and to political interest. The newer residents had more education than the older ones, and people who have lower levels of education may be less politically motivated. SUMMARY If Slovaks, whether native-born or American, are interested in maintaining their ethnic heritage, then new research efforts must be undertaken. These research efforts should at least in part use the logic and methodology of the social sciences. Although this is only one of many approaches to the understanding of social phenomena, it is an important one because it enables us to probe deeply into the motivations underlying human behavior. The above has been an elementary attempt to show some of the thinking, or logic of procedure, behind that part of empirical inquiry called survey analysis. While the procedure has many and complex facets to it, in its most �SLOVAKIA 129 general form it attempts to establish relationships between variables and then elaborates on those relationships . REFERENC ES 1) Stephen Cole, The Sociological Method (Chicago: Markham, 1972), Ch. 4. 2) Harry L. Miller and Roger R. Woock, Social Foundations of Urban Education (Hindale, Ill.: The Dryden Press, 1970), pp. 401-412. 3) See, for example, Djuro J. Vrga, "Different Associational Involvement of Successive Ethnic Immigrants: An Indicator of Ethno-Religious Factionalism and Alienation of Immigrants," Social Forces, 50 (December, 1971), pp. 239-249. 4) See, generally, Richard S. Rudner, Philosophy of Social Science (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1966), Ch. 1 and 2. 5) One of the best volumes in this connection is Morris Rosenberg, The Logic of Survey Analysis (New York: Basic Books, 1968). I will draw heavily from Rosenberg in the remaining discussion. 6) For theory building in the social sciences, see Robert Dubin, Theory Building (New York: The Free Press, 1969) , Ch. 1 and 2. 7) Fred N. Kerlinger, Foundations of Behavioral Research (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965), p. 20. 8) Cole, The Sociological Method, Ch. 2. 9) James A. Davis, Elementary Survey Analysis (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1971), pp. 9-10. 10) See Max D. Engelhart, Methods of Educational Research (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1972), Ch. 7. 11) Here we are only interested in establishing a percentage point difference. We are not analyzing all the cells (4) of the table, nor are we discussing "significant" differences. There are appropriate methods for this that go beyond this discussion. 12) Cole, The Sociological Method, pp. 101-106. 13) Travis Hirschi and Hanan C. Selven, Delinquency Research: An Appraisal of Analytical Methods (New York: The Free Press, 1967) , pp. 37-51; and Rosenberg, The Logic of Survey Analysis, Ch. 2 and 3. 14) "Disappear" in this context usually means that an original relationship is substantially reduced when the test factor is introduced. 15) Cole and Rosenberg give this term a slightly different meaning. We are using it in Rosenberg's sense of a relationship existing because it is an effect of a common cause, pp. 23-82. 16) Rosenberg, The Logic of Survey Analysis, pp. 37-39. 17) Ibid., pp. 54-82. 18 ) We will assume there is some way of measuring "ethnic consciousness." 19) Rosenberg, Logic of Survey Analysis, pp. 68-69. 20) Ibid., pp. 27-4-0. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1974, Vol. 24 Description An account of the resource Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document 120 SLOVAKIA Survey Research and Ethnic Studies Steven I. M i l l e r , Ph.D. The basic purpose of survey research ( or broadly speaking, empirical research) is to find relationships be tween variables. 1 If a relationship, or association, can be established, than it becomes possible to predict one variable from another. Thus, if we know that the variable IQ and achievement test scores are related to one another, it then becomes possible (within limits) to predict one from the other. That is, if we know a person's IQ score, we can say with some degree of certainty what his score may be on the particular achievement test. 2 The idea of accurate prediction is one of the most important assumptions underlying the scientific method in general, and its specific applications to the field of social science. In addition to prediction, however, the idea of a relationship between two variables gives us other important information. For one, it tells us that two things that we probably did not think were associated in any meaningful way turn out to be so. We might find out, for instance, that there is a relationship between the arrival of various Slovak immigrants and their political behavior; or that compared to Polish immigrants, Slovak immigrants have voted more consistently for a particular political party.3 The idea of looking for a relationships also has consequences in terms of constructing a coherent body of propositions that can give us a clear and comprehensive picture of a field of study, i.e., Slovak immigrant behavior. In a similar view, if it is possible to establish valid empirical generalization about a specific group, then it may be possible to extend these findings to other groups. In this way, it is possible to extend the theoretical base for a field of inquiry. 4 SLOVAKIA 121 THE LOGIC OF PROCEDURE In the search for relationship in the social world, there is a definite procedure that can be utilized. There are certain logical steps that help us proceed with the investigation in such a way so as to determine the meaning of our problem. 5 The first step, then, would be to identify a problem that is of interest to us. The area of investigation should be one that is in need of clarification. Let us choose for our problem the following: Do all Slovaks concern themselves in similar ways with the political and religious problems of Slovakia? Why choose this particular issue? That would entirely depend on what we were concerned with? There are, of course, hundreds of different issues that we could turn our direction to. But let us assume that the present one is important to us because we suspect (for whatever reason) that interest in political and religious affairs in Slovakia is decreasing; it could also be the opposite: interest is increasing. Perhaps, however, we believe the first assertion is correct. Furthermore, we have some previous information from which to draw on which indicates that immigrants who have lived in their adopted country for a period of time will become socialized into the norms of that society, and will increasingly become interested in the concerns of their adopted country rather than their native one. If we had a larger context in which to place our specific problem, then, in a very broad sense, we have some type of theory. Having a "theory" of behavior enables us to focus our attention more clearly on the specific problem, as well as presenting possibilities of generalizing from our findings .6 Once we have the problem in focus, the next step is to place it in more precise and formal language. This is called an hypothesis. An hypothesis is "a conjectural statement about the relationship between two or more variables." 7 We can state the problem in the following way: there is a relationship between length of residence in the adopted country and interest in political (religious) affairs of the 122 SLOVAKIA native country. This is, of course, a very broad hypothesis, but it sets the boundaries of our investigation. It tells us, minimally, that we are interested in determining a relationship between two things: length of residence and political interest. There are many other aspects that are left open to investigation. We will examine these a little later. LOOKING FOR A RELATIONSHIP The first step is to determine whether our two variables are related. We want to know, in other words, if the independent variable length of residence is affecting the dependent variable, political interest. Residence is our independent variable because we can see that a person's length of residence may influence his political beliefs, but a person's political beliefs would not normally "cause" his length of residence. 8 To see if the variables are associated, it is necessary to show that the independent variable can be divided into at least two mutually exhaustive and inclusive categories.9 For instance, we could divide our independent variable into the categories of "old residents" and "new residents," or into more precise categories of years-perhaps every ten years. For our purposes, let us say "old residents" will be those coming to the United States from 1939 to 1950, while "new" residents will be those coming from 1950 to 1970. Let us further assume that we are dealing only with those individuals who were at least fifteen years or older when they emigrated, and who were therefore at last somewhat politically aware. To continue, let us also say that we have gotten a representative sample of Slovaks, and that through the use of a questionaire information has been received on a range of topics. In terms of political interest, we could ask, for example, whether or not they have a strong, personal interest in the political affairs of Slovakia. The responses could be measured by constructing a scale that would be a valid and reliable measure of this particular attitude. 10 Let us represent our hypothetical findings by the following table: 123 SLOVAKIA TABLE 1 Interest in Slovak Political Affairs by Length of Residence in United States (Hypothetical Data) PERCENTAGE STRONGLY INTERESTED IN POLITICAL AFFAIRS "Old" Residents 35% (1000) "New" Residents 75% (1000) Residence The table shows us that our two variables are related.11 There is a 40 percentage point difference indicating that the newer residents are more interested in Slovak political affairs than the older residents. Now if we found this type of relationship in our data, we would report the relationship and leave it at that. This would give us some information, but it would be a very restricted sort of information. One logical question we might want to ask is "why is there such a relationship?" Once we ask the "why," we are in the realm of explanatory research.12 That is, we are now interested in extending our original findings. But how can we explain the original relationship? There are many possibilities. We may argue, for example, that our original independent and dependent variables were not clearly defined, and therefore, our findings is incorrect; or that our sampling was not done correctly. These, of course, could be legitimate criticisms. But let us assume that we have satifactorily overcome these problems. We must now attempt to find another reason why the original relationship is there. To do this requires thinking of some other factors that may be of importance. One may be age. We could argue that the "older" residents are chronologically older than the "younger" residents and that the difference in political interest is simply one of the effects of age. It would, of course, be helpful to have some type of theory or data which suggests a relationship between age and political interest. When we think another factor is responsible for our original relationship, and we wish to see if it is having any effect on the original relationship, then we say we are "controlling for," or "holding constant" this factor. 13 Or 124 SLOVAKIA put somewhat differently, we are saying "were it not for age, the original relationsb,ip would disappear or be substantially reduced." That is, we think that age is the reason why there is a relationship between residence and political interest. What we want to do, then, is to make people "alike" on age and see what happens. How shall we divide people in our sample by age? A very rough measure would be to look at people over sixty and under sixty years of age. This is represented in the following Table. TABLE 2 The Relationship of Political Interest and Residence by Age (Hypothetical Data) % STRONG POLITICAL INTEREST Old -60 10 (300) New 40 (600) Age 10 (700) Residence 40 (400) The table shows that even when we control for age, the original relationship is maintained: new residents are still more likely to have strong political interests regardless of age. How it is possible that when we controlled for age the original relationship could have "disappeared." 14 If this had happened, we would have concluded that age was the reason for the association, and that our original finding had been "spurious." 15 Since age is not the factor we are looking for, other variables must be considered. For example, one possibility would be a person's sex. That is, the reason why we observed the original relationship was because there were differences among men and women in terms of political interest. There may, of course, be many other potential explanatory variables-educational level, rural-urban residence, level of intelligence, socioeconomic status to mention just a few. No matter what variable(s) we decide to use as test factors, there should be some (often tbere is not) a priori reason for selecting them. 16 Tn return to our example, let us say we chose educational level as our test factor. OUr guess is that a person's 125 SLOVAKIA educational level is related to political interest regardless of whether or not he has resided in the United States a particular period of time. Table three illustrates this. TABLE 3 Relationship of Political Interest and Residence by Education (Hypothetical Data) % STRONG POLITlCAL INTEREST Less than H.S. Educational Level High School College Old 20 (400) 30 (300) 50 (100) New 20 (200) 30 (500) 40 (500) Residence Table three shows that when educational level is introduced as a test factor, our original relationship between residence and political activity disappears. What we are saying is that while there were more college-educated Slovaks that had a high degree of political interest, it did not matter, at any educational level whether or not the Slovaks were new or old residents. Our educational breakdowns, are of course, rather crude, and it is seldom the case that a table would appear as it does above. In addition, there would be some other problems that would require additional attention. We would want to know, for the new residents as well as the old, at what point in time the highest educational level was being measured. Thus, it would be possible to have certain members of the new residents who had not completed their formal education at the time of the study. It is also possible, for our old residents, to have a significant number fifteen years old in 1940. It would, however, be possible to ask for the highest educational level attained. Thus, one could still determine the amount of education received by the old residents after 1940. If, on the other hand, there was a large group of fifteen-year-olds who arrived in 1968, and assuming the study was done around that time, it would be possible through other means, to estimate their highest educational level of attainment. 126 SLOVAKIA EXTENDING RELATIONSHIPS: INTERVENING ANTECEDENT AND EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES A point worth noting is that if we were interested in understanding the behavior of Slovaks, and if the empirical method were chosen to do this, then the type of information received is only one segment of a larger causal chain. What we attempt to do is to examine only one part of a large and very complex pattern of behavior, and possibly relate the findings to other patterns so as to form a complete picture. Again we are asking, "why is this variable influencing that variable?" Even when we find that two variables are related, we are still faced with several problems of interpretation. For instance, in our previous example, it was found that when educational level was controlled, the original relationship disappeared. Well, what does it mean to say that the original relationship "disappears?" There are several possibilities here. One is the search for intervening variables. 17 This means that the original relationship is "caused" by the intervention of a third variable. This third variable, however, is related to the independent and dependent variables in a special way. It logically comes between the independent and dependent variables, and when controlled for, makes the original relationship disappear. For example, we might discover that Slovak-Americans and Polish-Americans differ in the amount of "ethnic consciousness" they display. 13 Let us assume that Slovak-Americans demonstrate higher levels of ethnic consciousness. We now have an original relationship between the independent variable "ethnicity" and the dependent variable "ethnic consciousness." We are again faced with the problem of trying to explain the relationship. One way would be to search for an intervening variable. The intervening variable is in effect another independent variable. The intervening variable must also logically come after the original independent variable. For our example, such a variable could be education. We could argue that ethnicity precedes education, and that education has an effect on level of consciousness. The relationship would look like the following: Ethnicity ♦ (Independent) Education ♦ (Intervening) Consciousness (Dependent) 127 SLOVAKIA We are saying here that a person's ethnic background is related to his level of education and his level of education is responsible for his degree of ethnic consciousness. Let us look at some other possiblities. One principal objective of survey research is to trace out a "causal chain." This means that in addition to looking for intervening variables, we are also finding a causal link in which a variable precedes the original independent variable, is related to it, and in which the original independent variable is then related to the dependent variable. In order to construct this chain of events, Rosenberg lists three conditions that must be set. 19 1. All three variables must be related. 2. When the antecedent variable is controlled, the relationship between the independent and dependent variables should not disappear. 3. When the independent variable is controlled, the relationship between the antecedent and dependent variables should disappear. As an illustration, let us suppose that we find a relationship between liberal and conservative Slovak-Americans and degree of alienation. Specifically, we find that conservative Slovak-Americans are more alienated. In this case, however, we are interested in looking for an antecedent variable; one that comes before political orientation and is related to it. We might postulate that such a variable could be religion. Thus, we are saying that a person's religion influences his political orientation and his political orientation influence his degree of alienation. Schematically it would be as follows: Religion • (Antecedent) Political Orientation (Independent) • Alienation (Dependent ) In order to be considered a true antecedent relationship, it would have to meet all three of Rosenberg's conditions. We would first control on religion. If the relationship is maintained between political orientation and alienation, then we are on the right track. We would next want to control on political orientation. If the relationship between religion and alienation disappears, we have found the correct antecedent variable. Let us consider one additional relationship before SLOVAKIA 128 closing the discussion. This is called looking the extraneous variables. The logic here is this: we find a relationship between two variables, introduce a test factor, and the original relationship disappears. Let us assume further that the test factor precedes the independent factor, and therefore, is not an intervening one. If the relationship disappears, we then conclude that it was "spurious"-that another variable ( the test factor) was producing the original results. For instance, in our original example, we found that Slovaks who were "newer" residents had a higher level of political interest than "older" residents. We concluded that the reason was education. Education, in this instance, could be considered an extraneous variable. That is, there is no inherent link between the original independent and dependent variables. Rather, both are related separately to the extraneous variable education.20 The relationship would be as follows: ♦ Residence (Independent) ♦ Political Interest (Dependent) Education (Extraneous) Here we are saying that the reason why residence was associated with political interest was because education was separately related to residence and to political interest. The newer residents had more education than the older ones, and people who have lower levels of education may be less politically motivated. SUMMARY If Slovaks, whether native-born or American, are interested in maintaining their ethnic heritage, then new research efforts must be undertaken. These research efforts should at least in part use the logic and methodology of the social sciences. Although this is only one of many approaches to the understanding of social phenomena, it is an important one because it enables us to probe deeply into the motivations underlying human behavior. The above has been an elementary attempt to show some of the thinking, or logic of procedure, behind that part of empirical inquiry called survey analysis. While the procedure has many and complex facets to it, in its most SLOVAKIA 129 general form it attempts to establish relationships between variables and then elaborates on those relationships . REFERENC ES 1) Stephen Cole, The Sociological Method (Chicago: Markham, 1972), Ch. 4. 2) Harry L. Miller and Roger R. Woock, Social Foundations of Urban Education (Hindale, Ill.: The Dryden Press, 1970), pp. 401-412. 3) See, for example, Djuro J. Vrga, "Different Associational Involvement of Successive Ethnic Immigrants: An Indicator of Ethno-Religious Factionalism and Alienation of Immigrants," Social Forces, 50 (December, 1971), pp. 239-249. 4) See, generally, Richard S. Rudner, Philosophy of Social Science (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1966), Ch. 1 and 2. 5) One of the best volumes in this connection is Morris Rosenberg, The Logic of Survey Analysis (New York: Basic Books, 1968). I will draw heavily from Rosenberg in the remaining discussion. 6) For theory building in the social sciences, see Robert Dubin, Theory Building (New York: The Free Press, 1969) , Ch. 1 and 2. 7) Fred N. Kerlinger, Foundations of Behavioral Research (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965), p. 20. 8) Cole, The Sociological Method, Ch. 2. 9) James A. Davis, Elementary Survey Analysis (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1971), pp. 9-10. 10) See Max D. Engelhart, Methods of Educational Research (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1972), Ch. 7. 11) Here we are only interested in establishing a percentage point difference. We are not analyzing all the cells (4) of the table, nor are we discussing "significant" differences. There are appropriate methods for this that go beyond this discussion. 12) Cole, The Sociological Method, pp. 101-106. 13) Travis Hirschi and Hanan C. Selven, Delinquency Research: An Appraisal of Analytical Methods (New York: The Free Press, 1967) , pp. 37-51; and Rosenberg, The Logic of Survey Analysis, Ch. 2 and 3. 14) "Disappear" in this context usually means that an original relationship is substantially reduced when the test factor is introduced. 15) Cole and Rosenberg give this term a slightly different meaning. We are using it in Rosenberg's sense of a relationship existing because it is an effect of a common cause, pp. 23-82. 16) Rosenberg, The Logic of Survey Analysis, pp. 37-39. 17) Ibid., pp. 54-82. 18 ) We will assume there is some way of measuring "ethnic consciousness." 19) Rosenberg, Logic of Survey Analysis, pp. 68-69. 20) Ibid., pp. 27-4-0.  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Survey Research and Ethnic Studies Description An account of the resource Steven I. Miller, Ph.D. Slovakia, Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974 pp. 120-129 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Miller, Steven I. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 LCNAF https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/86d96c7d18c798012ece401fefbe311c.pdf 9cc550b54da39724fe915bd2ad8cc4c2 PDF Text Text 130 SLOVAKIA Great Slovak Talent Ethnic America is finally emerging from the cocoon of silence about its hopes, successes and failures, progress and achievements. This emergence is not, as some critics charge, hyphenating the United States. On the contrary it is a reemphasis and recounting of the very ideals which made this country gloriously different from other nations. Slovak-Americans are quick to tell you that in the past, and even current history of Slovakia, success could not have been easily achieved by Slovaks. Liberty was something they discovered only in the United States where even failure is not hopeless. The following article from the pen of the editor of Slovakia was translated from Slovak into English as a reminder that the fruition of the dreams of immigrants are fulfilled by succeeding sons and daughters and grandchildren, thanks to the opportunity for education, liberty, as well as the "stick-to-it-iveness" of each individual. The translator therefore presents this article in that spirit and with a hearty ... BRAVO, CYRIL J. ZILKA Among the talented artists justifiably highlighted by Jednota is Cyril J. Zilka of Miami, Florida. Although only 18 years of age, Cyril is a member of the Philharmonic Symphony Orchestra of Miami. It may therefore be a correct assumption that he is one of the youngest member of a philharmonic symphony orchestra in America. Such membership is acquired only through exceptional talent and our Slovak-American, Cyril Zilka, possesses it. His long series of performances testify to his mastership and artistry. It was not luck or mere chance that gave Zilka the opportunity to participate in the All-American Youth Orchestra at the John F. Kennedy Musical Center at Washington on May 9, 1972. Only the best musical talent in the land was accepted for this orchestra. This opportunity and success came about through Cyril's talent and performances in other cities. In 1972 Cyril was the orchestral concert master of all �SLOVAKIA 131 high schools in Florida, as well as of the Orchestral School of Miami, and likewise for the past two years of the Youth Orchestra of Greater Miami. Last year he was concert master at the Conservatory of the University of Cincinnati and he will continue in this capacity this summer. Cyril has attended many music courses in which he has always placed first. In 1971 he won a scholarship to Tanglewood, renowned musical center, and he also won a scholarship to the Eastern Musical Festival. He is a member of the Carmen Nappo Quarted where he plays first violin. For the past three years he has been a member of the Symphonic Orchestra in North Miami Beach in which he also plays first violin. He has appeared in 90 public concerts in Miami and the neighboring vicinity. Last year he won first prize, competing against contestants of all the high schools of the state of Florida - as soloist, in duet, and in chamber orchestral performances. He played first violin in all of these appearances. In 1972 Cyril won a scholarship for an eight-week music festival in Rome, Italy. He has received offers for further studies from the University of Cincinnati, Peabody Conservatory, Boston University, and the University of Miami for his oustanding performances. Cyril selected the University of Cincinnati. He is the bearer of All-American awards for musical performances - three Arion Awards - and innumerable musical awards and trophies. There is no doubt that Cyril Zilka has great talent. His grandparents came from Slovakia and settled in Monessen, Pa., where for many years they were members of the First Catholic Slovak Union, Branch 311. Cyril's father, Cyril, Sr., was a teacher at the Slovak Benedictine Boys High School at Cleveland, Ohio. If we need any further nudge to have some means of compiling data on our talented Slovak-Americans, the case of Cyril J. Zilka should provide it. We need a SlovakAmerican "Who's Who" for without it we have no way of knowing the progress and successes of our people or who represents us in the advancement of the cultural, artistic, military, professional, political or organizational life in the United States. Translated by Paul B e r i s h � 130 SLOVAKIA Great Slovak Talent Ethnic America is finally emerging from the cocoon of silence about its hopes, successes and failures, progress and achievements. This emergence is not, as some critics charge, hyphenating the United States. On the contrary it is a reemphasis and recounting of the very ideals which made this country gloriously different from other nations. Slovak-Americans are quick to tell you that in the past, and even current history of Slovakia, success could not have been easily achieved by Slovaks. Liberty was something they discovered only in the United States where even failure is not hopeless. The following article from the pen of the editor of Slovakia was translated from Slovak into English as a reminder that the fruition of the dreams of immigrants are fulfilled by succeeding sons and daughters and grandchildren, thanks to the opportunity for education, liberty, as well as the "stick-to-it-iveness" of each individual. The translator therefore presents this article in that spirit and with a hearty ... BRAVO, CYRIL J. ZILKA Among the talented artists justifiably highlighted by Jednota is Cyril J. Zilka of Miami, Florida. Although only 18 years of age, Cyril is a member of the Philharmonic Symphony Orchestra of Miami. It may therefore be a correct assumption that he is one of the youngest member of a philharmonic symphony orchestra in America. Such membership is acquired only through exceptional talent and our Slovak-American, Cyril Zilka, possesses it. His long series of performances testify to his mastership and artistry. It was not luck or mere chance that gave Zilka the opportunity to participate in the All-American Youth Orchestra at the John F. Kennedy Musical Center at Washington on May 9, 1972. Only the best musical talent in the land was accepted for this orchestra. This opportunity and success came about through Cyril's talent and performances in other cities. In 1972 Cyril was the orchestral concert master of all �SLOVAKIA 131 high schools in Florida, as well as of the Orchestral School of Miami, and likewise for the past two years of the Youth Orchestra of Greater Miami. Last year he was concert master at the Conservatory of the University of Cincinnati and he will continue in this capacity this summer. Cyril has attended many music courses in which he has always placed first. In 1971 he won a scholarship to Tanglewood, renowned musical center, and he also won a scholarship to the Eastern Musical Festival. He is a member of the Carmen Nappo Quarted where he plays first violin. For the past three years he has been a member of the Symphonic Orchestra in North Miami Beach in which he also plays first violin. He has appeared in 90 public concerts in Miami and the neighboring vicinity. Last year he won first prize, competing against contestants of all the high schools of the state of Florida - as soloist, in duet, and in chamber orchestral performances. He played first violin in all of these appearances. In 1972 Cyril won a scholarship for an eight-week music festival in Rome, Italy. He has received offers for further studies from the University of Cincinnati, Peabody Conservatory, Boston University, and the University of Miami for his oustanding performances. Cyril selected the University of Cincinnati. He is the bearer of All-American awards for musical performances - three Arion Awards - and innumerable musical awards and trophies. There is no doubt that Cyril Zilka has great talent. His grandparents came from Slovakia and settled in Monessen, Pa., where for many years they were members of the First Catholic Slovak Union, Branch 311. Cyril's father, Cyril, Sr., was a teacher at the Slovak Benedictine Boys High School at Cleveland, Ohio. If we need any further nudge to have some means of compiling data on our talented Slovak-Americans, the case of Cyril J. Zilka should provide it. We need a SlovakAmerican "Who's Who" for without it we have no way of knowing the progress and successes of our people or who represents us in the advancement of the cultural, artistic, military, professional, political or organizational life in the United States. Translated by Paul B e r i s h � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1974, Vol. 24 Description An account of the resource Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document 130 SLOVAKIA Great Slovak Talent Ethnic America is finally emerging from the cocoon of silence about its hopes, successes and failures, progress and achievements. This emergence is not, as some critics charge, hyphenating the United States. On the contrary it is a reemphasis and recounting of the very ideals which made this country gloriously different from other nations. Slovak-Americans are quick to tell you that in the past, and even current history of Slovakia, success could not have been easily achieved by Slovaks. Liberty was something they discovered only in the United States where even failure is not hopeless. The following article from the pen of the editor of Slovakia was translated from Slovak into English as a reminder that the fruition of the dreams of immigrants are fulfilled by succeeding sons and daughters and grandchildren, thanks to the opportunity for education, liberty, as well as the "stick-to-it-iveness" of each individual. The translator therefore presents this article in that spirit and with a hearty ... BRAVO, CYRIL J. ZILKA Among the talented artists justifiably highlighted by Jednota is Cyril J. Zilka of Miami, Florida. Although only 18 years of age, Cyril is a member of the Philharmonic Symphony Orchestra of Miami. It may therefore be a correct assumption that he is one of the youngest member of a philharmonic symphony orchestra in America. Such membership is acquired only through exceptional talent and our Slovak-American, Cyril Zilka, possesses it. His long series of performances testify to his mastership and artistry. It was not luck or mere chance that gave Zilka the opportunity to participate in the All-American Youth Orchestra at the John F. Kennedy Musical Center at Washington on May 9, 1972. Only the best musical talent in the land was accepted for this orchestra. This opportunity and success came about through Cyril's talent and performances in other cities. In 1972 Cyril was the orchestral concert master of all SLOVAKIA 131 high schools in Florida, as well as of the Orchestral School of Miami, and likewise for the past two years of the Youth Orchestra of Greater Miami. Last year he was concert master at the Conservatory of the University of Cincinnati and he will continue in this capacity this summer. Cyril has attended many music courses in which he has always placed first. In 1971 he won a scholarship to Tanglewood, renowned musical center, and he also won a scholarship to the Eastern Musical Festival. He is a member of the Carmen Nappo Quarted where he plays first violin. For the past three years he has been a member of the Symphonic Orchestra in North Miami Beach in which he also plays first violin. He has appeared in 90 public concerts in Miami and the neighboring vicinity. Last year he won first prize, competing against contestants of all the high schools of the state of Florida - as soloist, in duet, and in chamber orchestral performances. He played first violin in all of these appearances. In 1972 Cyril won a scholarship for an eight-week music festival in Rome, Italy. He has received offers for further studies from the University of Cincinnati, Peabody Conservatory, Boston University, and the University of Miami for his oustanding performances. Cyril selected the University of Cincinnati. He is the bearer of All-American awards for musical performances - three Arion Awards - and innumerable musical awards and trophies. There is no doubt that Cyril Zilka has great talent. His grandparents came from Slovakia and settled in Monessen, Pa., where for many years they were members of the First Catholic Slovak Union, Branch 311. Cyril's father, Cyril, Sr., was a teacher at the Slovak Benedictine Boys High School at Cleveland, Ohio. If we need any further nudge to have some means of compiling data on our talented Slovak-Americans, the case of Cyril J. Zilka should provide it. We need a SlovakAmerican "Who's Who" for without it we have no way of knowing the progress and successes of our people or who represents us in the advancement of the cultural, artistic, military, professional, political or organizational life in the United States. Translated by Paul B e r i s h  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Great Slovak Talent Description An account of the resource "The following article from the pen of the editor of Slovakia was translated from Slovak into English..." trans. Paul Berish Slovakia, Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974 pp. 130-131 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Paučo, Jozef, 1914-1975 Berish, Paul Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 name SNK https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/8f351efb370a1007cadd2031f7e772b0.pdf 764e880de0cf3d7b93aa2c077163b3f3 PDF Text Text 132 SLOVAKIA William W a g n e r : The Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius and the Preservation of Slovak Culture in America The research involved in writing the history of an ethnic teaching community presented me with two problems. First, there are relatively few works completed on American ethnic groups, including the Slovak Americans. Secondly, the past of this particular teaching Community, the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius, has been largely recorded only by the Sisters of that Community. Therefore, my research on the Slovak past ( still predominantly written in the Slovak tongue) and my compiling of the Community's history were very dependent on the writings of the Sisters of the Community. I believe my work is objective, because of the limitation of my knowledge of the Community's religious life, thus removing me from a biased influence. All in all, I attempted to deal with this subject in such a manner as to present an honest view of the history and purpose surrounding the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius. My appreciation is extended to Reverend Mother M. Valeria Romanchek and special thanks are expressed to the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius for their helpful cooperation and endless assistance and guidance throughout the researching of this paper. I dedicate this history to Reverend Mother M. Emerentia Petrasek, former Community historian, upon whose research of the Slovak past and the tracing of the Community's growth I so heavily relied. THE ROOTS OF SLOVAK CULTURE ARE CENTURIES OLD The United States is the most important immigrant receiving country in the world. Between 1850 and 1930 no less than thirty-eight million people settled within our borders. 1 Although early in this immigration period many �SLOVAKIA 133 newcomers strove to sever ties with the old world, a sizeable portion continued to look reverently upon their past. The Slovak American, who journeyed to this country primarily in the later wave of European immigration, were such a group. The Slovaks feared the loss of their native culture to a new growing American culture because their past history consisted of repeated attempts at such assimilation. But also in America the Slovak hoped for the chance and the right to have his own life. The Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius are a teaching community dedicated to preserving and promoting this American Slovak culture. Because one-third of all Slovaks live in America,2 the Sisters' preservation of their culture is extremely important to the overall existence of the Slovak people as a national entity. The Slovak people are a small part of the Slavic family found on the European continent. Ethnologists place the Slovaks in the Western Slavic group, which also includes Poles, Czechs and Moravians. Commonly but erroneously the Slovaks are considered only a part of the "Czechoslovak Nation," but during the ten centuries of Slovak history, the Slovaks did not live in a common state with the Czechs until 1918. Little is known of the early Slavs. Ancient Greeks and Romans made contact, but left few records. Early recorded Slovak history tells of struggles with Asiatic tribes, particularly the Avari to whom the Slovaks were subjected for almost a century. The subjection was followed by the influence and reign of the Franks. 3 The early Slovak was pagan and war-like. He had many customs but few laws. He was chiefly agricultural and believed in various superstitions. This type of religion held fast until the ninth century when Prince Pribina, the first direct Slovak ruler of Slavic birth, established the first Slavic Christian church. Pribina's efforts to christianize his people met with little success, largely because he was dependent on Frankish missionaries whose language his people could not understand. 4 In 846 Pribina's court surrendered to Rastislav, a skillful warrior, who succeeded in winning independence from the Franks. Rastislav sought religious as well as political freedom. In the year 863 Prince Rastislav invited the two �134 SLOVAKIA holy brothers, Constantine and Methodius, to come from Constantinople and work among the Slovak people. These Byzantine missionaries found it necessary to invent an alphabet for the Slavs, so that the Holy Scriptures could be given to them in their own tongue. After having the use of the Slavonic tongue in Western Liturgy sanctioned by the Roman Pope, Methodius returned to Slovakia as a bishop. Constantine meanwhile had died in Rome in 869 , after entering a monastery there and assuming the name of Cyril. By means of their translations of the Holy Scriptures Constantine and Methodius laid the foundations of Slavic literature. The introduction of schools went hand in hand with this introduction and spread of Christianity in Slovakia.5 Archbishop Methodius continued his teaching and missionary activity until his death in 885. That period of political independence for Slovakia lasted but a short time. Slovakia was soon incorporated into the State of Hungary, which during medieval times consisted of various nations. During this period known as 'The Thousand Years of Oppression', the Slovaks' civil life declined and thus their national consciousness was under a cloud. The Lutheran Reformation, the Turkish invasion of Hungary in 1526 and the Counter-Reformation led by the Jesuits all had varying effects on Slovak education. But it was not until the suppression of the Jesuit Order in 1773 and the state control of education under Empress Maria Theresa, that the Slovak education was directed by any one source. The State of Hungary considered it its duty to provide for the education of its people, hoping to make the power of the state felt in every phase of life.6 The reigns of Maria Theresa and Joseph II saw an expansion of education and also an attempt at Germanization of the Slovaks. Joseph's attempt at Germanization was significantly challenged in 1847 and replaced by Hungarian Magyarization. Whether Germanization or Magyarization the NonHungarian Nationalities' interests were ignored. In 1867 the 'Austro-Hungarian Compromise' touched off rapid action to create a unitary Hungary by Magyarizing all departments of public life, especially the schools. The aim of this policy was the complete assimilation and �SLOVAKIA 135 conversion of Slovakia into a purely Magyar Province of Hungary. Since language is the chief symbol of nationality, the Slovak language was suppressed. Poor economically and having their national ideals and traditions submerged, the Slovaks began seeking a new way to improve their life. U.S. SHINES WITH HOPE FOR SLOVAK IMMIGRANTS Immigration held the dream of a better life. The heaviest immigration of the Slovaks occurred between 1890 and 1900.7 It must be stressed that the majority of immigrants came to America for economic reasons, few peasants ever left East Europe during this period due to political reasons, though politics did cause many not to return. 8 The first immigrants were usually the fathers of the Slovak families, hoping for quick economic gain, and a subsequent return to their native land and families. But once in America few immigrants returned. They found employment that significantly raised their living standard. Though in a strange, sometimes hostile land, the immigrant recognized the ideals of freedom that he was denied in his homeland. As thoughts of returning to their native land diminished, the pioneering immigrants sent for their families to join them in their adopted country. 9 Once the immigrant families had situated themselves in this new land, they were faced with problems of adjustment. The majority of the Slovak immigrants settled in the industrial East, seeking employment with the mining industries, particularly in Pennsylvania. Since the closing of the American frontier the greatest means of livelihood for new immigrants was in these rising industrial areas.10 As the economic necessity of making a living diminished, the new Americans turned to their social needs. Subsequently as the new settlements became more permanent, these Slovak immigrants turned to their religious needs. They began by building community parishes, while searching for Slovak priests who were few in number in this time of early immigration.11 The churches provided a common bond upon which were built beneficial organizations, such as the organizations of the First Catholic Slovak Union known as Jednota. It was the purpose of these beneficial groups to locate and unite the scattered elements �136 SLOVAKIA of American Slovaks. Unity was usually provided through the weekly Slovak newspapers. EDUCATION AL ASPIRATIONS OF AMERICAN SLOVAKS Upon completion of the drive to build parishes the Slovaks had finished with what they call the Church Age of their settlement in America. 12 Having established themselves within their own community, they were faced with the task of joining the larger American community. Obviously, they needed to learn the English language and familiarize themselves with American customs. It was over this need for education that friction developed. On the one hand the immigrant desired to be accepted in this new environment; yet on the other, he also desired to preserve his own cultural past. The first generation immigrant was taught English usually by his employer and did not have his culture challenged, thus resisting assimilation. 13 It was the education of successive generations that presented the problem of cultural alienation. The apparent choice in education was to enroll their offsprings in public schools in order to help them adjust to this new American Life. But education in the public schools posed severe cultural hazards. The public school taught American subjects with American values. The foreign children were judged by American cultural standards of conduct. In this position the foreign children were caught between their old culture and the new American culture. This had definite results: A limited number abandoned their embarrassing heritage-to accept American standards; a larger number sought to forget their traditional background regarding them as inferior-lead ing to family disruption and disintegration . Finally, the largest group failed to adjust to school and left feeling disregarded, discouraged and inferior .14 The public school encouraged the disintegration of Slovak families. The Slovaks had successfully resisted attempts of assimilation by stronger cultures in the past, but now they faced the task of resisting assimilation in a foreign land. To be assimilated meant the destruction of their culture. The chief means of assimilation was through education, as was attempted in their past history. Though it was largely an unconscious process by which America imposed its own standard of ideals on the new- �SLOVAKIA 137 comers, the public schools were succeeding in imposing a common English culture upon the children of many nationalities. 15 By treating the immigrant as a native the public school disregarded his culture and background. What was needed was a means to hand down a suitable portion of his native culture in order to provide a past, thus avoiding an identity crisis. The public school system could not provide this necessity in full. What was needed was a new system that could teach their children good American citizenship and preserve in them a profitable appreciation of the language, culture and tradition of their forefathers, while still providing a sufficient academic education. Fearing further disintegration of their culture, the Slovaks began searching and discussing alternatives in the development of Slovak America. REV. MATTHEW JANKOLA ASSUMES LEADERSHIP A leader in this search for a solution to the American Slovak's educational needs was Father Matthew Jankola. He spent much time studying his fellow Slovaks in their new surroundings. Early in his life he wrote: "We have a serious problem, the problem of educating our children according to American methods, and for American citizenship, without, however, destroying their cultural character and their cultural traditions." 16 With this attitude Father Jankola formed an Association of Priests in 1903 to consider the question of providing for the Catholic education of Slovak youth. Father Jankola began his studies for the priesthood in his native Slovakia. But under pressure from both the Hungarian civil and ecclesiastical authorities, which frowned apon Slovak devotion to Saints Cyril and Methodius, and the fostering of Slovak nationalism, Father Jankola sought refuge in America. 17 He arrived in 1893, and finished his studies at Saint Bonaventure's Seminary in Allegheny, New York. As a priest Father Jankola dedicated himself to the problem of cultural disintegration of his people, begun in Hungary and now continuing in America. It was on behalf of this couse that Father Jankola directed his early writings. When considering education, Father Jankola looked to its broader meaning of culture, rather than its narrow sense of formal schooling. He felt �138 SLOVAKIA that next to the parish church must be a school, because without Catholic schools the Catholic Church had no future, no assured existence. Father Jankola saw the parish church alone and unaided by a Catholic school as but a "feeble barrier" against the rapid onrush of worldliness and a too sudden Americanization for Slovak youth. Further, to preserve the Slovak national character, the children must be educated in Slovak schools with religious principles. Father Jankola held the schools as helpful for religious training, and necessary also to preserve nationality. In Father Jankola's mind the church directed religion, not language; for the teaching of language, which fosters the national spirit, teachers and schools were needed.18 In this spirit Father Jankola called for the establishment of schools, staffed by Slovak Sisters. His initial contact with the Slovak people on this project was done through the newspapers, such as the weekly Jednota. Many attempts were made · to secure Slavic Sisters, but to no avail. This was a time of heavy immigration causing the demand for Sisters in America to be very great. Confronted with the problem of no available Sisters for his project, Father Jankola suggested the possibility of founding a Religious Community for the education of Slovak youth. The suggestion was received favorably, so Father Jankola sought Slovak candidates to train in an American Sisterhood, which would later branch off into an independent congregation as their numbers grew. A Czech Benedictine Community of Sisters expressed willingness to receive and educate Slovak girls. Father Jankola secured three aspirants who were sent to the Czech Sisters in Chicago. But this project failed when the girls became discontented and wished to return to Pennsylvania. Their return was hard on Father Jankola, but their young age and the great distances they had traveled made him sympathetic. 19 Father Jankola did not abandon his project. Instead, upon further study he came in contact with Mother Mary Cyril at Mount St. Mary's Seminary in Scranton, Penna. After considering Father Jankola's plan for a parochial school system under Slovak Sisters, Mother Mary Cyril agreed to accept the young girls. The girls entered Mount Saint Mary's Seminary in November of 1903, to learn the �SLOVAKIA 139 principles of religious life and live according to its Rules. 20 While preparing the Slovak girls for religious teaching and guidance under Mother Mary Cyril and the Sisters of the Immaculate Heart of Mary, Father Jankola began a fund to further his project. He established "St. Anthony's Treasury" which received donations from parishes, societies and individuals. A TEACHING COMMUNITY OF SLOVAK SISTERS IS BORN On September 11, 1909, the first Slovak girls pronounced their religious vows, 21 marking the birth of the Sisters of Saints Cyril and Methodius, honoring the Saints who gave Slovakia its faith and culture. Father Jankola noted that this was the founding of the first Slovak religious sisterhood that the Slovaks ever had, either in Europe or America. At the birth of this new Order Father Jankola set down four principal reasons for its conception: 1) Educate Slovak children 2) Care for Slovak orphans and aged 3) Preserve Slovak culture 4) Pray for the return of Slav schismatics.22 Father Jankola's first principle has been the primary apostolate of the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius. The parish school has always constituted the particular vocation of the Sisters. The Sisters set themselves the traditional objective of education in a Christian spirit to develop and train to the fullest the powers and capacities of a young student's mind and body. They also strove to inculcate principles of true patriotism and citizenship in order to develop enlightened, conscientious American citizens, imbued with Christian attitudes of justice and charity, peace and order, which they feel are the main components for social living. As Slovak American teachers, they endeavored to preserve some of the traditions and the cultural heritage of the Slovak people among the students of Slovak parentage, and to foster in all students an interest and respect for the varied cultures and attitudes that make up the Brotherhood of Man. 23 Through such recognition and acceptance of foreign natures, characteristics, and personalities built from a different culture, the Sisters sought to achieve cultural democracy. To accept cultural democracy means to accept �140 SLOVAKIA a technique of social adjustment that will make possible the preservation of the best of all cultures. 24 This was the desire of the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius. To accept, as well as to be accepted, is the condition for effective pluralism in a nation. Cultural pluralism in the American educational system has existed because we are a multi-cultural, multi-racial, and multi-lingual nation. It was thought that the public school system would Americanize these foreign elements into the melting pot of uniform American culture. The concept of American culture as a mosaic has been the reason for, and the challenge of, the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius. For six years this newly established Community of Sisters continued under the guidance of the Sisters of the Immaculate Heart of Mary. It was on August 4, 1915, that the Community had its first elections in which Sister Mary (Mihalik) was elected the first Superior General. During this period the Sisters opened their first school to educate children in the Sacred Heart of Jesus Parish in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, marking the beginning of the educational work of the Community. Before this group could be firmly established Mother Mary died in 1916. Her successor was Mother M. Emmanuel whose greatest achievement involved the establishment of a suitable, permanent Motherhouse.25 MOTHER M. EMMANUEL, SS.C.M. (1916-1922) The Sisters had been temporarily situated in Middletown, Pennsylvania. While in this location, Mother M. Emmanuel sought a permanent Motherhouse. She was informed by Reverend Julius Foin about a large tract of land with an old mansion in Danville. Through Bishop Philip R. McDevitt, Mother M. Emmanuel made contact with a local attorney, Ralph Kisner, and was informed that the 'Castle Grove' property was for sale. The Mansion site proper, containing thirteen acres-forty rooms, eleven bathrooms-finished throughout with hardwood, was a relic of the passing iron industry in Danville. There was also an adjoining farm with one hundred thirty-three acres and numerous outbuildings. This enormous dwelling was perfect for Mother M. Emmanuel's aims, but the price was beyond the Community's ability to pay. Upon inspection of this property, Mother M. Emmanuel found that the Mansion had stood �SLOVAKIA 141 vacant for fourteen years, needing numerous repairs. With this in mind she made a meager offer. The actual owner was in France, causing slow communication. Price remained the hindrance as Mother M. Emmanuel would not raise her offer. In March of 1919, Attorney Kisner informed the Sisters that the owner had agreed to drastically reduce his price to meet the Community's needs. Now that the Community's prayers for a Motherhouse had been answered, only the necessary funds for purchase remained an obstacle. The Sisters had saved about half of the required amount, but had discouraging experiences in acquiring the rest. This was the critical period during World War I, causing excess funds to be scarce.26 After futile appeals to the citizens and banks of the Wilkes-Barre area, a heavily populated Slovak community, Mother M. Emmanuel turned to the Danville National Bank for a loan. This bank considered the risk minimal and granted the loan at low interest. With payment secured, the Sisters concluded the 'Castle Grove' deal in June of 1919, and began preparations for the transfer of the Motherhouse from Middletown to its permanent home in Danville. Throughout the summer months in 1919, the Sisters worked to put the house and grounds in order. Within this new convent the Community prepared for the continuance of religious training for its Sisters and converted one of the two ballrooms into a chapel. Holy Mass was first celebrated on Sunday morning, July 6, 1919. With the approach of Autumn all but the Sisters in training took leave of 'Sacred Heart Villa,' as the grounds had been named, to resume their duties in the parish schools. During the War Years the demand for Sisters in parochial schools became very great. The war and the influenza epidemic strongly limited the work of the Sisters.27 As this situation relaxed in the summer of 1920, Mother M. Emmanuel arranged classes for the Sisters to improve their educational resources. The educational progress of the Community was under the direction of the Sisters from Marywood. This was being continued by Mother M. Emmanuel who sought also to further the Community's material progress. She was engaged in soliciting funds from the homes of Slovaks to pay off the Sister's bank loan. Mother M. Emmanuel promoted thrift within her �142 SLOVAKIA Community because she felt the Community would be more secure in the American culture when free from debt. Mother M. Emmanuel's term expired in 1922. She had directed this young Sisterhood through its pioneering days, giving it shelter, resources and existence through the war years. Mother M. Emmanuel's main contribution was, of course, the establishment of the Motherhouse that was to become the center of Slovak culture in America. MOTHER M. PIUS, SS.C.M. OPENS ST. CYRIL ACADEMY IN 1922 By the choice of the Sisters, Sister M. Pius was elected the third Superior General. Bishop McDevitt, who supervised the election, also commented on the importance of the Sisters' studies because someday the civil authorities would require that every teacher must be certified by the State of Pennsylvania. Certification would be important in having the Community accepted as a competent educational institution in American society. Now that they had an established center, the Sisters could begin to focus their educational mission with greater assurance. The Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius had always wished for the establishment of a high school and boarding school for girls. Presently, they were only employed in elementary education. This idea for an institution of higher education for their own children was popular among the Slovaks. In addition to the regularly prescribed American branches, they wanted their offsprings to be taught the mother tongue and trained to appreciate the historical and cultural traditions of their nation. 28 To this wish Mother M. Pius responded. Mother M. Pius expressed a desire to have an official from the Department of Public Instruction in Harrisburg come to Danville to give a lecture on the requirements of the State, regarding the equipment and function of a high school and its accreditation. In August of 1922, Doctor Edward Hoban arrived from Harrisburg and explained such subjects as extension courses, summer school, teacher certificates, teaching of foreign languages, importance of teaching citizenship, the teaching of historical and social studies, and the necessity of physical education. This lecture assured the commencement of preparation for a high school on American terms. �SLOVAKIA 143 The following week an advertisement appeared in the Slovak newspapers stating that the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius had equipped part of their convent at Danville as a boarding school for girls. To conform to American standards the equipment of the high school called for two very important departments -the Library and the Laboratory for the Sciences. Both of these were begun with the opening of the school. Books acquired were those recommended by the Department o! Education. Also a large selection of Catholic and Slovak books supplemented the Community's aim of a multicultural education. In all, nineteen pupils attended the first year of the First Catholic Slovak Girls High School, indicating a desire on the part of the Slovaks to have their children educated in a Slovak, as well as an American atmosphere. Towards the close of the first year in the spring of 1923, a small group of students ventured into the school's first extra-curricular activity. These girls formed a Literary Society in which they compiled a little booklet of essays, stories, and poems. Under Mother M. Pius' encouragement this activity continued, resulting in the first issue of the bi-lingual (Slovak and American) school magazine, Fialky (Violets). The Fialky were thereafter issued semi-annually until 1940 and then annually until 1970, when it ceased publication. During the summer vacation Mother M. Pius encouraged the Sisters toward further studies, hoping to improve their competence as teachers. She was anxious to secure state certification for as many Sisters as could qualify. Now that the Community was engaged in all levels of education, Mother M. Pius wished to secure them within the American educational system through accreditation. The Academy's opening in the second year exposed space problems as enrollment grew. Mother Pius expressed the need for a strong building fund and enacted new collection drives among the Slovak people. The number of students steadily increased into the third and fourth year.• With the fourth year the need for accredition increased as the first graduation approached. The school was informed that the State Representatives would make an official inspection at the school year's end. That June, just a week before graduation, the State �144 SLOVAKIA Inspector arrived and spent a day inspecting the school, interviewing both the staff and the students. The State Representative, Doctor Pentz, found the Slovak students being educated and trained in all that the modern high schools offered, and in their Religion and mother tongue as well. To this he expressed his satisfaction, commenting on the orderly and methodological way in which the different departments were being conducted. 29 After Dr. Pentz reported the Academy as "first class" in both arrangement and curriculum, the school received a telegram, congratulating teachers and students on receiving accreditation from the State. This good news arrived just days before the first graduation, much to the Sisters' delight. While preparations for this first commencement progressed, another great event was in prospect, namely, the Eucharistic Congress in Chicago. This event made a great impact on the first commencement of the First Catholic Slovak Girls High School. Accreditation from the State of Pennsylvania proved the Sisters' ability to provide their students with a fitting education in their new society, but what remained to be seen was whether or not the Sisters could live up to the task of preserving Slovak culture in America. Slovak American culture was to receive a fresh impetus by the Eucharistic Congress held in Chicago. Due to attend the Congress were four bishops from Slovakia. The presence of these Slovak bishops greatly excited the Slovak Americans and especially the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius, since through the influence of Bishop McDevitt arrangements were made to have these four bishops attend the Academy's first graduation. The date of the festivity was June 14, 1926. Under the guidance of Bishop McDevitt, who presided at the First Graduation ceremony, the entire Community and students assembled at the Convent's gate to welcome the visiting bishops. Upon the arrival of the Slovak bishops, who were traveling in European fashion, clad in cassock and purple cincture, the commencement proceeded with prayers, songs, and speeches. The speeches were delivered in Slovak, calling for a continuance of Catholic education. Bishop McDevitt's address underscored the advantages which the �SLOVAKIA 145 Slovak people can derive from a solid Catholic education. He also pointed out that this could be done because the American government stood to protect the religious rights of all American citizens. The theme of religious pluralism in America was carried further by the Senior Bishop from Slovakia in a speech that noted how this American government respects, upholds, and protects the religious liberty of the people who found refuge under her banner. Bishop Marian Blaha further cited the great accomplishments of the American Slovaks. Their ability to provide a Catholic education while preserving their mother tongue greatly impressed him. Then as an old Slovak proverb states, "Every perfect day must end even as the sweetest song" -this first commencement was no exception; it was concluded by a student chorale of inspirational Slovak songs.30 The first graduation was a significant milestone in the history of the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius. It was their first public manifestation of their educational standards and traditions. The graduation exercise presented a new phase in the mission of the Slovak Sisters. Their people realized that Danville would not only house a Convent and an Academy, but would be the center of genuine culture for the Slovaks in America. To attain a status combining a true Americanism with an appreciation of the spirit and traditions of their native land was the Community's desire.31 With this spirit of appreciation, encouraged by the sharp increase of applicants, new thoughts of building were entertained. But unlike before, the Slovak people, organizations and individuals alike, urged this step. These groups advised a general benefit drive for funds, alleging the time was ripe for such a movement since industrial conditions were favorable and the people were willing to donate.32 In the spring of 1927 Mother M. Pius presented a letter of the officers of the First Catholic Slovak Ladies' Union, another element of Slovak-American culture, announcing the drive for a building fund. When Mother M. Pius asked for their contribution, she was immediately promised five thousand dollars. The response elsewhere was the same. The Slovak newspapers pushed the drive and local groups competed in fund raising. This favorable reaction illustrates the Slovak-Americans' desire for an enlarged Slovak cultural center in America. �146 SLOVAKIA With the building fund well under way, Mother M. Pius contracted Architect Bernard Starr of Harrisburg, who in turn sought the assistance of Harry Sternfeld of Philadelphia. A spot for the new building was selected on the Villa Sacred Heart campus, and Mr. Sternfeld sketched a building dominated by a central tower. This initial plan brought eriticism for its "needless extravagance," but Mother M. Pius retained the plan as the answer to the needs of the Community, plus the cultural, educational and religious needs of the Slovak-American people. The Community wasted no time in beginning the new building. Ground was broken on May 23, 1929, in a ceremony which the local Danville Morning News described as an event to go down in Slovak history. 33 The speakers' program included representatives of the church, state, and Slovak national life. As the building progressed, the country entered the depression of the 1930's. By the time the building was completed, economic tension was beginning to be felt everywhere.34 With this in mind, Mother M. Pius avoided any elaborate dedication ceremony. This new building was made to catch the spirit of the past and to intepret it with a contemporaneous point of view in order to make it fit actual conditions.35 Its design was in accord with the ideals of the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius, who hoped to blend the past into a new, usable present. In a more practical manner the new building provided an institution solely devoted to the education of the Slovak people and the preserving of their culture. It was viewed as a national work, one that provided b roader limits and better accommodations which would produce greater results. 36 The local paper saw the building as a monument to the Slovak people of America, and considered it one of the local community's finest aspects.37 The Sisters moved into their new building in September of 1931. The following three years were quiet, filled with earnest activity toward the educational goals of the Community. This period ended with the significant year of 1934, the twenty-fifth anniversary of the Community's existence. In those twenty-five years the Community developed and established itself in a permanent Motherhouse, which in turn had developed the First Catholic Slovak Girls' High �SLOVAKIA 147 School, crowned by the magnificent new building. This had been done under three Superiors General-Mother Mary, Mother M. Emmanuel, Mother M. Pius-all of whom promoted the cultivation of the Slovak language and history, which, with religion, constitute the two outstanding characteristics of the Slovak Academy. Extra-curricular activities, like Fialky and Cyrilika-a society for fostering interest in Slovak journalism-as well as customs established for the practical study of Slovak, such as speaking Slovak all day every Saturday, and the annual observance of Slovak Week, acquired notice and approval. The observance of Slovak tradition gave this Academy a unique position in the field of American education.38 With a high spirit of celebration the Silver Jubilee of the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius commenced. The Jubilee marked still another turning point in the Community's history as it came at the close of Mother M. Pius' long administration. Her work finished laying a firm foundation which became the base for a promising era of new growth. MOTHER M. EMERENTIA, SS.C.M. (1934-1946) In this new period of the Community's history the work of the Academy advanced quietly, with gratifying results in the field of Slovak-American culture. When Mother M. Emerentia was elected Superior General in 1934, she encouraged Slovak interests and cultural projects like formal programs, dramatic productions, Slovak readings, folk song festivals and, above all, research and creative writing on Slovak topics. Mother M. Emerentia was also responsible for the compilation of Slovak language texts and hymnals used widely in Slovak elementary schools and parishes in America. The early years of Mother M. Emerentia's administration coincided with the greatest period of the depression. Though there was no drop in student enrollment, neither was there the marked increase that would have normally been the case.• These drawbacks, however, had advantages. The subdued quiet of the interval was conducive to a greater concentration on school work, both regular and extracurricular. Correspondence with students in Slovakia '' See enrollment figures; Table I. �148 SLOVAKIA was an activity greatly enjoyed by the students of St. Cyril Academy. It was also during these years that the school was favored by a number of distinguished visitors from Slovakia, including a delegation from the Slovak Institute of Arts and Sciences, a group of students from the Slovak unit of Pax Romana, plus numerous distinguished scholars, writers, and statesmen, including the Slovak martyr, Msgr. Joseph Tiso.39 When our country was drawn into war on December 8, 1941, the first care of the Motherhouse was directed toward the Sisters and their pupils in the parish schools. The Community placed its trust in God and His care of our country, and classes went on as usual. However, extracurricular activities were directed toward war needs. Beyond the prayers for peace, the Community and its students turned out quantities of knitted sweaters and helmets. They experienced the value of thrift by rationing food and collected all scraps such as fats, iron and paper. The Sisters also joined in relief efforts for their native land. An extensive relief project for the war sufferers in Slovakia was aided by the Community, which sent abroad numerous packages of relief materials. The motherhouse was a center for this organized relief work. The relief project continued in action even after the war, when Slovakia again was suppressed by a stronger force. Following a remarkably successful and flourishing six-year period of self-rule under the Presidency of Tiso, the Slovak government collapsed when victory came to Russia and the Allies. 40 With this victory Slovakia was overrun by the Communists. Their occupation of the country led to the execution of Msgr. Tiso, plus the silencing of many bishops and priests. The people of Slovakia remained in destitution; hence, the necessity for relief work to continue until the Iron Curtain cut off all communication. 41 The Communist occupation caused more refugees to seek freedom and sanctuary from Slovakia. As thousands came to America, the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius and their students enjoyed fresh contacts with persons of their fatherland. Priests and professional people willingly gave lectures to both the Sisters and the students, chiefly on conditions in Slovakia and on topics of Slovak history. �SLOVAKIA 149 Several high school students from Slovakia enrolled in the Academy, thus enriching the Slovak-American culture. MOTHER M. CRESCENTIA, SS.C.M. (1946-1958) While the Slovak-American tradition was being enriched during these post-war years, a new Superior General was elected, placing renewed importance on the educational aspects of the Academy. Mother M. Crescentia realized that during the earlier years the educational objectives could not be pursued as fully as desired since more urgent activities were at hand. In time, however, conditions improved, so that more and better organized work could be done in the field of teacher education. Mother M. Crescentia took advantage of this situation, arranging for more Sisters to take college courses in a greater variety of fields. With this renewed progress in the Sisters' personal educational ventures, activities in the Academy moved apace. The student enrollment at the Academy, which increased only to a minor extent after the depression, now began rapid growth. This growth of the Academy advanced steadily into the fifties, causing every available space within the Academy to be filled. It necessitated the building of Saint Philomena Hall to be used for students' living and classrooms. Also in the fifties, the Community worked for the founding of Father Jankola. They are Villa Saint Cyril in Highland Park, Illinois, and Maria Joseph Manor in Danville, Pennsylvania. By 1958 the Community had a new Superior General in the person of Mother M. Bernard. MOTHER M. BERNARD, SS.C.M. (1958-1970) The highlight of this decade was the observance of the Community's Golden Jubilee. It was climaxed by the celebration of a Roman-Slavonic Mass on the Villa campus in the presence of five thousand visitors from all parts of the country.42 It was the first Roman rite vernacular Mass ever offered on this continent. The increased enrollment and the large turnout for the Roman-Slavonic Mass indicates the strong support the Academy received from the Slovak-American people in its preserving of Slovak culture. The early sixties were also highlighted by a large celebration honoring another aspect of the Comunity's Slovak heritage. The year 1963 marked the eleven hundredth �150 SLOVAKIA anniversary of the arrival of SS. Cyril and Methodius among the Slovaks. In addition to the Community celebration in America, the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius participated in a week-long observance in Rome, involving numerous Slovak pilgrims, who had assembled there for the dedication of the Slovak Institute of SS. Cyril and Methodius, a seminary for the training of priests for Slovakia. THE JANKOLA LIBRARY The latter sixties and early seventies for St. Cyril Academy had been dominated by two cherished Slovak projects. First was the active cooperation with the Apostolate of the Slovak Institute of SS. Cyril and Methodius in Rome, begun during the 1963 pilgrimage. Second was the professional development of the Jankola Library at the Academy. This Library is a center of Slovak culture and learning for St. Cyril Academy and Slovak America. It is called Jankola Library in honor of the founder of the Community and promoter of Slovak-American culture, Father Matthew Jankola. The Library provides invaluable resources for study and research purposes, as well as literary works to enrich the Slovak spirit. Jankola Library contains over six thousand (6,000) fully catalogued items on its shelves with several hundred more reserved for further processing.43 Beyond just Slovak books this Library also promotes Slovak-American culture with its large collection of Slovak art. Included among its treasures are a large unusual map of Czecho-Slovakia, an artistically costumed mannequin representing the Slovak tradition, and a large, valuable collection of Slovak ceramic art, some embroidery and sizeable pieces of cutglass sent from Slovakia. This Library with its vast assortment of Slovak art is truly a tribute to Slovakia's culture. With Jankola Library as its Slovak center, SS. Cyril Academy still provides an excellent American education. It offers a wide range of courses, including four foreign languages.* Besides educating students for social living in America, the Academy can also train girls for a religious teaching life within its own Community. The Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius are presently teaching in parish schools and eight (8) high schools, including a boarding * Source listing of St. Cyril Academy. Table II. �151 SLOVAKIA school for girls. 0 Education of Slovak children continues to be the principal vocation of a Sister of SS. Cyril and Methodius. It is to these children that a Sister dedicates herseJf and hopes to preserve Slovakia's heritage. Today, the St. Cyril Academy is justifiably proud of tts accomplishments during the past fifty ( 50) years. Both the teaching Sisters and their students are fully educated in, and cognizant of, their dual heritage. The traditions and artifacts of Slovak culture have been preserved; while at the same time, each graduate is proud to be an American. St. Cyril Academy continues to revere its Slovak past. The Sisters continue to aid the suppressed people of Slovakia, but now this is done indirectly to the extent possible. It is the desire of the Sisters of the Academy to provide their countrymen with new hope of cultural freedom by showing them the accomplishments that have been possible in America. This Academy is rightly considered the center of Slovak culture in America. "" List of schools staffed by Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius. Table III. TABLE I Enrollment figures of St. Cyril Academy, Danville, Pa. Year 1925-26 1926-27 1927-28 1928-29 1929-30 1930-31 1931-32 1932-33 1933-34 1934-35 1935-36 1936-37 1937-38 1938-39 1939-40 1940-41 Total Number of Students 38 39 44 47 42 61 75 69 60 58 52 58 54 50 60 70 Year 1941-42 1942-43 1943-44 1944-45 1945-46 1946-47 1947-48 1948-49 1949-50 1950-51 1951-52 1952-53 1953-54 1954-55 1955-56 1956-57 Total Number of Students 66 55 55 69 91 96 90 107 112 109 123 138 148 153 157 180 Total Number Year of Students 1957-58 1958-59 1959-60 1960-61 1961-62 1962-63 1963-64 1964-65 1965-66 1966-67 1967-68 1968-69 1969-70 1970-71 1971-72 1972-73 181 175 162 182 202 195 202 171 156 178 120 108 104 101 108 106 �SLOVAKIA 152 TABLE II Curriculum of St. Cyril Academy FIRST YEAR Religion I English I Algebra I Intr. Physical Science Physical Education Chorus World Culture I Latin I Spanish I French I Slovak I Foods Art I Art Appreciation Music Appreciation Health Education Piano Interpretive Dance SECOND YEAR Religion II English II Geometry Biology Physical Education Chorus World Culture II Latin II French II Spanish II Slovak II Foods Clothing I Art II Piano Interpretive Dance THIRD YEAR Religion III English III Algebra II Chemistry Physical Education Chorus American Culture I Latin III Spanish III French III Slovak III Foods Advanced Clothing Art III Piano Interpretive Dance Typing I Stenography I �SLOVAKIA 153 FOURTH YEAR Religion IV English IV Business English Math 12 Advanced Biology Physical Education Chorus American Culture II Latin IV Spanish IV French IV Slovak IV Advanced Clothing Art IV Speech Piano Interpretive Dance Typing II Stenography II Bookkeeping Business Law TABLE III SCHOOLS STAFFED BY SIS'llEIBS OF SS. CYRIL AND METHODIUS Berwick, Pa. Bloomsburg, Pa. Binghamton, N. Y. Binghamton, N. Y. Bridgeport, Conn. Bridgeport, Pa. Charleston, S. C. Charleston, S. C. Chicago, Ill. East Vandergrift, Pa. Endicott, N. Y. Gary, Indiana Hazleton, Pa. Jessup, Pa. Lebanon, Pa. Luzerne, Pa. Nanticoke, Pa. New York, N. Y. Olyphant, Pa. Perth Amboy, N. J. Phoenixville, Pa. Pittston, Pa. Plymouth, Pa. Stratford, Conn. Swoyersville, Pa. Torrington, Conn. St. Mary's School St. Columba School SS. Cyril and Methodius School St. Ann's School SS. Cyril and Methodius School Mother of Sorrows School Blessed Sacrament School Nativity School SS. Simon and Jude School Holy Trinity School St. Joseph School Holy Trinity School St. Joseph School St. Michael's School SS. Cyril and Methodius School St. John Nepomucene School St. Joseph School St. John Nepomucene School Holy Ghost School Holy Trinity School Sacred Heart of Jesus School St. John Baptist School St. Stephen School Sacred Name of Jesus School Holy Trinity School Sacred Heart of Jesus School �SLOVAKIA 154 Immaculate Conception School Sacred Heart of Jesus School Holy Trinity School Whiting, Ind. Wilkes-Barre, Pa. Yonkers, N. Y. IDGH SCHOOLS Andrean High School Dunmore Catholic High School Lourdes H. S. Lebanon Catholic H. S. Kingston Catholic Central Catholic Central H. S. Catholic Central (St. Pius X) Blessed Sacrament Academy St. Cyril Academy 1. Gary, Ind. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Dunmore, Pa. Shamokin, Pa. Lebanon, Pa. Kingston, Pa. Charleston, S. C. Pottstown, Pa. Yonkers, N. Y. Danville, Pa. FOOTNOTES 1) David F . Bowers, "Social and Cultural Impact" in For eign Influences in American Life (Princeton, 1944) , p. 1. 2) Emily Balch, Our Slavic Fellow Citizens (New York, 1969), p. 86. 3) The Slovak Nation, Manuscript in Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius Community Archives, Danville, Pennsylvania. 4 ) Ibid. 5) Education in Slovakia, Manuscript in SS. C. M Community Archives, composition by M . I. Angelovic, pp. 88. 6) Ibid. 7) Ear liest Immigration, Ms. in SS. C. M. Community Archives. 8 ) Emily Balch, Our Slavic Fellow Citizens, p . 108. 9 ) Earliest Immigration Ms. 10) Francis Brown and Joseph Roucek, "Czechoslovak American" in One America (New York, 1946), p. 147. 11) In 1899, there were eight Slovak priests in America. Earliest Immigration Ms. 12) The Slovaks divide their settlement in America into three Ages: Church Age, School Age, and Institution Age. Ibid. 13) Daniel Tanzone, "The Slovak Experience in Contemporary America" in Slovakia (Middletown, Pa., 1972), p. 129. 14) Francis Brown and Joseph Roucek, Our Racial and National Minorities (New York, 1937), p. 602. 15) Timothy Smith, "New Approaches to the History of Immigration in 20th Century America", in The America Historical Review LXXI, (July 1966), p. 127. �155 SLOVAKIA 16) Contributions of Reverend Matthew Jankola to Slovak Catholic Education in the United States, Ms. in SS. C. M. Community Archives, composition by Sister M. Consuela Gregorovic, p. 14. 17) Ibid. , p. 3. 18 ) Earliest Plans, Ms. in SS. C. M. Community Archives. 19) Ibid . 20) Ibid. 21) The girls wer,e Mary Mihalik, Mary Bartek and Mary Pauly. 22) Father Jankola, Ms., pp. 38-46. 23) Philosophy of Saint Cyril Academy, Ms. 24) Francis Brown and Joseph Roucek, Our America, p. 501. 25) The Educational Activities of the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius in the United States, Ms. in SS. C. M. C-Ommunity Archives, composition by Sister Maria Berchmans Teplicky, p. 4. 26) Danville, Ms. in SS. C. M. Community Archives. 27) Ibid. 28) Educational Expansion, Ms. in SS. C.M. Community Archives. 29) Josephine M. Marcinko, "A Little Historical Sketch" in Fialky (Danville, 1927), p. 23. 30) Edttcational Expansion, Ms. 31) Preparing to Build, Ms. in SS. C. M. Community Archives. 32) Ibid. 33) Morning News, (Danville, May 23, 1929), p. 6. 34 ) Brief History of the Congregation of the Sisters of Saints Cyril and Methodius, Ms. in SS. C. M. Community Archives, composition by Mother M. Emerentia Petrasek, p. 85. 35) Fialky, (Danville, 1931), p. 82. 36) Brief History, Ms., Petrasek, p. 85. 37) Morning News, (Danville, June 8, 1931), p. 4. 38) Brief History, Ms., Petrasek, pp. 88-90. 39 ) Ibid. , p. 108. 40 ) Joseph Pauco, Slovakia, pp. 26-28. 41) Brief History, Ms., Petrasek, p. 125. 42) Sisters of Saints Cyril and Methodius, Jankola Book, (Danville, 1972) , p. 90. 43) SS. C. M., Jankola Book, p. 108. � 132 SLOVAKIA William W a g n e r : The Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius and the Preservation of Slovak Culture in America The research involved in writing the history of an ethnic teaching community presented me with two problems. First, there are relatively few works completed on American ethnic groups, including the Slovak Americans. Secondly, the past of this particular teaching Community, the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius, has been largely recorded only by the Sisters of that Community. Therefore, my research on the Slovak past ( still predominantly written in the Slovak tongue) and my compiling of the Community's history were very dependent on the writings of the Sisters of the Community. I believe my work is objective, because of the limitation of my knowledge of the Community's religious life, thus removing me from a biased influence. All in all, I attempted to deal with this subject in such a manner as to present an honest view of the history and purpose surrounding the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius. My appreciation is extended to Reverend Mother M. Valeria Romanchek and special thanks are expressed to the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius for their helpful cooperation and endless assistance and guidance throughout the researching of this paper. I dedicate this history to Reverend Mother M. Emerentia Petrasek, former Community historian, upon whose research of the Slovak past and the tracing of the Community's growth I so heavily relied. THE ROOTS OF SLOVAK CULTURE ARE CENTURIES OLD The United States is the most important immigrant receiving country in the world. Between 1850 and 1930 no less than thirty-eight million people settled within our borders. 1 Although early in this immigration period many �SLOVAKIA 133 newcomers strove to sever ties with the old world, a sizeable portion continued to look reverently upon their past. The Slovak American, who journeyed to this country primarily in the later wave of European immigration, were such a group. The Slovaks feared the loss of their native culture to a new growing American culture because their past history consisted of repeated attempts at such assimilation. But also in America the Slovak hoped for the chance and the right to have his own life. The Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius are a teaching community dedicated to preserving and promoting this American Slovak culture. Because one-third of all Slovaks live in America,2 the Sisters' preservation of their culture is extremely important to the overall existence of the Slovak people as a national entity. The Slovak people are a small part of the Slavic family found on the European continent. Ethnologists place the Slovaks in the Western Slavic group, which also includes Poles, Czechs and Moravians. Commonly but erroneously the Slovaks are considered only a part of the "Czechoslovak Nation," but during the ten centuries of Slovak history, the Slovaks did not live in a common state with the Czechs until 1918. Little is known of the early Slavs. Ancient Greeks and Romans made contact, but left few records. Early recorded Slovak history tells of struggles with Asiatic tribes, particularly the Avari to whom the Slovaks were subjected for almost a century. The subjection was followed by the influence and reign of the Franks. 3 The early Slovak was pagan and war-like. He had many customs but few laws. He was chiefly agricultural and believed in various superstitions. This type of religion held fast until the ninth century when Prince Pribina, the first direct Slovak ruler of Slavic birth, established the first Slavic Christian church. Pribina's efforts to christianize his people met with little success, largely because he was dependent on Frankish missionaries whose language his people could not understand. 4 In 846 Pribina's court surrendered to Rastislav, a skillful warrior, who succeeded in winning independence from the Franks. Rastislav sought religious as well as political freedom. In the year 863 Prince Rastislav invited the two �134 SLOVAKIA holy brothers, Constantine and Methodius, to come from Constantinople and work among the Slovak people. These Byzantine missionaries found it necessary to invent an alphabet for the Slavs, so that the Holy Scriptures could be given to them in their own tongue. After having the use of the Slavonic tongue in Western Liturgy sanctioned by the Roman Pope, Methodius returned to Slovakia as a bishop. Constantine meanwhile had died in Rome in 869 , after entering a monastery there and assuming the name of Cyril. By means of their translations of the Holy Scriptures Constantine and Methodius laid the foundations of Slavic literature. The introduction of schools went hand in hand with this introduction and spread of Christianity in Slovakia.5 Archbishop Methodius continued his teaching and missionary activity until his death in 885. That period of political independence for Slovakia lasted but a short time. Slovakia was soon incorporated into the State of Hungary, which during medieval times consisted of various nations. During this period known as 'The Thousand Years of Oppression', the Slovaks' civil life declined and thus their national consciousness was under a cloud. The Lutheran Reformation, the Turkish invasion of Hungary in 1526 and the Counter-Reformation led by the Jesuits all had varying effects on Slovak education. But it was not until the suppression of the Jesuit Order in 1773 and the state control of education under Empress Maria Theresa, that the Slovak education was directed by any one source. The State of Hungary considered it its duty to provide for the education of its people, hoping to make the power of the state felt in every phase of life.6 The reigns of Maria Theresa and Joseph II saw an expansion of education and also an attempt at Germanization of the Slovaks. Joseph's attempt at Germanization was significantly challenged in 1847 and replaced by Hungarian Magyarization. Whether Germanization or Magyarization the NonHungarian Nationalities' interests were ignored. In 1867 the 'Austro-Hungarian Compromise' touched off rapid action to create a unitary Hungary by Magyarizing all departments of public life, especially the schools. The aim of this policy was the complete assimilation and �SLOVAKIA 135 conversion of Slovakia into a purely Magyar Province of Hungary. Since language is the chief symbol of nationality, the Slovak language was suppressed. Poor economically and having their national ideals and traditions submerged, the Slovaks began seeking a new way to improve their life. U.S. SHINES WITH HOPE FOR SLOVAK IMMIGRANTS Immigration held the dream of a better life. The heaviest immigration of the Slovaks occurred between 1890 and 1900.7 It must be stressed that the majority of immigrants came to America for economic reasons, few peasants ever left East Europe during this period due to political reasons, though politics did cause many not to return. 8 The first immigrants were usually the fathers of the Slovak families, hoping for quick economic gain, and a subsequent return to their native land and families. But once in America few immigrants returned. They found employment that significantly raised their living standard. Though in a strange, sometimes hostile land, the immigrant recognized the ideals of freedom that he was denied in his homeland. As thoughts of returning to their native land diminished, the pioneering immigrants sent for their families to join them in their adopted country. 9 Once the immigrant families had situated themselves in this new land, they were faced with problems of adjustment. The majority of the Slovak immigrants settled in the industrial East, seeking employment with the mining industries, particularly in Pennsylvania. Since the closing of the American frontier the greatest means of livelihood for new immigrants was in these rising industrial areas.10 As the economic necessity of making a living diminished, the new Americans turned to their social needs. Subsequently as the new settlements became more permanent, these Slovak immigrants turned to their religious needs. They began by building community parishes, while searching for Slovak priests who were few in number in this time of early immigration.11 The churches provided a common bond upon which were built beneficial organizations, such as the organizations of the First Catholic Slovak Union known as Jednota. It was the purpose of these beneficial groups to locate and unite the scattered elements �136 SLOVAKIA of American Slovaks. Unity was usually provided through the weekly Slovak newspapers. EDUCATION AL ASPIRATIONS OF AMERICAN SLOVAKS Upon completion of the drive to build parishes the Slovaks had finished with what they call the Church Age of their settlement in America. 12 Having established themselves within their own community, they were faced with the task of joining the larger American community. Obviously, they needed to learn the English language and familiarize themselves with American customs. It was over this need for education that friction developed. On the one hand the immigrant desired to be accepted in this new environment; yet on the other, he also desired to preserve his own cultural past. The first generation immigrant was taught English usually by his employer and did not have his culture challenged, thus resisting assimilation. 13 It was the education of successive generations that presented the problem of cultural alienation. The apparent choice in education was to enroll their offsprings in public schools in order to help them adjust to this new American Life. But education in the public schools posed severe cultural hazards. The public school taught American subjects with American values. The foreign children were judged by American cultural standards of conduct. In this position the foreign children were caught between their old culture and the new American culture. This had definite results: A limited number abandoned their embarrassing heritage-to accept American standards; a larger number sought to forget their traditional background regarding them as inferior-lead ing to family disruption and disintegration . Finally, the largest group failed to adjust to school and left feeling disregarded, discouraged and inferior .14 The public school encouraged the disintegration of Slovak families. The Slovaks had successfully resisted attempts of assimilation by stronger cultures in the past, but now they faced the task of resisting assimilation in a foreign land. To be assimilated meant the destruction of their culture. The chief means of assimilation was through education, as was attempted in their past history. Though it was largely an unconscious process by which America imposed its own standard of ideals on the new- �SLOVAKIA 137 comers, the public schools were succeeding in imposing a common English culture upon the children of many nationalities. 15 By treating the immigrant as a native the public school disregarded his culture and background. What was needed was a means to hand down a suitable portion of his native culture in order to provide a past, thus avoiding an identity crisis. The public school system could not provide this necessity in full. What was needed was a new system that could teach their children good American citizenship and preserve in them a profitable appreciation of the language, culture and tradition of their forefathers, while still providing a sufficient academic education. Fearing further disintegration of their culture, the Slovaks began searching and discussing alternatives in the development of Slovak America. REV. MATTHEW JANKOLA ASSUMES LEADERSHIP A leader in this search for a solution to the American Slovak's educational needs was Father Matthew Jankola. He spent much time studying his fellow Slovaks in their new surroundings. Early in his life he wrote: "We have a serious problem, the problem of educating our children according to American methods, and for American citizenship, without, however, destroying their cultural character and their cultural traditions." 16 With this attitude Father Jankola formed an Association of Priests in 1903 to consider the question of providing for the Catholic education of Slovak youth. Father Jankola began his studies for the priesthood in his native Slovakia. But under pressure from both the Hungarian civil and ecclesiastical authorities, which frowned apon Slovak devotion to Saints Cyril and Methodius, and the fostering of Slovak nationalism, Father Jankola sought refuge in America. 17 He arrived in 1893, and finished his studies at Saint Bonaventure's Seminary in Allegheny, New York. As a priest Father Jankola dedicated himself to the problem of cultural disintegration of his people, begun in Hungary and now continuing in America. It was on behalf of this couse that Father Jankola directed his early writings. When considering education, Father Jankola looked to its broader meaning of culture, rather than its narrow sense of formal schooling. He felt �138 SLOVAKIA that next to the parish church must be a school, because without Catholic schools the Catholic Church had no future, no assured existence. Father Jankola saw the parish church alone and unaided by a Catholic school as but a "feeble barrier" against the rapid onrush of worldliness and a too sudden Americanization for Slovak youth. Further, to preserve the Slovak national character, the children must be educated in Slovak schools with religious principles. Father Jankola held the schools as helpful for religious training, and necessary also to preserve nationality. In Father Jankola's mind the church directed religion, not language; for the teaching of language, which fosters the national spirit, teachers and schools were needed.18 In this spirit Father Jankola called for the establishment of schools, staffed by Slovak Sisters. His initial contact with the Slovak people on this project was done through the newspapers, such as the weekly Jednota. Many attempts were made · to secure Slavic Sisters, but to no avail. This was a time of heavy immigration causing the demand for Sisters in America to be very great. Confronted with the problem of no available Sisters for his project, Father Jankola suggested the possibility of founding a Religious Community for the education of Slovak youth. The suggestion was received favorably, so Father Jankola sought Slovak candidates to train in an American Sisterhood, which would later branch off into an independent congregation as their numbers grew. A Czech Benedictine Community of Sisters expressed willingness to receive and educate Slovak girls. Father Jankola secured three aspirants who were sent to the Czech Sisters in Chicago. But this project failed when the girls became discontented and wished to return to Pennsylvania. Their return was hard on Father Jankola, but their young age and the great distances they had traveled made him sympathetic. 19 Father Jankola did not abandon his project. Instead, upon further study he came in contact with Mother Mary Cyril at Mount St. Mary's Seminary in Scranton, Penna. After considering Father Jankola's plan for a parochial school system under Slovak Sisters, Mother Mary Cyril agreed to accept the young girls. The girls entered Mount Saint Mary's Seminary in November of 1903, to learn the �SLOVAKIA 139 principles of religious life and live according to its Rules. 20 While preparing the Slovak girls for religious teaching and guidance under Mother Mary Cyril and the Sisters of the Immaculate Heart of Mary, Father Jankola began a fund to further his project. He established "St. Anthony's Treasury" which received donations from parishes, societies and individuals. A TEACHING COMMUNITY OF SLOVAK SISTERS IS BORN On September 11, 1909, the first Slovak girls pronounced their religious vows, 21 marking the birth of the Sisters of Saints Cyril and Methodius, honoring the Saints who gave Slovakia its faith and culture. Father Jankola noted that this was the founding of the first Slovak religious sisterhood that the Slovaks ever had, either in Europe or America. At the birth of this new Order Father Jankola set down four principal reasons for its conception: 1) Educate Slovak children 2) Care for Slovak orphans and aged 3) Preserve Slovak culture 4) Pray for the return of Slav schismatics.22 Father Jankola's first principle has been the primary apostolate of the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius. The parish school has always constituted the particular vocation of the Sisters. The Sisters set themselves the traditional objective of education in a Christian spirit to develop and train to the fullest the powers and capacities of a young student's mind and body. They also strove to inculcate principles of true patriotism and citizenship in order to develop enlightened, conscientious American citizens, imbued with Christian attitudes of justice and charity, peace and order, which they feel are the main components for social living. As Slovak American teachers, they endeavored to preserve some of the traditions and the cultural heritage of the Slovak people among the students of Slovak parentage, and to foster in all students an interest and respect for the varied cultures and attitudes that make up the Brotherhood of Man. 23 Through such recognition and acceptance of foreign natures, characteristics, and personalities built from a different culture, the Sisters sought to achieve cultural democracy. To accept cultural democracy means to accept �140 SLOVAKIA a technique of social adjustment that will make possible the preservation of the best of all cultures. 24 This was the desire of the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius. To accept, as well as to be accepted, is the condition for effective pluralism in a nation. Cultural pluralism in the American educational system has existed because we are a multi-cultural, multi-racial, and multi-lingual nation. It was thought that the public school system would Americanize these foreign elements into the melting pot of uniform American culture. The concept of American culture as a mosaic has been the reason for, and the challenge of, the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius. For six years this newly established Community of Sisters continued under the guidance of the Sisters of the Immaculate Heart of Mary. It was on August 4, 1915, that the Community had its first elections in which Sister Mary (Mihalik) was elected the first Superior General. During this period the Sisters opened their first school to educate children in the Sacred Heart of Jesus Parish in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, marking the beginning of the educational work of the Community. Before this group could be firmly established Mother Mary died in 1916. Her successor was Mother M. Emmanuel whose greatest achievement involved the establishment of a suitable, permanent Motherhouse.25 MOTHER M. EMMANUEL, SS.C.M. (1916-1922) The Sisters had been temporarily situated in Middletown, Pennsylvania. While in this location, Mother M. Emmanuel sought a permanent Motherhouse. She was informed by Reverend Julius Foin about a large tract of land with an old mansion in Danville. Through Bishop Philip R. McDevitt, Mother M. Emmanuel made contact with a local attorney, Ralph Kisner, and was informed that the 'Castle Grove' property was for sale. The Mansion site proper, containing thirteen acres-forty rooms, eleven bathrooms-finished throughout with hardwood, was a relic of the passing iron industry in Danville. There was also an adjoining farm with one hundred thirty-three acres and numerous outbuildings. This enormous dwelling was perfect for Mother M. Emmanuel's aims, but the price was beyond the Community's ability to pay. Upon inspection of this property, Mother M. Emmanuel found that the Mansion had stood �SLOVAKIA 141 vacant for fourteen years, needing numerous repairs. With this in mind she made a meager offer. The actual owner was in France, causing slow communication. Price remained the hindrance as Mother M. Emmanuel would not raise her offer. In March of 1919, Attorney Kisner informed the Sisters that the owner had agreed to drastically reduce his price to meet the Community's needs. Now that the Community's prayers for a Motherhouse had been answered, only the necessary funds for purchase remained an obstacle. The Sisters had saved about half of the required amount, but had discouraging experiences in acquiring the rest. This was the critical period during World War I, causing excess funds to be scarce.26 After futile appeals to the citizens and banks of the Wilkes-Barre area, a heavily populated Slovak community, Mother M. Emmanuel turned to the Danville National Bank for a loan. This bank considered the risk minimal and granted the loan at low interest. With payment secured, the Sisters concluded the 'Castle Grove' deal in June of 1919, and began preparations for the transfer of the Motherhouse from Middletown to its permanent home in Danville. Throughout the summer months in 1919, the Sisters worked to put the house and grounds in order. Within this new convent the Community prepared for the continuance of religious training for its Sisters and converted one of the two ballrooms into a chapel. Holy Mass was first celebrated on Sunday morning, July 6, 1919. With the approach of Autumn all but the Sisters in training took leave of 'Sacred Heart Villa,' as the grounds had been named, to resume their duties in the parish schools. During the War Years the demand for Sisters in parochial schools became very great. The war and the influenza epidemic strongly limited the work of the Sisters.27 As this situation relaxed in the summer of 1920, Mother M. Emmanuel arranged classes for the Sisters to improve their educational resources. The educational progress of the Community was under the direction of the Sisters from Marywood. This was being continued by Mother M. Emmanuel who sought also to further the Community's material progress. She was engaged in soliciting funds from the homes of Slovaks to pay off the Sister's bank loan. Mother M. Emmanuel promoted thrift within her �142 SLOVAKIA Community because she felt the Community would be more secure in the American culture when free from debt. Mother M. Emmanuel's term expired in 1922. She had directed this young Sisterhood through its pioneering days, giving it shelter, resources and existence through the war years. Mother M. Emmanuel's main contribution was, of course, the establishment of the Motherhouse that was to become the center of Slovak culture in America. MOTHER M. PIUS, SS.C.M. OPENS ST. CYRIL ACADEMY IN 1922 By the choice of the Sisters, Sister M. Pius was elected the third Superior General. Bishop McDevitt, who supervised the election, also commented on the importance of the Sisters' studies because someday the civil authorities would require that every teacher must be certified by the State of Pennsylvania. Certification would be important in having the Community accepted as a competent educational institution in American society. Now that they had an established center, the Sisters could begin to focus their educational mission with greater assurance. The Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius had always wished for the establishment of a high school and boarding school for girls. Presently, they were only employed in elementary education. This idea for an institution of higher education for their own children was popular among the Slovaks. In addition to the regularly prescribed American branches, they wanted their offsprings to be taught the mother tongue and trained to appreciate the historical and cultural traditions of their nation. 28 To this wish Mother M. Pius responded. Mother M. Pius expressed a desire to have an official from the Department of Public Instruction in Harrisburg come to Danville to give a lecture on the requirements of the State, regarding the equipment and function of a high school and its accreditation. In August of 1922, Doctor Edward Hoban arrived from Harrisburg and explained such subjects as extension courses, summer school, teacher certificates, teaching of foreign languages, importance of teaching citizenship, the teaching of historical and social studies, and the necessity of physical education. This lecture assured the commencement of preparation for a high school on American terms. �SLOVAKIA 143 The following week an advertisement appeared in the Slovak newspapers stating that the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius had equipped part of their convent at Danville as a boarding school for girls. To conform to American standards the equipment of the high school called for two very important departments -the Library and the Laboratory for the Sciences. Both of these were begun with the opening of the school. Books acquired were those recommended by the Department o! Education. Also a large selection of Catholic and Slovak books supplemented the Community's aim of a multicultural education. In all, nineteen pupils attended the first year of the First Catholic Slovak Girls High School, indicating a desire on the part of the Slovaks to have their children educated in a Slovak, as well as an American atmosphere. Towards the close of the first year in the spring of 1923, a small group of students ventured into the school's first extra-curricular activity. These girls formed a Literary Society in which they compiled a little booklet of essays, stories, and poems. Under Mother M. Pius' encouragement this activity continued, resulting in the first issue of the bi-lingual (Slovak and American) school magazine, Fialky (Violets). The Fialky were thereafter issued semi-annually until 1940 and then annually until 1970, when it ceased publication. During the summer vacation Mother M. Pius encouraged the Sisters toward further studies, hoping to improve their competence as teachers. She was anxious to secure state certification for as many Sisters as could qualify. Now that the Community was engaged in all levels of education, Mother M. Pius wished to secure them within the American educational system through accreditation. The Academy's opening in the second year exposed space problems as enrollment grew. Mother Pius expressed the need for a strong building fund and enacted new collection drives among the Slovak people. The number of students steadily increased into the third and fourth year.• With the fourth year the need for accredition increased as the first graduation approached. The school was informed that the State Representatives would make an official inspection at the school year's end. That June, just a week before graduation, the State �144 SLOVAKIA Inspector arrived and spent a day inspecting the school, interviewing both the staff and the students. The State Representative, Doctor Pentz, found the Slovak students being educated and trained in all that the modern high schools offered, and in their Religion and mother tongue as well. To this he expressed his satisfaction, commenting on the orderly and methodological way in which the different departments were being conducted. 29 After Dr. Pentz reported the Academy as "first class" in both arrangement and curriculum, the school received a telegram, congratulating teachers and students on receiving accreditation from the State. This good news arrived just days before the first graduation, much to the Sisters' delight. While preparations for this first commencement progressed, another great event was in prospect, namely, the Eucharistic Congress in Chicago. This event made a great impact on the first commencement of the First Catholic Slovak Girls High School. Accreditation from the State of Pennsylvania proved the Sisters' ability to provide their students with a fitting education in their new society, but what remained to be seen was whether or not the Sisters could live up to the task of preserving Slovak culture in America. Slovak American culture was to receive a fresh impetus by the Eucharistic Congress held in Chicago. Due to attend the Congress were four bishops from Slovakia. The presence of these Slovak bishops greatly excited the Slovak Americans and especially the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius, since through the influence of Bishop McDevitt arrangements were made to have these four bishops attend the Academy's first graduation. The date of the festivity was June 14, 1926. Under the guidance of Bishop McDevitt, who presided at the First Graduation ceremony, the entire Community and students assembled at the Convent's gate to welcome the visiting bishops. Upon the arrival of the Slovak bishops, who were traveling in European fashion, clad in cassock and purple cincture, the commencement proceeded with prayers, songs, and speeches. The speeches were delivered in Slovak, calling for a continuance of Catholic education. Bishop McDevitt's address underscored the advantages which the �SLOVAKIA 145 Slovak people can derive from a solid Catholic education. He also pointed out that this could be done because the American government stood to protect the religious rights of all American citizens. The theme of religious pluralism in America was carried further by the Senior Bishop from Slovakia in a speech that noted how this American government respects, upholds, and protects the religious liberty of the people who found refuge under her banner. Bishop Marian Blaha further cited the great accomplishments of the American Slovaks. Their ability to provide a Catholic education while preserving their mother tongue greatly impressed him. Then as an old Slovak proverb states, "Every perfect day must end even as the sweetest song" -this first commencement was no exception; it was concluded by a student chorale of inspirational Slovak songs.30 The first graduation was a significant milestone in the history of the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius. It was their first public manifestation of their educational standards and traditions. The graduation exercise presented a new phase in the mission of the Slovak Sisters. Their people realized that Danville would not only house a Convent and an Academy, but would be the center of genuine culture for the Slovaks in America. To attain a status combining a true Americanism with an appreciation of the spirit and traditions of their native land was the Community's desire.31 With this spirit of appreciation, encouraged by the sharp increase of applicants, new thoughts of building were entertained. But unlike before, the Slovak people, organizations and individuals alike, urged this step. These groups advised a general benefit drive for funds, alleging the time was ripe for such a movement since industrial conditions were favorable and the people were willing to donate.32 In the spring of 1927 Mother M. Pius presented a letter of the officers of the First Catholic Slovak Ladies' Union, another element of Slovak-American culture, announcing the drive for a building fund. When Mother M. Pius asked for their contribution, she was immediately promised five thousand dollars. The response elsewhere was the same. The Slovak newspapers pushed the drive and local groups competed in fund raising. This favorable reaction illustrates the Slovak-Americans' desire for an enlarged Slovak cultural center in America. �146 SLOVAKIA With the building fund well under way, Mother M. Pius contracted Architect Bernard Starr of Harrisburg, who in turn sought the assistance of Harry Sternfeld of Philadelphia. A spot for the new building was selected on the Villa Sacred Heart campus, and Mr. Sternfeld sketched a building dominated by a central tower. This initial plan brought eriticism for its "needless extravagance," but Mother M. Pius retained the plan as the answer to the needs of the Community, plus the cultural, educational and religious needs of the Slovak-American people. The Community wasted no time in beginning the new building. Ground was broken on May 23, 1929, in a ceremony which the local Danville Morning News described as an event to go down in Slovak history. 33 The speakers' program included representatives of the church, state, and Slovak national life. As the building progressed, the country entered the depression of the 1930's. By the time the building was completed, economic tension was beginning to be felt everywhere.34 With this in mind, Mother M. Pius avoided any elaborate dedication ceremony. This new building was made to catch the spirit of the past and to intepret it with a contemporaneous point of view in order to make it fit actual conditions.35 Its design was in accord with the ideals of the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius, who hoped to blend the past into a new, usable present. In a more practical manner the new building provided an institution solely devoted to the education of the Slovak people and the preserving of their culture. It was viewed as a national work, one that provided b roader limits and better accommodations which would produce greater results. 36 The local paper saw the building as a monument to the Slovak people of America, and considered it one of the local community's finest aspects.37 The Sisters moved into their new building in September of 1931. The following three years were quiet, filled with earnest activity toward the educational goals of the Community. This period ended with the significant year of 1934, the twenty-fifth anniversary of the Community's existence. In those twenty-five years the Community developed and established itself in a permanent Motherhouse, which in turn had developed the First Catholic Slovak Girls' High �SLOVAKIA 147 School, crowned by the magnificent new building. This had been done under three Superiors General-Mother Mary, Mother M. Emmanuel, Mother M. Pius-all of whom promoted the cultivation of the Slovak language and history, which, with religion, constitute the two outstanding characteristics of the Slovak Academy. Extra-curricular activities, like Fialky and Cyrilika-a society for fostering interest in Slovak journalism-as well as customs established for the practical study of Slovak, such as speaking Slovak all day every Saturday, and the annual observance of Slovak Week, acquired notice and approval. The observance of Slovak tradition gave this Academy a unique position in the field of American education.38 With a high spirit of celebration the Silver Jubilee of the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius commenced. The Jubilee marked still another turning point in the Community's history as it came at the close of Mother M. Pius' long administration. Her work finished laying a firm foundation which became the base for a promising era of new growth. MOTHER M. EMERENTIA, SS.C.M. (1934-1946) In this new period of the Community's history the work of the Academy advanced quietly, with gratifying results in the field of Slovak-American culture. When Mother M. Emerentia was elected Superior General in 1934, she encouraged Slovak interests and cultural projects like formal programs, dramatic productions, Slovak readings, folk song festivals and, above all, research and creative writing on Slovak topics. Mother M. Emerentia was also responsible for the compilation of Slovak language texts and hymnals used widely in Slovak elementary schools and parishes in America. The early years of Mother M. Emerentia's administration coincided with the greatest period of the depression. Though there was no drop in student enrollment, neither was there the marked increase that would have normally been the case.• These drawbacks, however, had advantages. The subdued quiet of the interval was conducive to a greater concentration on school work, both regular and extracurricular. Correspondence with students in Slovakia '' See enrollment figures; Table I. �148 SLOVAKIA was an activity greatly enjoyed by the students of St. Cyril Academy. It was also during these years that the school was favored by a number of distinguished visitors from Slovakia, including a delegation from the Slovak Institute of Arts and Sciences, a group of students from the Slovak unit of Pax Romana, plus numerous distinguished scholars, writers, and statesmen, including the Slovak martyr, Msgr. Joseph Tiso.39 When our country was drawn into war on December 8, 1941, the first care of the Motherhouse was directed toward the Sisters and their pupils in the parish schools. The Community placed its trust in God and His care of our country, and classes went on as usual. However, extracurricular activities were directed toward war needs. Beyond the prayers for peace, the Community and its students turned out quantities of knitted sweaters and helmets. They experienced the value of thrift by rationing food and collected all scraps such as fats, iron and paper. The Sisters also joined in relief efforts for their native land. An extensive relief project for the war sufferers in Slovakia was aided by the Community, which sent abroad numerous packages of relief materials. The motherhouse was a center for this organized relief work. The relief project continued in action even after the war, when Slovakia again was suppressed by a stronger force. Following a remarkably successful and flourishing six-year period of self-rule under the Presidency of Tiso, the Slovak government collapsed when victory came to Russia and the Allies. 40 With this victory Slovakia was overrun by the Communists. Their occupation of the country led to the execution of Msgr. Tiso, plus the silencing of many bishops and priests. The people of Slovakia remained in destitution; hence, the necessity for relief work to continue until the Iron Curtain cut off all communication. 41 The Communist occupation caused more refugees to seek freedom and sanctuary from Slovakia. As thousands came to America, the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius and their students enjoyed fresh contacts with persons of their fatherland. Priests and professional people willingly gave lectures to both the Sisters and the students, chiefly on conditions in Slovakia and on topics of Slovak history. �SLOVAKIA 149 Several high school students from Slovakia enrolled in the Academy, thus enriching the Slovak-American culture. MOTHER M. CRESCENTIA, SS.C.M. (1946-1958) While the Slovak-American tradition was being enriched during these post-war years, a new Superior General was elected, placing renewed importance on the educational aspects of the Academy. Mother M. Crescentia realized that during the earlier years the educational objectives could not be pursued as fully as desired since more urgent activities were at hand. In time, however, conditions improved, so that more and better organized work could be done in the field of teacher education. Mother M. Crescentia took advantage of this situation, arranging for more Sisters to take college courses in a greater variety of fields. With this renewed progress in the Sisters' personal educational ventures, activities in the Academy moved apace. The student enrollment at the Academy, which increased only to a minor extent after the depression, now began rapid growth. This growth of the Academy advanced steadily into the fifties, causing every available space within the Academy to be filled. It necessitated the building of Saint Philomena Hall to be used for students' living and classrooms. Also in the fifties, the Community worked for the founding of Father Jankola. They are Villa Saint Cyril in Highland Park, Illinois, and Maria Joseph Manor in Danville, Pennsylvania. By 1958 the Community had a new Superior General in the person of Mother M. Bernard. MOTHER M. BERNARD, SS.C.M. (1958-1970) The highlight of this decade was the observance of the Community's Golden Jubilee. It was climaxed by the celebration of a Roman-Slavonic Mass on the Villa campus in the presence of five thousand visitors from all parts of the country.42 It was the first Roman rite vernacular Mass ever offered on this continent. The increased enrollment and the large turnout for the Roman-Slavonic Mass indicates the strong support the Academy received from the Slovak-American people in its preserving of Slovak culture. The early sixties were also highlighted by a large celebration honoring another aspect of the Comunity's Slovak heritage. The year 1963 marked the eleven hundredth �150 SLOVAKIA anniversary of the arrival of SS. Cyril and Methodius among the Slovaks. In addition to the Community celebration in America, the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius participated in a week-long observance in Rome, involving numerous Slovak pilgrims, who had assembled there for the dedication of the Slovak Institute of SS. Cyril and Methodius, a seminary for the training of priests for Slovakia. THE JANKOLA LIBRARY The latter sixties and early seventies for St. Cyril Academy had been dominated by two cherished Slovak projects. First was the active cooperation with the Apostolate of the Slovak Institute of SS. Cyril and Methodius in Rome, begun during the 1963 pilgrimage. Second was the professional development of the Jankola Library at the Academy. This Library is a center of Slovak culture and learning for St. Cyril Academy and Slovak America. It is called Jankola Library in honor of the founder of the Community and promoter of Slovak-American culture, Father Matthew Jankola. The Library provides invaluable resources for study and research purposes, as well as literary works to enrich the Slovak spirit. Jankola Library contains over six thousand (6,000) fully catalogued items on its shelves with several hundred more reserved for further processing.43 Beyond just Slovak books this Library also promotes Slovak-American culture with its large collection of Slovak art. Included among its treasures are a large unusual map of Czecho-Slovakia, an artistically costumed mannequin representing the Slovak tradition, and a large, valuable collection of Slovak ceramic art, some embroidery and sizeable pieces of cutglass sent from Slovakia. This Library with its vast assortment of Slovak art is truly a tribute to Slovakia's culture. With Jankola Library as its Slovak center, SS. Cyril Academy still provides an excellent American education. It offers a wide range of courses, including four foreign languages.* Besides educating students for social living in America, the Academy can also train girls for a religious teaching life within its own Community. The Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius are presently teaching in parish schools and eight (8) high schools, including a boarding * Source listing of St. Cyril Academy. Table II. �151 SLOVAKIA school for girls. 0 Education of Slovak children continues to be the principal vocation of a Sister of SS. Cyril and Methodius. It is to these children that a Sister dedicates herseJf and hopes to preserve Slovakia's heritage. Today, the St. Cyril Academy is justifiably proud of tts accomplishments during the past fifty ( 50) years. Both the teaching Sisters and their students are fully educated in, and cognizant of, their dual heritage. The traditions and artifacts of Slovak culture have been preserved; while at the same time, each graduate is proud to be an American. St. Cyril Academy continues to revere its Slovak past. The Sisters continue to aid the suppressed people of Slovakia, but now this is done indirectly to the extent possible. It is the desire of the Sisters of the Academy to provide their countrymen with new hope of cultural freedom by showing them the accomplishments that have been possible in America. This Academy is rightly considered the center of Slovak culture in America. "" List of schools staffed by Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius. Table III. TABLE I Enrollment figures of St. Cyril Academy, Danville, Pa. Year 1925-26 1926-27 1927-28 1928-29 1929-30 1930-31 1931-32 1932-33 1933-34 1934-35 1935-36 1936-37 1937-38 1938-39 1939-40 1940-41 Total Number of Students 38 39 44 47 42 61 75 69 60 58 52 58 54 50 60 70 Year 1941-42 1942-43 1943-44 1944-45 1945-46 1946-47 1947-48 1948-49 1949-50 1950-51 1951-52 1952-53 1953-54 1954-55 1955-56 1956-57 Total Number of Students 66 55 55 69 91 96 90 107 112 109 123 138 148 153 157 180 Total Number Year of Students 1957-58 1958-59 1959-60 1960-61 1961-62 1962-63 1963-64 1964-65 1965-66 1966-67 1967-68 1968-69 1969-70 1970-71 1971-72 1972-73 181 175 162 182 202 195 202 171 156 178 120 108 104 101 108 106 �SLOVAKIA 152 TABLE II Curriculum of St. Cyril Academy FIRST YEAR Religion I English I Algebra I Intr. Physical Science Physical Education Chorus World Culture I Latin I Spanish I French I Slovak I Foods Art I Art Appreciation Music Appreciation Health Education Piano Interpretive Dance SECOND YEAR Religion II English II Geometry Biology Physical Education Chorus World Culture II Latin II French II Spanish II Slovak II Foods Clothing I Art II Piano Interpretive Dance THIRD YEAR Religion III English III Algebra II Chemistry Physical Education Chorus American Culture I Latin III Spanish III French III Slovak III Foods Advanced Clothing Art III Piano Interpretive Dance Typing I Stenography I �SLOVAKIA 153 FOURTH YEAR Religion IV English IV Business English Math 12 Advanced Biology Physical Education Chorus American Culture II Latin IV Spanish IV French IV Slovak IV Advanced Clothing Art IV Speech Piano Interpretive Dance Typing II Stenography II Bookkeeping Business Law TABLE III SCHOOLS STAFFED BY SIS'llEIBS OF SS. CYRIL AND METHODIUS Berwick, Pa. Bloomsburg, Pa. Binghamton, N. Y. Binghamton, N. Y. Bridgeport, Conn. Bridgeport, Pa. Charleston, S. C. Charleston, S. C. Chicago, Ill. East Vandergrift, Pa. Endicott, N. Y. Gary, Indiana Hazleton, Pa. Jessup, Pa. Lebanon, Pa. Luzerne, Pa. Nanticoke, Pa. New York, N. Y. Olyphant, Pa. Perth Amboy, N. J. Phoenixville, Pa. Pittston, Pa. Plymouth, Pa. Stratford, Conn. Swoyersville, Pa. Torrington, Conn. St. Mary's School St. Columba School SS. Cyril and Methodius School St. Ann's School SS. Cyril and Methodius School Mother of Sorrows School Blessed Sacrament School Nativity School SS. Simon and Jude School Holy Trinity School St. Joseph School Holy Trinity School St. Joseph School St. Michael's School SS. Cyril and Methodius School St. John Nepomucene School St. Joseph School St. John Nepomucene School Holy Ghost School Holy Trinity School Sacred Heart of Jesus School St. John Baptist School St. Stephen School Sacred Name of Jesus School Holy Trinity School Sacred Heart of Jesus School �SLOVAKIA 154 Immaculate Conception School Sacred Heart of Jesus School Holy Trinity School Whiting, Ind. Wilkes-Barre, Pa. Yonkers, N. Y. IDGH SCHOOLS Andrean High School Dunmore Catholic High School Lourdes H. S. Lebanon Catholic H. S. Kingston Catholic Central Catholic Central H. S. Catholic Central (St. Pius X) Blessed Sacrament Academy St. Cyril Academy 1. Gary, Ind. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Dunmore, Pa. Shamokin, Pa. Lebanon, Pa. Kingston, Pa. Charleston, S. C. Pottstown, Pa. Yonkers, N. Y. Danville, Pa. FOOTNOTES 1) David F . Bowers, "Social and Cultural Impact" in For eign Influences in American Life (Princeton, 1944) , p. 1. 2) Emily Balch, Our Slavic Fellow Citizens (New York, 1969), p. 86. 3) The Slovak Nation, Manuscript in Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius Community Archives, Danville, Pennsylvania. 4 ) Ibid. 5) Education in Slovakia, Manuscript in SS. C. M Community Archives, composition by M . I. Angelovic, pp. 88. 6) Ibid. 7) Ear liest Immigration, Ms. in SS. C. M. Community Archives. 8 ) Emily Balch, Our Slavic Fellow Citizens, p . 108. 9 ) Earliest Immigration Ms. 10) Francis Brown and Joseph Roucek, "Czechoslovak American" in One America (New York, 1946), p. 147. 11) In 1899, there were eight Slovak priests in America. Earliest Immigration Ms. 12) The Slovaks divide their settlement in America into three Ages: Church Age, School Age, and Institution Age. Ibid. 13) Daniel Tanzone, "The Slovak Experience in Contemporary America" in Slovakia (Middletown, Pa., 1972), p. 129. 14) Francis Brown and Joseph Roucek, Our Racial and National Minorities (New York, 1937), p. 602. 15) Timothy Smith, "New Approaches to the History of Immigration in 20th Century America", in The America Historical Review LXXI, (July 1966), p. 127. �155 SLOVAKIA 16) Contributions of Reverend Matthew Jankola to Slovak Catholic Education in the United States, Ms. in SS. C. M. Community Archives, composition by Sister M. Consuela Gregorovic, p. 14. 17) Ibid. , p. 3. 18 ) Earliest Plans, Ms. in SS. C. M. Community Archives. 19) Ibid . 20) Ibid. 21) The girls wer,e Mary Mihalik, Mary Bartek and Mary Pauly. 22) Father Jankola, Ms., pp. 38-46. 23) Philosophy of Saint Cyril Academy, Ms. 24) Francis Brown and Joseph Roucek, Our America, p. 501. 25) The Educational Activities of the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius in the United States, Ms. in SS. C. M. C-Ommunity Archives, composition by Sister Maria Berchmans Teplicky, p. 4. 26) Danville, Ms. in SS. C. M. Community Archives. 27) Ibid. 28) Educational Expansion, Ms. in SS. C.M. Community Archives. 29) Josephine M. Marcinko, "A Little Historical Sketch" in Fialky (Danville, 1927), p. 23. 30) Edttcational Expansion, Ms. 31) Preparing to Build, Ms. in SS. C. M. Community Archives. 32) Ibid. 33) Morning News, (Danville, May 23, 1929), p. 6. 34 ) Brief History of the Congregation of the Sisters of Saints Cyril and Methodius, Ms. in SS. C. M. Community Archives, composition by Mother M. Emerentia Petrasek, p. 85. 35) Fialky, (Danville, 1931), p. 82. 36) Brief History, Ms., Petrasek, p. 85. 37) Morning News, (Danville, June 8, 1931), p. 4. 38) Brief History, Ms., Petrasek, pp. 88-90. 39 ) Ibid. , p. 108. 40 ) Joseph Pauco, Slovakia, pp. 26-28. 41) Brief History, Ms., Petrasek, p. 125. 42) Sisters of Saints Cyril and Methodius, Jankola Book, (Danville, 1972) , p. 90. 43) SS. C. M., Jankola Book, p. 108. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1974, Vol. 24 Description An account of the resource Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document 132 SLOVAKIA William W a g n e r : The Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius and the Preservation of Slovak Culture in America The research involved in writing the history of an ethnic teaching community presented me with two problems. First, there are relatively few works completed on American ethnic groups, including the Slovak Americans. Secondly, the past of this particular teaching Community, the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius, has been largely recorded only by the Sisters of that Community. Therefore, my research on the Slovak past ( still predominantly written in the Slovak tongue) and my compiling of the Community's history were very dependent on the writings of the Sisters of the Community. I believe my work is objective, because of the limitation of my knowledge of the Community's religious life, thus removing me from a biased influence. All in all, I attempted to deal with this subject in such a manner as to present an honest view of the history and purpose surrounding the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius. My appreciation is extended to Reverend Mother M. Valeria Romanchek and special thanks are expressed to the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius for their helpful cooperation and endless assistance and guidance throughout the researching of this paper. I dedicate this history to Reverend Mother M. Emerentia Petrasek, former Community historian, upon whose research of the Slovak past and the tracing of the Community's growth I so heavily relied. THE ROOTS OF SLOVAK CULTURE ARE CENTURIES OLD The United States is the most important immigrant receiving country in the world. Between 1850 and 1930 no less than thirty-eight million people settled within our borders. 1 Although early in this immigration period many SLOVAKIA 133 newcomers strove to sever ties with the old world, a sizeable portion continued to look reverently upon their past. The Slovak American, who journeyed to this country primarily in the later wave of European immigration, were such a group. The Slovaks feared the loss of their native culture to a new growing American culture because their past history consisted of repeated attempts at such assimilation. But also in America the Slovak hoped for the chance and the right to have his own life. The Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius are a teaching community dedicated to preserving and promoting this American Slovak culture. Because one-third of all Slovaks live in America,2 the Sisters' preservation of their culture is extremely important to the overall existence of the Slovak people as a national entity. The Slovak people are a small part of the Slavic family found on the European continent. Ethnologists place the Slovaks in the Western Slavic group, which also includes Poles, Czechs and Moravians. Commonly but erroneously the Slovaks are considered only a part of the "Czechoslovak Nation," but during the ten centuries of Slovak history, the Slovaks did not live in a common state with the Czechs until 1918. Little is known of the early Slavs. Ancient Greeks and Romans made contact, but left few records. Early recorded Slovak history tells of struggles with Asiatic tribes, particularly the Avari to whom the Slovaks were subjected for almost a century. The subjection was followed by the influence and reign of the Franks. 3 The early Slovak was pagan and war-like. He had many customs but few laws. He was chiefly agricultural and believed in various superstitions. This type of religion held fast until the ninth century when Prince Pribina, the first direct Slovak ruler of Slavic birth, established the first Slavic Christian church. Pribina's efforts to christianize his people met with little success, largely because he was dependent on Frankish missionaries whose language his people could not understand. 4 In 846 Pribina's court surrendered to Rastislav, a skillful warrior, who succeeded in winning independence from the Franks. Rastislav sought religious as well as political freedom. In the year 863 Prince Rastislav invited the two 134 SLOVAKIA holy brothers, Constantine and Methodius, to come from Constantinople and work among the Slovak people. These Byzantine missionaries found it necessary to invent an alphabet for the Slavs, so that the Holy Scriptures could be given to them in their own tongue. After having the use of the Slavonic tongue in Western Liturgy sanctioned by the Roman Pope, Methodius returned to Slovakia as a bishop. Constantine meanwhile had died in Rome in 869 , after entering a monastery there and assuming the name of Cyril. By means of their translations of the Holy Scriptures Constantine and Methodius laid the foundations of Slavic literature. The introduction of schools went hand in hand with this introduction and spread of Christianity in Slovakia.5 Archbishop Methodius continued his teaching and missionary activity until his death in 885. That period of political independence for Slovakia lasted but a short time. Slovakia was soon incorporated into the State of Hungary, which during medieval times consisted of various nations. During this period known as 'The Thousand Years of Oppression', the Slovaks' civil life declined and thus their national consciousness was under a cloud. The Lutheran Reformation, the Turkish invasion of Hungary in 1526 and the Counter-Reformation led by the Jesuits all had varying effects on Slovak education. But it was not until the suppression of the Jesuit Order in 1773 and the state control of education under Empress Maria Theresa, that the Slovak education was directed by any one source. The State of Hungary considered it its duty to provide for the education of its people, hoping to make the power of the state felt in every phase of life.6 The reigns of Maria Theresa and Joseph II saw an expansion of education and also an attempt at Germanization of the Slovaks. Joseph's attempt at Germanization was significantly challenged in 1847 and replaced by Hungarian Magyarization. Whether Germanization or Magyarization the NonHungarian Nationalities' interests were ignored. In 1867 the 'Austro-Hungarian Compromise' touched off rapid action to create a unitary Hungary by Magyarizing all departments of public life, especially the schools. The aim of this policy was the complete assimilation and SLOVAKIA 135 conversion of Slovakia into a purely Magyar Province of Hungary. Since language is the chief symbol of nationality, the Slovak language was suppressed. Poor economically and having their national ideals and traditions submerged, the Slovaks began seeking a new way to improve their life. U.S. SHINES WITH HOPE FOR SLOVAK IMMIGRANTS Immigration held the dream of a better life. The heaviest immigration of the Slovaks occurred between 1890 and 1900.7 It must be stressed that the majority of immigrants came to America for economic reasons, few peasants ever left East Europe during this period due to political reasons, though politics did cause many not to return. 8 The first immigrants were usually the fathers of the Slovak families, hoping for quick economic gain, and a subsequent return to their native land and families. But once in America few immigrants returned. They found employment that significantly raised their living standard. Though in a strange, sometimes hostile land, the immigrant recognized the ideals of freedom that he was denied in his homeland. As thoughts of returning to their native land diminished, the pioneering immigrants sent for their families to join them in their adopted country. 9 Once the immigrant families had situated themselves in this new land, they were faced with problems of adjustment. The majority of the Slovak immigrants settled in the industrial East, seeking employment with the mining industries, particularly in Pennsylvania. Since the closing of the American frontier the greatest means of livelihood for new immigrants was in these rising industrial areas.10 As the economic necessity of making a living diminished, the new Americans turned to their social needs. Subsequently as the new settlements became more permanent, these Slovak immigrants turned to their religious needs. They began by building community parishes, while searching for Slovak priests who were few in number in this time of early immigration.11 The churches provided a common bond upon which were built beneficial organizations, such as the organizations of the First Catholic Slovak Union known as Jednota. It was the purpose of these beneficial groups to locate and unite the scattered elements 136 SLOVAKIA of American Slovaks. Unity was usually provided through the weekly Slovak newspapers. EDUCATION AL ASPIRATIONS OF AMERICAN SLOVAKS Upon completion of the drive to build parishes the Slovaks had finished with what they call the Church Age of their settlement in America. 12 Having established themselves within their own community, they were faced with the task of joining the larger American community. Obviously, they needed to learn the English language and familiarize themselves with American customs. It was over this need for education that friction developed. On the one hand the immigrant desired to be accepted in this new environment; yet on the other, he also desired to preserve his own cultural past. The first generation immigrant was taught English usually by his employer and did not have his culture challenged, thus resisting assimilation. 13 It was the education of successive generations that presented the problem of cultural alienation. The apparent choice in education was to enroll their offsprings in public schools in order to help them adjust to this new American Life. But education in the public schools posed severe cultural hazards. The public school taught American subjects with American values. The foreign children were judged by American cultural standards of conduct. In this position the foreign children were caught between their old culture and the new American culture. This had definite results: A limited number abandoned their embarrassing heritage-to accept American standards; a larger number sought to forget their traditional background regarding them as inferior-lead ing to family disruption and disintegration . Finally, the largest group failed to adjust to school and left feeling disregarded, discouraged and inferior .14 The public school encouraged the disintegration of Slovak families. The Slovaks had successfully resisted attempts of assimilation by stronger cultures in the past, but now they faced the task of resisting assimilation in a foreign land. To be assimilated meant the destruction of their culture. The chief means of assimilation was through education, as was attempted in their past history. Though it was largely an unconscious process by which America imposed its own standard of ideals on the new- SLOVAKIA 137 comers, the public schools were succeeding in imposing a common English culture upon the children of many nationalities. 15 By treating the immigrant as a native the public school disregarded his culture and background. What was needed was a means to hand down a suitable portion of his native culture in order to provide a past, thus avoiding an identity crisis. The public school system could not provide this necessity in full. What was needed was a new system that could teach their children good American citizenship and preserve in them a profitable appreciation of the language, culture and tradition of their forefathers, while still providing a sufficient academic education. Fearing further disintegration of their culture, the Slovaks began searching and discussing alternatives in the development of Slovak America. REV. MATTHEW JANKOLA ASSUMES LEADERSHIP A leader in this search for a solution to the American Slovak's educational needs was Father Matthew Jankola. He spent much time studying his fellow Slovaks in their new surroundings. Early in his life he wrote: "We have a serious problem, the problem of educating our children according to American methods, and for American citizenship, without, however, destroying their cultural character and their cultural traditions." 16 With this attitude Father Jankola formed an Association of Priests in 1903 to consider the question of providing for the Catholic education of Slovak youth. Father Jankola began his studies for the priesthood in his native Slovakia. But under pressure from both the Hungarian civil and ecclesiastical authorities, which frowned apon Slovak devotion to Saints Cyril and Methodius, and the fostering of Slovak nationalism, Father Jankola sought refuge in America. 17 He arrived in 1893, and finished his studies at Saint Bonaventure's Seminary in Allegheny, New York. As a priest Father Jankola dedicated himself to the problem of cultural disintegration of his people, begun in Hungary and now continuing in America. It was on behalf of this couse that Father Jankola directed his early writings. When considering education, Father Jankola looked to its broader meaning of culture, rather than its narrow sense of formal schooling. He felt 138 SLOVAKIA that next to the parish church must be a school, because without Catholic schools the Catholic Church had no future, no assured existence. Father Jankola saw the parish church alone and unaided by a Catholic school as but a "feeble barrier" against the rapid onrush of worldliness and a too sudden Americanization for Slovak youth. Further, to preserve the Slovak national character, the children must be educated in Slovak schools with religious principles. Father Jankola held the schools as helpful for religious training, and necessary also to preserve nationality. In Father Jankola's mind the church directed religion, not language; for the teaching of language, which fosters the national spirit, teachers and schools were needed.18 In this spirit Father Jankola called for the establishment of schools, staffed by Slovak Sisters. His initial contact with the Slovak people on this project was done through the newspapers, such as the weekly Jednota. Many attempts were made · to secure Slavic Sisters, but to no avail. This was a time of heavy immigration causing the demand for Sisters in America to be very great. Confronted with the problem of no available Sisters for his project, Father Jankola suggested the possibility of founding a Religious Community for the education of Slovak youth. The suggestion was received favorably, so Father Jankola sought Slovak candidates to train in an American Sisterhood, which would later branch off into an independent congregation as their numbers grew. A Czech Benedictine Community of Sisters expressed willingness to receive and educate Slovak girls. Father Jankola secured three aspirants who were sent to the Czech Sisters in Chicago. But this project failed when the girls became discontented and wished to return to Pennsylvania. Their return was hard on Father Jankola, but their young age and the great distances they had traveled made him sympathetic. 19 Father Jankola did not abandon his project. Instead, upon further study he came in contact with Mother Mary Cyril at Mount St. Mary's Seminary in Scranton, Penna. After considering Father Jankola's plan for a parochial school system under Slovak Sisters, Mother Mary Cyril agreed to accept the young girls. The girls entered Mount Saint Mary's Seminary in November of 1903, to learn the SLOVAKIA 139 principles of religious life and live according to its Rules. 20 While preparing the Slovak girls for religious teaching and guidance under Mother Mary Cyril and the Sisters of the Immaculate Heart of Mary, Father Jankola began a fund to further his project. He established "St. Anthony's Treasury" which received donations from parishes, societies and individuals. A TEACHING COMMUNITY OF SLOVAK SISTERS IS BORN On September 11, 1909, the first Slovak girls pronounced their religious vows, 21 marking the birth of the Sisters of Saints Cyril and Methodius, honoring the Saints who gave Slovakia its faith and culture. Father Jankola noted that this was the founding of the first Slovak religious sisterhood that the Slovaks ever had, either in Europe or America. At the birth of this new Order Father Jankola set down four principal reasons for its conception: 1) Educate Slovak children 2) Care for Slovak orphans and aged 3) Preserve Slovak culture 4) Pray for the return of Slav schismatics.22 Father Jankola's first principle has been the primary apostolate of the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius. The parish school has always constituted the particular vocation of the Sisters. The Sisters set themselves the traditional objective of education in a Christian spirit to develop and train to the fullest the powers and capacities of a young student's mind and body. They also strove to inculcate principles of true patriotism and citizenship in order to develop enlightened, conscientious American citizens, imbued with Christian attitudes of justice and charity, peace and order, which they feel are the main components for social living. As Slovak American teachers, they endeavored to preserve some of the traditions and the cultural heritage of the Slovak people among the students of Slovak parentage, and to foster in all students an interest and respect for the varied cultures and attitudes that make up the Brotherhood of Man. 23 Through such recognition and acceptance of foreign natures, characteristics, and personalities built from a different culture, the Sisters sought to achieve cultural democracy. To accept cultural democracy means to accept 140 SLOVAKIA a technique of social adjustment that will make possible the preservation of the best of all cultures. 24 This was the desire of the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius. To accept, as well as to be accepted, is the condition for effective pluralism in a nation. Cultural pluralism in the American educational system has existed because we are a multi-cultural, multi-racial, and multi-lingual nation. It was thought that the public school system would Americanize these foreign elements into the melting pot of uniform American culture. The concept of American culture as a mosaic has been the reason for, and the challenge of, the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius. For six years this newly established Community of Sisters continued under the guidance of the Sisters of the Immaculate Heart of Mary. It was on August 4, 1915, that the Community had its first elections in which Sister Mary (Mihalik) was elected the first Superior General. During this period the Sisters opened their first school to educate children in the Sacred Heart of Jesus Parish in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, marking the beginning of the educational work of the Community. Before this group could be firmly established Mother Mary died in 1916. Her successor was Mother M. Emmanuel whose greatest achievement involved the establishment of a suitable, permanent Motherhouse.25 MOTHER M. EMMANUEL, SS.C.M. (1916-1922) The Sisters had been temporarily situated in Middletown, Pennsylvania. While in this location, Mother M. Emmanuel sought a permanent Motherhouse. She was informed by Reverend Julius Foin about a large tract of land with an old mansion in Danville. Through Bishop Philip R. McDevitt, Mother M. Emmanuel made contact with a local attorney, Ralph Kisner, and was informed that the 'Castle Grove' property was for sale. The Mansion site proper, containing thirteen acres-forty rooms, eleven bathrooms-finished throughout with hardwood, was a relic of the passing iron industry in Danville. There was also an adjoining farm with one hundred thirty-three acres and numerous outbuildings. This enormous dwelling was perfect for Mother M. Emmanuel's aims, but the price was beyond the Community's ability to pay. Upon inspection of this property, Mother M. Emmanuel found that the Mansion had stood SLOVAKIA 141 vacant for fourteen years, needing numerous repairs. With this in mind she made a meager offer. The actual owner was in France, causing slow communication. Price remained the hindrance as Mother M. Emmanuel would not raise her offer. In March of 1919, Attorney Kisner informed the Sisters that the owner had agreed to drastically reduce his price to meet the Community's needs. Now that the Community's prayers for a Motherhouse had been answered, only the necessary funds for purchase remained an obstacle. The Sisters had saved about half of the required amount, but had discouraging experiences in acquiring the rest. This was the critical period during World War I, causing excess funds to be scarce.26 After futile appeals to the citizens and banks of the Wilkes-Barre area, a heavily populated Slovak community, Mother M. Emmanuel turned to the Danville National Bank for a loan. This bank considered the risk minimal and granted the loan at low interest. With payment secured, the Sisters concluded the 'Castle Grove' deal in June of 1919, and began preparations for the transfer of the Motherhouse from Middletown to its permanent home in Danville. Throughout the summer months in 1919, the Sisters worked to put the house and grounds in order. Within this new convent the Community prepared for the continuance of religious training for its Sisters and converted one of the two ballrooms into a chapel. Holy Mass was first celebrated on Sunday morning, July 6, 1919. With the approach of Autumn all but the Sisters in training took leave of 'Sacred Heart Villa,' as the grounds had been named, to resume their duties in the parish schools. During the War Years the demand for Sisters in parochial schools became very great. The war and the influenza epidemic strongly limited the work of the Sisters.27 As this situation relaxed in the summer of 1920, Mother M. Emmanuel arranged classes for the Sisters to improve their educational resources. The educational progress of the Community was under the direction of the Sisters from Marywood. This was being continued by Mother M. Emmanuel who sought also to further the Community's material progress. She was engaged in soliciting funds from the homes of Slovaks to pay off the Sister's bank loan. Mother M. Emmanuel promoted thrift within her 142 SLOVAKIA Community because she felt the Community would be more secure in the American culture when free from debt. Mother M. Emmanuel's term expired in 1922. She had directed this young Sisterhood through its pioneering days, giving it shelter, resources and existence through the war years. Mother M. Emmanuel's main contribution was, of course, the establishment of the Motherhouse that was to become the center of Slovak culture in America. MOTHER M. PIUS, SS.C.M. OPENS ST. CYRIL ACADEMY IN 1922 By the choice of the Sisters, Sister M. Pius was elected the third Superior General. Bishop McDevitt, who supervised the election, also commented on the importance of the Sisters' studies because someday the civil authorities would require that every teacher must be certified by the State of Pennsylvania. Certification would be important in having the Community accepted as a competent educational institution in American society. Now that they had an established center, the Sisters could begin to focus their educational mission with greater assurance. The Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius had always wished for the establishment of a high school and boarding school for girls. Presently, they were only employed in elementary education. This idea for an institution of higher education for their own children was popular among the Slovaks. In addition to the regularly prescribed American branches, they wanted their offsprings to be taught the mother tongue and trained to appreciate the historical and cultural traditions of their nation. 28 To this wish Mother M. Pius responded. Mother M. Pius expressed a desire to have an official from the Department of Public Instruction in Harrisburg come to Danville to give a lecture on the requirements of the State, regarding the equipment and function of a high school and its accreditation. In August of 1922, Doctor Edward Hoban arrived from Harrisburg and explained such subjects as extension courses, summer school, teacher certificates, teaching of foreign languages, importance of teaching citizenship, the teaching of historical and social studies, and the necessity of physical education. This lecture assured the commencement of preparation for a high school on American terms. SLOVAKIA 143 The following week an advertisement appeared in the Slovak newspapers stating that the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius had equipped part of their convent at Danville as a boarding school for girls. To conform to American standards the equipment of the high school called for two very important departments -the Library and the Laboratory for the Sciences. Both of these were begun with the opening of the school. Books acquired were those recommended by the Department o! Education. Also a large selection of Catholic and Slovak books supplemented the Community's aim of a multicultural education. In all, nineteen pupils attended the first year of the First Catholic Slovak Girls High School, indicating a desire on the part of the Slovaks to have their children educated in a Slovak, as well as an American atmosphere. Towards the close of the first year in the spring of 1923, a small group of students ventured into the school's first extra-curricular activity. These girls formed a Literary Society in which they compiled a little booklet of essays, stories, and poems. Under Mother M. Pius' encouragement this activity continued, resulting in the first issue of the bi-lingual (Slovak and American) school magazine, Fialky (Violets). The Fialky were thereafter issued semi-annually until 1940 and then annually until 1970, when it ceased publication. During the summer vacation Mother M. Pius encouraged the Sisters toward further studies, hoping to improve their competence as teachers. She was anxious to secure state certification for as many Sisters as could qualify. Now that the Community was engaged in all levels of education, Mother M. Pius wished to secure them within the American educational system through accreditation. The Academy's opening in the second year exposed space problems as enrollment grew. Mother Pius expressed the need for a strong building fund and enacted new collection drives among the Slovak people. The number of students steadily increased into the third and fourth year.• With the fourth year the need for accredition increased as the first graduation approached. The school was informed that the State Representatives would make an official inspection at the school year's end. That June, just a week before graduation, the State 144 SLOVAKIA Inspector arrived and spent a day inspecting the school, interviewing both the staff and the students. The State Representative, Doctor Pentz, found the Slovak students being educated and trained in all that the modern high schools offered, and in their Religion and mother tongue as well. To this he expressed his satisfaction, commenting on the orderly and methodological way in which the different departments were being conducted. 29 After Dr. Pentz reported the Academy as "first class" in both arrangement and curriculum, the school received a telegram, congratulating teachers and students on receiving accreditation from the State. This good news arrived just days before the first graduation, much to the Sisters' delight. While preparations for this first commencement progressed, another great event was in prospect, namely, the Eucharistic Congress in Chicago. This event made a great impact on the first commencement of the First Catholic Slovak Girls High School. Accreditation from the State of Pennsylvania proved the Sisters' ability to provide their students with a fitting education in their new society, but what remained to be seen was whether or not the Sisters could live up to the task of preserving Slovak culture in America. Slovak American culture was to receive a fresh impetus by the Eucharistic Congress held in Chicago. Due to attend the Congress were four bishops from Slovakia. The presence of these Slovak bishops greatly excited the Slovak Americans and especially the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius, since through the influence of Bishop McDevitt arrangements were made to have these four bishops attend the Academy's first graduation. The date of the festivity was June 14, 1926. Under the guidance of Bishop McDevitt, who presided at the First Graduation ceremony, the entire Community and students assembled at the Convent's gate to welcome the visiting bishops. Upon the arrival of the Slovak bishops, who were traveling in European fashion, clad in cassock and purple cincture, the commencement proceeded with prayers, songs, and speeches. The speeches were delivered in Slovak, calling for a continuance of Catholic education. Bishop McDevitt's address underscored the advantages which the SLOVAKIA 145 Slovak people can derive from a solid Catholic education. He also pointed out that this could be done because the American government stood to protect the religious rights of all American citizens. The theme of religious pluralism in America was carried further by the Senior Bishop from Slovakia in a speech that noted how this American government respects, upholds, and protects the religious liberty of the people who found refuge under her banner. Bishop Marian Blaha further cited the great accomplishments of the American Slovaks. Their ability to provide a Catholic education while preserving their mother tongue greatly impressed him. Then as an old Slovak proverb states, "Every perfect day must end even as the sweetest song" -this first commencement was no exception; it was concluded by a student chorale of inspirational Slovak songs.30 The first graduation was a significant milestone in the history of the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius. It was their first public manifestation of their educational standards and traditions. The graduation exercise presented a new phase in the mission of the Slovak Sisters. Their people realized that Danville would not only house a Convent and an Academy, but would be the center of genuine culture for the Slovaks in America. To attain a status combining a true Americanism with an appreciation of the spirit and traditions of their native land was the Community's desire.31 With this spirit of appreciation, encouraged by the sharp increase of applicants, new thoughts of building were entertained. But unlike before, the Slovak people, organizations and individuals alike, urged this step. These groups advised a general benefit drive for funds, alleging the time was ripe for such a movement since industrial conditions were favorable and the people were willing to donate.32 In the spring of 1927 Mother M. Pius presented a letter of the officers of the First Catholic Slovak Ladies' Union, another element of Slovak-American culture, announcing the drive for a building fund. When Mother M. Pius asked for their contribution, she was immediately promised five thousand dollars. The response elsewhere was the same. The Slovak newspapers pushed the drive and local groups competed in fund raising. This favorable reaction illustrates the Slovak-Americans' desire for an enlarged Slovak cultural center in America. 146 SLOVAKIA With the building fund well under way, Mother M. Pius contracted Architect Bernard Starr of Harrisburg, who in turn sought the assistance of Harry Sternfeld of Philadelphia. A spot for the new building was selected on the Villa Sacred Heart campus, and Mr. Sternfeld sketched a building dominated by a central tower. This initial plan brought eriticism for its "needless extravagance," but Mother M. Pius retained the plan as the answer to the needs of the Community, plus the cultural, educational and religious needs of the Slovak-American people. The Community wasted no time in beginning the new building. Ground was broken on May 23, 1929, in a ceremony which the local Danville Morning News described as an event to go down in Slovak history. 33 The speakers' program included representatives of the church, state, and Slovak national life. As the building progressed, the country entered the depression of the 1930's. By the time the building was completed, economic tension was beginning to be felt everywhere.34 With this in mind, Mother M. Pius avoided any elaborate dedication ceremony. This new building was made to catch the spirit of the past and to intepret it with a contemporaneous point of view in order to make it fit actual conditions.35 Its design was in accord with the ideals of the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius, who hoped to blend the past into a new, usable present. In a more practical manner the new building provided an institution solely devoted to the education of the Slovak people and the preserving of their culture. It was viewed as a national work, one that provided b roader limits and better accommodations which would produce greater results. 36 The local paper saw the building as a monument to the Slovak people of America, and considered it one of the local community's finest aspects.37 The Sisters moved into their new building in September of 1931. The following three years were quiet, filled with earnest activity toward the educational goals of the Community. This period ended with the significant year of 1934, the twenty-fifth anniversary of the Community's existence. In those twenty-five years the Community developed and established itself in a permanent Motherhouse, which in turn had developed the First Catholic Slovak Girls' High SLOVAKIA 147 School, crowned by the magnificent new building. This had been done under three Superiors General-Mother Mary, Mother M. Emmanuel, Mother M. Pius-all of whom promoted the cultivation of the Slovak language and history, which, with religion, constitute the two outstanding characteristics of the Slovak Academy. Extra-curricular activities, like Fialky and Cyrilika-a society for fostering interest in Slovak journalism-as well as customs established for the practical study of Slovak, such as speaking Slovak all day every Saturday, and the annual observance of Slovak Week, acquired notice and approval. The observance of Slovak tradition gave this Academy a unique position in the field of American education.38 With a high spirit of celebration the Silver Jubilee of the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius commenced. The Jubilee marked still another turning point in the Community's history as it came at the close of Mother M. Pius' long administration. Her work finished laying a firm foundation which became the base for a promising era of new growth. MOTHER M. EMERENTIA, SS.C.M. (1934-1946) In this new period of the Community's history the work of the Academy advanced quietly, with gratifying results in the field of Slovak-American culture. When Mother M. Emerentia was elected Superior General in 1934, she encouraged Slovak interests and cultural projects like formal programs, dramatic productions, Slovak readings, folk song festivals and, above all, research and creative writing on Slovak topics. Mother M. Emerentia was also responsible for the compilation of Slovak language texts and hymnals used widely in Slovak elementary schools and parishes in America. The early years of Mother M. Emerentia's administration coincided with the greatest period of the depression. Though there was no drop in student enrollment, neither was there the marked increase that would have normally been the case.• These drawbacks, however, had advantages. The subdued quiet of the interval was conducive to a greater concentration on school work, both regular and extracurricular. Correspondence with students in Slovakia '' See enrollment figures; Table I. 148 SLOVAKIA was an activity greatly enjoyed by the students of St. Cyril Academy. It was also during these years that the school was favored by a number of distinguished visitors from Slovakia, including a delegation from the Slovak Institute of Arts and Sciences, a group of students from the Slovak unit of Pax Romana, plus numerous distinguished scholars, writers, and statesmen, including the Slovak martyr, Msgr. Joseph Tiso.39 When our country was drawn into war on December 8, 1941, the first care of the Motherhouse was directed toward the Sisters and their pupils in the parish schools. The Community placed its trust in God and His care of our country, and classes went on as usual. However, extracurricular activities were directed toward war needs. Beyond the prayers for peace, the Community and its students turned out quantities of knitted sweaters and helmets. They experienced the value of thrift by rationing food and collected all scraps such as fats, iron and paper. The Sisters also joined in relief efforts for their native land. An extensive relief project for the war sufferers in Slovakia was aided by the Community, which sent abroad numerous packages of relief materials. The motherhouse was a center for this organized relief work. The relief project continued in action even after the war, when Slovakia again was suppressed by a stronger force. Following a remarkably successful and flourishing six-year period of self-rule under the Presidency of Tiso, the Slovak government collapsed when victory came to Russia and the Allies. 40 With this victory Slovakia was overrun by the Communists. Their occupation of the country led to the execution of Msgr. Tiso, plus the silencing of many bishops and priests. The people of Slovakia remained in destitution; hence, the necessity for relief work to continue until the Iron Curtain cut off all communication. 41 The Communist occupation caused more refugees to seek freedom and sanctuary from Slovakia. As thousands came to America, the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius and their students enjoyed fresh contacts with persons of their fatherland. Priests and professional people willingly gave lectures to both the Sisters and the students, chiefly on conditions in Slovakia and on topics of Slovak history. SLOVAKIA 149 Several high school students from Slovakia enrolled in the Academy, thus enriching the Slovak-American culture. MOTHER M. CRESCENTIA, SS.C.M. (1946-1958) While the Slovak-American tradition was being enriched during these post-war years, a new Superior General was elected, placing renewed importance on the educational aspects of the Academy. Mother M. Crescentia realized that during the earlier years the educational objectives could not be pursued as fully as desired since more urgent activities were at hand. In time, however, conditions improved, so that more and better organized work could be done in the field of teacher education. Mother M. Crescentia took advantage of this situation, arranging for more Sisters to take college courses in a greater variety of fields. With this renewed progress in the Sisters' personal educational ventures, activities in the Academy moved apace. The student enrollment at the Academy, which increased only to a minor extent after the depression, now began rapid growth. This growth of the Academy advanced steadily into the fifties, causing every available space within the Academy to be filled. It necessitated the building of Saint Philomena Hall to be used for students' living and classrooms. Also in the fifties, the Community worked for the founding of Father Jankola. They are Villa Saint Cyril in Highland Park, Illinois, and Maria Joseph Manor in Danville, Pennsylvania. By 1958 the Community had a new Superior General in the person of Mother M. Bernard. MOTHER M. BERNARD, SS.C.M. (1958-1970) The highlight of this decade was the observance of the Community's Golden Jubilee. It was climaxed by the celebration of a Roman-Slavonic Mass on the Villa campus in the presence of five thousand visitors from all parts of the country.42 It was the first Roman rite vernacular Mass ever offered on this continent. The increased enrollment and the large turnout for the Roman-Slavonic Mass indicates the strong support the Academy received from the Slovak-American people in its preserving of Slovak culture. The early sixties were also highlighted by a large celebration honoring another aspect of the Comunity's Slovak heritage. The year 1963 marked the eleven hundredth 150 SLOVAKIA anniversary of the arrival of SS. Cyril and Methodius among the Slovaks. In addition to the Community celebration in America, the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius participated in a week-long observance in Rome, involving numerous Slovak pilgrims, who had assembled there for the dedication of the Slovak Institute of SS. Cyril and Methodius, a seminary for the training of priests for Slovakia. THE JANKOLA LIBRARY The latter sixties and early seventies for St. Cyril Academy had been dominated by two cherished Slovak projects. First was the active cooperation with the Apostolate of the Slovak Institute of SS. Cyril and Methodius in Rome, begun during the 1963 pilgrimage. Second was the professional development of the Jankola Library at the Academy. This Library is a center of Slovak culture and learning for St. Cyril Academy and Slovak America. It is called Jankola Library in honor of the founder of the Community and promoter of Slovak-American culture, Father Matthew Jankola. The Library provides invaluable resources for study and research purposes, as well as literary works to enrich the Slovak spirit. Jankola Library contains over six thousand (6,000) fully catalogued items on its shelves with several hundred more reserved for further processing.43 Beyond just Slovak books this Library also promotes Slovak-American culture with its large collection of Slovak art. Included among its treasures are a large unusual map of Czecho-Slovakia, an artistically costumed mannequin representing the Slovak tradition, and a large, valuable collection of Slovak ceramic art, some embroidery and sizeable pieces of cutglass sent from Slovakia. This Library with its vast assortment of Slovak art is truly a tribute to Slovakia's culture. With Jankola Library as its Slovak center, SS. Cyril Academy still provides an excellent American education. It offers a wide range of courses, including four foreign languages.* Besides educating students for social living in America, the Academy can also train girls for a religious teaching life within its own Community. The Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius are presently teaching in parish schools and eight (8) high schools, including a boarding * Source listing of St. Cyril Academy. Table II. 151 SLOVAKIA school for girls. 0 Education of Slovak children continues to be the principal vocation of a Sister of SS. Cyril and Methodius. It is to these children that a Sister dedicates herseJf and hopes to preserve Slovakia's heritage. Today, the St. Cyril Academy is justifiably proud of tts accomplishments during the past fifty ( 50) years. Both the teaching Sisters and their students are fully educated in, and cognizant of, their dual heritage. The traditions and artifacts of Slovak culture have been preserved; while at the same time, each graduate is proud to be an American. St. Cyril Academy continues to revere its Slovak past. The Sisters continue to aid the suppressed people of Slovakia, but now this is done indirectly to the extent possible. It is the desire of the Sisters of the Academy to provide their countrymen with new hope of cultural freedom by showing them the accomplishments that have been possible in America. This Academy is rightly considered the center of Slovak culture in America. "" List of schools staffed by Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius. Table III. TABLE I Enrollment figures of St. Cyril Academy, Danville, Pa. Year 1925-26 1926-27 1927-28 1928-29 1929-30 1930-31 1931-32 1932-33 1933-34 1934-35 1935-36 1936-37 1937-38 1938-39 1939-40 1940-41 Total Number of Students 38 39 44 47 42 61 75 69 60 58 52 58 54 50 60 70 Year 1941-42 1942-43 1943-44 1944-45 1945-46 1946-47 1947-48 1948-49 1949-50 1950-51 1951-52 1952-53 1953-54 1954-55 1955-56 1956-57 Total Number of Students 66 55 55 69 91 96 90 107 112 109 123 138 148 153 157 180 Total Number Year of Students 1957-58 1958-59 1959-60 1960-61 1961-62 1962-63 1963-64 1964-65 1965-66 1966-67 1967-68 1968-69 1969-70 1970-71 1971-72 1972-73 181 175 162 182 202 195 202 171 156 178 120 108 104 101 108 106 SLOVAKIA 152 TABLE II Curriculum of St. Cyril Academy FIRST YEAR Religion I English I Algebra I Intr. Physical Science Physical Education Chorus World Culture I Latin I Spanish I French I Slovak I Foods Art I Art Appreciation Music Appreciation Health Education Piano Interpretive Dance SECOND YEAR Religion II English II Geometry Biology Physical Education Chorus World Culture II Latin II French II Spanish II Slovak II Foods Clothing I Art II Piano Interpretive Dance THIRD YEAR Religion III English III Algebra II Chemistry Physical Education Chorus American Culture I Latin III Spanish III French III Slovak III Foods Advanced Clothing Art III Piano Interpretive Dance Typing I Stenography I SLOVAKIA 153 FOURTH YEAR Religion IV English IV Business English Math 12 Advanced Biology Physical Education Chorus American Culture II Latin IV Spanish IV French IV Slovak IV Advanced Clothing Art IV Speech Piano Interpretive Dance Typing II Stenography II Bookkeeping Business Law TABLE III SCHOOLS STAFFED BY SIS'llEIBS OF SS. CYRIL AND METHODIUS Berwick, Pa. Bloomsburg, Pa. Binghamton, N. Y. Binghamton, N. Y. Bridgeport, Conn. Bridgeport, Pa. Charleston, S. C. Charleston, S. C. Chicago, Ill. East Vandergrift, Pa. Endicott, N. Y. Gary, Indiana Hazleton, Pa. Jessup, Pa. Lebanon, Pa. Luzerne, Pa. Nanticoke, Pa. New York, N. Y. Olyphant, Pa. Perth Amboy, N. J. Phoenixville, Pa. Pittston, Pa. Plymouth, Pa. Stratford, Conn. Swoyersville, Pa. Torrington, Conn. St. Mary's School St. Columba School SS. Cyril and Methodius School St. Ann's School SS. Cyril and Methodius School Mother of Sorrows School Blessed Sacrament School Nativity School SS. Simon and Jude School Holy Trinity School St. Joseph School Holy Trinity School St. Joseph School St. Michael's School SS. Cyril and Methodius School St. John Nepomucene School St. Joseph School St. John Nepomucene School Holy Ghost School Holy Trinity School Sacred Heart of Jesus School St. John Baptist School St. Stephen School Sacred Name of Jesus School Holy Trinity School Sacred Heart of Jesus School SLOVAKIA 154 Immaculate Conception School Sacred Heart of Jesus School Holy Trinity School Whiting, Ind. Wilkes-Barre, Pa. Yonkers, N. Y. IDGH SCHOOLS Andrean High School Dunmore Catholic High School Lourdes H. S. Lebanon Catholic H. S. Kingston Catholic Central Catholic Central H. S. Catholic Central (St. Pius X) Blessed Sacrament Academy St. Cyril Academy 1. Gary, Ind. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Dunmore, Pa. Shamokin, Pa. Lebanon, Pa. Kingston, Pa. Charleston, S. C. Pottstown, Pa. Yonkers, N. Y. Danville, Pa. FOOTNOTES 1) David F . Bowers, "Social and Cultural Impact" in For eign Influences in American Life (Princeton, 1944) , p. 1. 2) Emily Balch, Our Slavic Fellow Citizens (New York, 1969), p. 86. 3) The Slovak Nation, Manuscript in Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius Community Archives, Danville, Pennsylvania. 4 ) Ibid. 5) Education in Slovakia, Manuscript in SS. C. M Community Archives, composition by M . I. Angelovic, pp. 88. 6) Ibid. 7) Ear liest Immigration, Ms. in SS. C. M. Community Archives. 8 ) Emily Balch, Our Slavic Fellow Citizens, p . 108. 9 ) Earliest Immigration Ms. 10) Francis Brown and Joseph Roucek, "Czechoslovak American" in One America (New York, 1946), p. 147. 11) In 1899, there were eight Slovak priests in America. Earliest Immigration Ms. 12) The Slovaks divide their settlement in America into three Ages: Church Age, School Age, and Institution Age. Ibid. 13) Daniel Tanzone, "The Slovak Experience in Contemporary America" in Slovakia (Middletown, Pa., 1972), p. 129. 14) Francis Brown and Joseph Roucek, Our Racial and National Minorities (New York, 1937), p. 602. 15) Timothy Smith, "New Approaches to the History of Immigration in 20th Century America", in The America Historical Review LXXI, (July 1966), p. 127. 155 SLOVAKIA 16) Contributions of Reverend Matthew Jankola to Slovak Catholic Education in the United States, Ms. in SS. C. M. Community Archives, composition by Sister M. Consuela Gregorovic, p. 14. 17) Ibid. , p. 3. 18 ) Earliest Plans, Ms. in SS. C. M. Community Archives. 19) Ibid . 20) Ibid. 21) The girls wer,e Mary Mihalik, Mary Bartek and Mary Pauly. 22) Father Jankola, Ms., pp. 38-46. 23) Philosophy of Saint Cyril Academy, Ms. 24) Francis Brown and Joseph Roucek, Our America, p. 501. 25) The Educational Activities of the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius in the United States, Ms. in SS. C. M. C-Ommunity Archives, composition by Sister Maria Berchmans Teplicky, p. 4. 26) Danville, Ms. in SS. C. M. Community Archives. 27) Ibid. 28) Educational Expansion, Ms. in SS. C.M. Community Archives. 29) Josephine M. Marcinko, "A Little Historical Sketch" in Fialky (Danville, 1927), p. 23. 30) Edttcational Expansion, Ms. 31) Preparing to Build, Ms. in SS. C. M. Community Archives. 32) Ibid. 33) Morning News, (Danville, May 23, 1929), p. 6. 34 ) Brief History of the Congregation of the Sisters of Saints Cyril and Methodius, Ms. in SS. C. M. Community Archives, composition by Mother M. Emerentia Petrasek, p. 85. 35) Fialky, (Danville, 1931), p. 82. 36) Brief History, Ms., Petrasek, p. 85. 37) Morning News, (Danville, June 8, 1931), p. 4. 38) Brief History, Ms., Petrasek, pp. 88-90. 39 ) Ibid. , p. 108. 40 ) Joseph Pauco, Slovakia, pp. 26-28. 41) Brief History, Ms., Petrasek, p. 125. 42) Sisters of Saints Cyril and Methodius, Jankola Book, (Danville, 1972) , p. 90. 43) SS. C. M., Jankola Book, p. 108.  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius and the Preservation of Slovak Culture in America Description An account of the resource William Wagner Slovakia, Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974 pp. 132-155 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Wagner, William Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 name https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/67a71766807f746825c0f4f6587618a4.pdf f0d1736d284a8276bfdba5d1f1dacd6a PDF Text Text 156 SLOVAKIA Famous Slovak Inventors Long before the arrival of the Slovaks in central Europer the Celts who inhabited the area, mined iron-ore, silver, gold and lead and utilized these minerals in making various instruments, ornaments and utensils. As newcomers, the Slovaks continued to use these minerals centuries before the coming of the Turkish-Mongol tribes. Technically, both the mining and metal industries remained rather primitive until modern times. New methods and techniques which were developed outside the· country were not introduced until quite recently. Modernization of the mining industry in Slovakia, though of recent data, was preceded in the 17th and 18th centuries by several notable processes. In 1627, for example, it was K. Wendler, a Tyrolean explosive expert, who detonated the first black-powder charge in the Banska stiavnica mines in Slovakia; incidentally, the first of its kind in mining history. Then, J. A. Born (1742-1791), a Saxon from Transylvania, in the latter half of the 18th century introduced the quicksilver (mercury) amalgamation process of refining gold, silver and lead. At the end of the 17th century most of the Slovak mines were flooded because continual warfare caused them to be neglected. Primitive methods of pumping out the water proved inefficient and expensive. They required an outlay of money for wood, men-power and horses. The cost was prohibitive. Water-wheels proved unsatisfactory and mining engineers decided to try the new atmospheric-fire invention of Newcombe. Potter, an Englishman, came to install the new machinery in the Nova Ban.a mine. It was put into operation in 1724. But when it proved to be a failure it was dismantled. In 1733 a series of modified methods were introduced but all proved inadequate. Finally, J. K. Hell (1713-1789), a native Slovak engineer and machinist, installed his own machinery at the entrance of the mine in Banska stiavnica in 1749. It proved successful, and soon afterwards he installed his invention in a �SLOVAKIA 157 number of deep mine shafts. Later Hell developed a better atmospheric type of mine-pump. Mining methods for gold, silver and lead remained primitive and time consuming. It was Born's amalgamation process, developed and adapted from the Spanish types employed in the mines of South America, which reduced the time of processing silver from six weeks to approximately twelve hours. Moreover, wood was reduced to a minimum and lead was saved in the process. A silver metallurgical plant was built in Sklene Teplice, Slovakia, in 1785, and a lead mill or foundry was constructed in Ulmanka, near Stare Hory, in 1788. Sometime in the 14th century the manufacture of glass was introduced into Slovakia, most likely from the Czech plants in Bohemia. At first, ordinary glass was made, and only later quality glassware was produced for use in the metal and chemical plants in the country. We present a brief summary of the life-work of the following Slovak pioneers in technology. Some of these early scientific technicians are known, some but little known, but their work has all been at least partially evaluated. STEFAN A. JEDLfK Among the earliest inventors in Slovakia was Stefan Ananian Jedlik (1800-1896), who came from the village of Zemne, near Kollarovo, Slovakia. A talented youth he chose the priesthood as a life's vocation. In 1831 he was assigned as a teacher to the Gymnasium ( Junior College ) in Bratislava. Soon his work in Physics won the attention of the administration at the University of Budapest, where he was destined to teach for the next four decades. That is why the Magyars claim him as a Hungarian scientist although he stoutly maintained he was a Slovak. As an electro-technician Jedlik won wide acclaim when electricity was still in its infancy. As early as 1829 in his research in electro-magnetism, he hit upon the theory that an electro-magnet must oscillate simultaneously around another electro-magnet once the current is turned on. His experiments proved the theory true and his primitive motor was the forerunner of the induction motor. �158 SLOVAKIA Although Arag, a French physicist, is credited with the discovery of the theory of electro-magnetism , Jedlik's first motor was certainly closer to the idea of the induction motor than Arag's ideas in theoretical form. Unfortunately, the Slovak scientific genius did not publicize his discovery because he dismissed the motor as economically impractical because it depended on power from an expensive source he himself developed, and which a railroad firm adopted not merely for its own use for its telegraph system but actually put it on the market for general use later. In the late 1850's Jedlik discovered the principle of the self-generating dynamo in which a spark at the magnetic pole is sufficient to give it the initial impetus and gradually the electric current generated will attain maximum power. Werner Siemens, a German pioneer in this field, is given credit for the discovery of the dynamo-electric principle which he patented in 1866 despite the fact that Jedlik and others had actually made the discovery before Siemens registered his patent rights. So far it has been ascertained that Jedlik patented approximately eighty (80 ) patents, mostly in the electromagnetic field. Atoms, Jedlik declared, could be split by a high electric current. Matter, he said, consisted of a radio-active primate, later confirmed by the discovery of radium. AUREL STODOLA World renown was won by another Slovak, namely, Aurel Stodola (1859-1942) in the field of electro-technology indirectly, for he developed the idea of the extensive industrial use of electricity by inventing the steam and gas turbines. He always made it quite clear that he was a Slovak who was born in Liptovsky Sv. Mikulas, Slovakia. His first studies in Levoca were supplemented at the technological institute in Budapest. Here he won a scholarship to study at the technological school in Zilrich, Switzerland. After two years of work on the railways of Hungary, Stodola went for further study at the technical college in Charlotteburg in Germany, and then in Paris. He returned to his native homeland where he remained only a short time �SLOVAKIA 159 because his services were required by the Rustanka firm in Prague. In the 1880's Parsons and Laval's steam turbines caught the interest of Stodola who now began concentrating upon perfecting their theoretical ideas and putting them into practical use. His success won him a professorship at the Technological Institute in Ztirich, Switzerland in 1892. Here he remained until 1929. During this period he trained hundreds of experts of two generations in the field of steam and gas turbines. Stodola's life-work in the design and manufacture of turbine engines, which he continued to perfect constantly, remains unique in the scientific world. He won the Watt medal and the Nobel prize in science. JOZEF MURGAS Jozef Murgas (1864-1929), world famous pioneer in wireless telegraphy, was born in Tajov, near Banska Bystrica, Slovakia. He was born of a peasant family and early in life was destined to study for the priesthood. His talents were many, however, particularly in art. Soon after ordination he was sent by his bishop to study at the Academy of Art in Munich. For some reason shortly before completing his course of study at the Academy, he was recalled to Slovakia for pastoral work. Because of his ardent patriotism he incurred the hostility of the pro-Magyar ecclesiastical authorities. Upon hearing of the need for priests for Slovak immigrant communities, he immediately applied for this apostolate. Accordingly, he was sent to the anthracite city of Wilkes-Barre in northeastern Pennsylvania. Father Murgas' apostolate as pastor of a thriving Slovak parish was marked by devoted service to his Slovak people. In his spare time he did some painting, but his experiments in wireless teiegraphy began to take up most of his leisure moments. In his scientific laboratory, which he built himself at one end of the parsonage, the priest-scientist experimented in attempts to send messages by air. At first he used the Morse code but later replaced it with a tone system, which he patented in 1904. By 1911 he obtained about a dozen additional patents. Private speculators and syndicates sensed that his experiments were on the right track to revolutionize the communications' system, and they bombarded Father Mur- �160 SLOVAKIA gas with offers. Finally, the inventor accepted the bid from a Philadelphia syndicate, the Aether or Ether Telegraph Company, which furnished him with a new laboratory in return for his patent rights. But he had to erect the necessary towers for transmitting and receiving the messages. This Father Murgas did by constructing twin towers, each 60 meters in height, one near his home in Wilkes-Barre and the other about ten miles distant near Scranton, Pa. It is a matter of historical record that in 1905 Father Murgas succeeded in sending a message from his hometower to Scranton. Before he could pursue his experimentation further, however, a violent storm damaged the wooden towers and destroyed the antenas. His company refused to advance the money necessary for repairs and soon after the syndicate was dissolved. Apparently, Father Murgas was unable to raise enough money to make the repairs himself. Moreover, he became embroiled in a patent suit with Marconi (who was subsequently to be credited with the invention of modern radio) and Fessenden. Although Father Murgas won the law-suit, the government controls imposed on all means of communicati on at the outbreak of World War I prevented him from following up his initial success. Thus ended the scientific career of the great Slovak pioneer in wireless telegraphy. From this time until his death in 1929 he devoted all his time exclusively to pastoral service and patriotic work among his Slovak people. JOZEF M. PETZVAL Jozef Maximilian Petzval (Pecval)-180 7-1895-was a Slovak despite claims by Magyars and Austrians to the contrary. He was born in Spisska Bela in Slovakia. After completing his schooling in Podolinec, Levoca and the Lyceum in Kosice (in Slovakia) he attended the polytechnical institute at the University of Budapest. He paid his own way from his salary as a city engineer. After receiving his doctorate in mathematics he obtained a professorship at the University of Vienna in 1836. Petzval secured living quarters in an abandoned monastery on Kahlenberg hill above the city. Here he established his own mechanical laboratory where he began producing �SLOVAKIA 161 special optical lens of such quality so that soon they were in demand in all parts of the world. When the daguerrotype photo apparatus appeared on the scene in the 1830's Petzval opened his own studio where he made invaluable contributions to modern photography. By 1840 he developed a photo lens that increased the degree of light ten-fold, thereby considerably decreasing the time of exposure. Voigtlander, an optician in Vienna, became the recipient of a real windfall when Petzval surrendered his formulas in the science of optics to him in return for a contract. Voigtlander refused to live up to the agreement. Accordingly, Petzval became so bitterly involved in litigation that this caused him to become a recluse . .. a final outcome of his misanthropic tendencies. Petzval developed the basics for the production of lens for people afflicted with astigmatism, and his process was adopted in the 1880's by the great Zeiss corporation in Jena. From Petzval's laboratories came the first high-power telescopes and fieldglasses, super electric spotlights and other improvements in the field of optics, as well as new developments in the mathematical sciences. It was only during World War II that Petzval's name was discovered inscribed (in German) on a memorial tablet in his birthplace in Spisska Bela, Slovakia. STEFAN BANIC stefan Banic, the inventor of the parachute, emigrated from his native Slovakia in search of a job in the U.S. He worked at odd jobs and tinkered with an invention that resulted in the making of the first real, workable parachute for which he obtained patent rights from the U.S. Patent Office in 1914. Banic sold the patent rights to a company for a mere pittance and the company made millions on government orders from the U.S. Army Air force during the first World War. (A. A. Hoch, Vyndlezy, ktore zmenili svet (Inventions which changed the world). Published by Mlade Leta, Bratislava, 1959). � 156 SLOVAKIA Famous Slovak Inventors Long before the arrival of the Slovaks in central Europer the Celts who inhabited the area, mined iron-ore, silver, gold and lead and utilized these minerals in making various instruments, ornaments and utensils. As newcomers, the Slovaks continued to use these minerals centuries before the coming of the Turkish-Mongol tribes. Technically, both the mining and metal industries remained rather primitive until modern times. New methods and techniques which were developed outside the· country were not introduced until quite recently. Modernization of the mining industry in Slovakia, though of recent data, was preceded in the 17th and 18th centuries by several notable processes. In 1627, for example, it was K. Wendler, a Tyrolean explosive expert, who detonated the first black-powder charge in the Banska stiavnica mines in Slovakia; incidentally, the first of its kind in mining history. Then, J. A. Born (1742-1791), a Saxon from Transylvania, in the latter half of the 18th century introduced the quicksilver (mercury) amalgamation process of refining gold, silver and lead. At the end of the 17th century most of the Slovak mines were flooded because continual warfare caused them to be neglected. Primitive methods of pumping out the water proved inefficient and expensive. They required an outlay of money for wood, men-power and horses. The cost was prohibitive. Water-wheels proved unsatisfactory and mining engineers decided to try the new atmospheric-fire invention of Newcombe. Potter, an Englishman, came to install the new machinery in the Nova Ban.a mine. It was put into operation in 1724. But when it proved to be a failure it was dismantled. In 1733 a series of modified methods were introduced but all proved inadequate. Finally, J. K. Hell (1713-1789), a native Slovak engineer and machinist, installed his own machinery at the entrance of the mine in Banska stiavnica in 1749. It proved successful, and soon afterwards he installed his invention in a �SLOVAKIA 157 number of deep mine shafts. Later Hell developed a better atmospheric type of mine-pump. Mining methods for gold, silver and lead remained primitive and time consuming. It was Born's amalgamation process, developed and adapted from the Spanish types employed in the mines of South America, which reduced the time of processing silver from six weeks to approximately twelve hours. Moreover, wood was reduced to a minimum and lead was saved in the process. A silver metallurgical plant was built in Sklene Teplice, Slovakia, in 1785, and a lead mill or foundry was constructed in Ulmanka, near Stare Hory, in 1788. Sometime in the 14th century the manufacture of glass was introduced into Slovakia, most likely from the Czech plants in Bohemia. At first, ordinary glass was made, and only later quality glassware was produced for use in the metal and chemical plants in the country. We present a brief summary of the life-work of the following Slovak pioneers in technology. Some of these early scientific technicians are known, some but little known, but their work has all been at least partially evaluated. STEFAN A. JEDLfK Among the earliest inventors in Slovakia was Stefan Ananian Jedlik (1800-1896), who came from the village of Zemne, near Kollarovo, Slovakia. A talented youth he chose the priesthood as a life's vocation. In 1831 he was assigned as a teacher to the Gymnasium ( Junior College ) in Bratislava. Soon his work in Physics won the attention of the administration at the University of Budapest, where he was destined to teach for the next four decades. That is why the Magyars claim him as a Hungarian scientist although he stoutly maintained he was a Slovak. As an electro-technician Jedlik won wide acclaim when electricity was still in its infancy. As early as 1829 in his research in electro-magnetism, he hit upon the theory that an electro-magnet must oscillate simultaneously around another electro-magnet once the current is turned on. His experiments proved the theory true and his primitive motor was the forerunner of the induction motor. �158 SLOVAKIA Although Arag, a French physicist, is credited with the discovery of the theory of electro-magnetism , Jedlik's first motor was certainly closer to the idea of the induction motor than Arag's ideas in theoretical form. Unfortunately, the Slovak scientific genius did not publicize his discovery because he dismissed the motor as economically impractical because it depended on power from an expensive source he himself developed, and which a railroad firm adopted not merely for its own use for its telegraph system but actually put it on the market for general use later. In the late 1850's Jedlik discovered the principle of the self-generating dynamo in which a spark at the magnetic pole is sufficient to give it the initial impetus and gradually the electric current generated will attain maximum power. Werner Siemens, a German pioneer in this field, is given credit for the discovery of the dynamo-electric principle which he patented in 1866 despite the fact that Jedlik and others had actually made the discovery before Siemens registered his patent rights. So far it has been ascertained that Jedlik patented approximately eighty (80 ) patents, mostly in the electromagnetic field. Atoms, Jedlik declared, could be split by a high electric current. Matter, he said, consisted of a radio-active primate, later confirmed by the discovery of radium. AUREL STODOLA World renown was won by another Slovak, namely, Aurel Stodola (1859-1942) in the field of electro-technology indirectly, for he developed the idea of the extensive industrial use of electricity by inventing the steam and gas turbines. He always made it quite clear that he was a Slovak who was born in Liptovsky Sv. Mikulas, Slovakia. His first studies in Levoca were supplemented at the technological institute in Budapest. Here he won a scholarship to study at the technological school in Zilrich, Switzerland. After two years of work on the railways of Hungary, Stodola went for further study at the technical college in Charlotteburg in Germany, and then in Paris. He returned to his native homeland where he remained only a short time �SLOVAKIA 159 because his services were required by the Rustanka firm in Prague. In the 1880's Parsons and Laval's steam turbines caught the interest of Stodola who now began concentrating upon perfecting their theoretical ideas and putting them into practical use. His success won him a professorship at the Technological Institute in Ztirich, Switzerland in 1892. Here he remained until 1929. During this period he trained hundreds of experts of two generations in the field of steam and gas turbines. Stodola's life-work in the design and manufacture of turbine engines, which he continued to perfect constantly, remains unique in the scientific world. He won the Watt medal and the Nobel prize in science. JOZEF MURGAS Jozef Murgas (1864-1929), world famous pioneer in wireless telegraphy, was born in Tajov, near Banska Bystrica, Slovakia. He was born of a peasant family and early in life was destined to study for the priesthood. His talents were many, however, particularly in art. Soon after ordination he was sent by his bishop to study at the Academy of Art in Munich. For some reason shortly before completing his course of study at the Academy, he was recalled to Slovakia for pastoral work. Because of his ardent patriotism he incurred the hostility of the pro-Magyar ecclesiastical authorities. Upon hearing of the need for priests for Slovak immigrant communities, he immediately applied for this apostolate. Accordingly, he was sent to the anthracite city of Wilkes-Barre in northeastern Pennsylvania. Father Murgas' apostolate as pastor of a thriving Slovak parish was marked by devoted service to his Slovak people. In his spare time he did some painting, but his experiments in wireless teiegraphy began to take up most of his leisure moments. In his scientific laboratory, which he built himself at one end of the parsonage, the priest-scientist experimented in attempts to send messages by air. At first he used the Morse code but later replaced it with a tone system, which he patented in 1904. By 1911 he obtained about a dozen additional patents. Private speculators and syndicates sensed that his experiments were on the right track to revolutionize the communications' system, and they bombarded Father Mur- �160 SLOVAKIA gas with offers. Finally, the inventor accepted the bid from a Philadelphia syndicate, the Aether or Ether Telegraph Company, which furnished him with a new laboratory in return for his patent rights. But he had to erect the necessary towers for transmitting and receiving the messages. This Father Murgas did by constructing twin towers, each 60 meters in height, one near his home in Wilkes-Barre and the other about ten miles distant near Scranton, Pa. It is a matter of historical record that in 1905 Father Murgas succeeded in sending a message from his hometower to Scranton. Before he could pursue his experimentation further, however, a violent storm damaged the wooden towers and destroyed the antenas. His company refused to advance the money necessary for repairs and soon after the syndicate was dissolved. Apparently, Father Murgas was unable to raise enough money to make the repairs himself. Moreover, he became embroiled in a patent suit with Marconi (who was subsequently to be credited with the invention of modern radio) and Fessenden. Although Father Murgas won the law-suit, the government controls imposed on all means of communicati on at the outbreak of World War I prevented him from following up his initial success. Thus ended the scientific career of the great Slovak pioneer in wireless telegraphy. From this time until his death in 1929 he devoted all his time exclusively to pastoral service and patriotic work among his Slovak people. JOZEF M. PETZVAL Jozef Maximilian Petzval (Pecval)-180 7-1895-was a Slovak despite claims by Magyars and Austrians to the contrary. He was born in Spisska Bela in Slovakia. After completing his schooling in Podolinec, Levoca and the Lyceum in Kosice (in Slovakia) he attended the polytechnical institute at the University of Budapest. He paid his own way from his salary as a city engineer. After receiving his doctorate in mathematics he obtained a professorship at the University of Vienna in 1836. Petzval secured living quarters in an abandoned monastery on Kahlenberg hill above the city. Here he established his own mechanical laboratory where he began producing �SLOVAKIA 161 special optical lens of such quality so that soon they were in demand in all parts of the world. When the daguerrotype photo apparatus appeared on the scene in the 1830's Petzval opened his own studio where he made invaluable contributions to modern photography. By 1840 he developed a photo lens that increased the degree of light ten-fold, thereby considerably decreasing the time of exposure. Voigtlander, an optician in Vienna, became the recipient of a real windfall when Petzval surrendered his formulas in the science of optics to him in return for a contract. Voigtlander refused to live up to the agreement. Accordingly, Petzval became so bitterly involved in litigation that this caused him to become a recluse . .. a final outcome of his misanthropic tendencies. Petzval developed the basics for the production of lens for people afflicted with astigmatism, and his process was adopted in the 1880's by the great Zeiss corporation in Jena. From Petzval's laboratories came the first high-power telescopes and fieldglasses, super electric spotlights and other improvements in the field of optics, as well as new developments in the mathematical sciences. It was only during World War II that Petzval's name was discovered inscribed (in German) on a memorial tablet in his birthplace in Spisska Bela, Slovakia. STEFAN BANIC stefan Banic, the inventor of the parachute, emigrated from his native Slovakia in search of a job in the U.S. He worked at odd jobs and tinkered with an invention that resulted in the making of the first real, workable parachute for which he obtained patent rights from the U.S. Patent Office in 1914. Banic sold the patent rights to a company for a mere pittance and the company made millions on government orders from the U.S. Army Air force during the first World War. (A. A. Hoch, Vyndlezy, ktore zmenili svet (Inventions which changed the world). Published by Mlade Leta, Bratislava, 1959). � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1974, Vol. 24 Description An account of the resource Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document 156 SLOVAKIA Famous Slovak Inventors Long before the arrival of the Slovaks in central Europer the Celts who inhabited the area, mined iron-ore, silver, gold and lead and utilized these minerals in making various instruments, ornaments and utensils. As newcomers, the Slovaks continued to use these minerals centuries before the coming of the Turkish-Mongol tribes. Technically, both the mining and metal industries remained rather primitive until modern times. New methods and techniques which were developed outside the· country were not introduced until quite recently. Modernization of the mining industry in Slovakia, though of recent data, was preceded in the 17th and 18th centuries by several notable processes. In 1627, for example, it was K. Wendler, a Tyrolean explosive expert, who detonated the first black-powder charge in the Banska stiavnica mines in Slovakia; incidentally, the first of its kind in mining history. Then, J. A. Born (1742-1791), a Saxon from Transylvania, in the latter half of the 18th century introduced the quicksilver (mercury) amalgamation process of refining gold, silver and lead. At the end of the 17th century most of the Slovak mines were flooded because continual warfare caused them to be neglected. Primitive methods of pumping out the water proved inefficient and expensive. They required an outlay of money for wood, men-power and horses. The cost was prohibitive. Water-wheels proved unsatisfactory and mining engineers decided to try the new atmospheric-fire invention of Newcombe. Potter, an Englishman, came to install the new machinery in the Nova Ban.a mine. It was put into operation in 1724. But when it proved to be a failure it was dismantled. In 1733 a series of modified methods were introduced but all proved inadequate. Finally, J. K. Hell (1713-1789), a native Slovak engineer and machinist, installed his own machinery at the entrance of the mine in Banska stiavnica in 1749. It proved successful, and soon afterwards he installed his invention in a SLOVAKIA 157 number of deep mine shafts. Later Hell developed a better atmospheric type of mine-pump. Mining methods for gold, silver and lead remained primitive and time consuming. It was Born's amalgamation process, developed and adapted from the Spanish types employed in the mines of South America, which reduced the time of processing silver from six weeks to approximately twelve hours. Moreover, wood was reduced to a minimum and lead was saved in the process. A silver metallurgical plant was built in Sklene Teplice, Slovakia, in 1785, and a lead mill or foundry was constructed in Ulmanka, near Stare Hory, in 1788. Sometime in the 14th century the manufacture of glass was introduced into Slovakia, most likely from the Czech plants in Bohemia. At first, ordinary glass was made, and only later quality glassware was produced for use in the metal and chemical plants in the country. We present a brief summary of the life-work of the following Slovak pioneers in technology. Some of these early scientific technicians are known, some but little known, but their work has all been at least partially evaluated. STEFAN A. JEDLfK Among the earliest inventors in Slovakia was Stefan Ananian Jedlik (1800-1896), who came from the village of Zemne, near Kollarovo, Slovakia. A talented youth he chose the priesthood as a life's vocation. In 1831 he was assigned as a teacher to the Gymnasium ( Junior College ) in Bratislava. Soon his work in Physics won the attention of the administration at the University of Budapest, where he was destined to teach for the next four decades. That is why the Magyars claim him as a Hungarian scientist although he stoutly maintained he was a Slovak. As an electro-technician Jedlik won wide acclaim when electricity was still in its infancy. As early as 1829 in his research in electro-magnetism, he hit upon the theory that an electro-magnet must oscillate simultaneously around another electro-magnet once the current is turned on. His experiments proved the theory true and his primitive motor was the forerunner of the induction motor. 158 SLOVAKIA Although Arag, a French physicist, is credited with the discovery of the theory of electro-magnetism , Jedlik's first motor was certainly closer to the idea of the induction motor than Arag's ideas in theoretical form. Unfortunately, the Slovak scientific genius did not publicize his discovery because he dismissed the motor as economically impractical because it depended on power from an expensive source he himself developed, and which a railroad firm adopted not merely for its own use for its telegraph system but actually put it on the market for general use later. In the late 1850's Jedlik discovered the principle of the self-generating dynamo in which a spark at the magnetic pole is sufficient to give it the initial impetus and gradually the electric current generated will attain maximum power. Werner Siemens, a German pioneer in this field, is given credit for the discovery of the dynamo-electric principle which he patented in 1866 despite the fact that Jedlik and others had actually made the discovery before Siemens registered his patent rights. So far it has been ascertained that Jedlik patented approximately eighty (80 ) patents, mostly in the electromagnetic field. Atoms, Jedlik declared, could be split by a high electric current. Matter, he said, consisted of a radio-active primate, later confirmed by the discovery of radium. AUREL STODOLA World renown was won by another Slovak, namely, Aurel Stodola (1859-1942) in the field of electro-technology indirectly, for he developed the idea of the extensive industrial use of electricity by inventing the steam and gas turbines. He always made it quite clear that he was a Slovak who was born in Liptovsky Sv. Mikulas, Slovakia. His first studies in Levoca were supplemented at the technological institute in Budapest. Here he won a scholarship to study at the technological school in Zilrich, Switzerland. After two years of work on the railways of Hungary, Stodola went for further study at the technical college in Charlotteburg in Germany, and then in Paris. He returned to his native homeland where he remained only a short time SLOVAKIA 159 because his services were required by the Rustanka firm in Prague. In the 1880's Parsons and Laval's steam turbines caught the interest of Stodola who now began concentrating upon perfecting their theoretical ideas and putting them into practical use. His success won him a professorship at the Technological Institute in Ztirich, Switzerland in 1892. Here he remained until 1929. During this period he trained hundreds of experts of two generations in the field of steam and gas turbines. Stodola's life-work in the design and manufacture of turbine engines, which he continued to perfect constantly, remains unique in the scientific world. He won the Watt medal and the Nobel prize in science. JOZEF MURGAS Jozef Murgas (1864-1929), world famous pioneer in wireless telegraphy, was born in Tajov, near Banska Bystrica, Slovakia. He was born of a peasant family and early in life was destined to study for the priesthood. His talents were many, however, particularly in art. Soon after ordination he was sent by his bishop to study at the Academy of Art in Munich. For some reason shortly before completing his course of study at the Academy, he was recalled to Slovakia for pastoral work. Because of his ardent patriotism he incurred the hostility of the pro-Magyar ecclesiastical authorities. Upon hearing of the need for priests for Slovak immigrant communities, he immediately applied for this apostolate. Accordingly, he was sent to the anthracite city of Wilkes-Barre in northeastern Pennsylvania. Father Murgas' apostolate as pastor of a thriving Slovak parish was marked by devoted service to his Slovak people. In his spare time he did some painting, but his experiments in wireless teiegraphy began to take up most of his leisure moments. In his scientific laboratory, which he built himself at one end of the parsonage, the priest-scientist experimented in attempts to send messages by air. At first he used the Morse code but later replaced it with a tone system, which he patented in 1904. By 1911 he obtained about a dozen additional patents. Private speculators and syndicates sensed that his experiments were on the right track to revolutionize the communications' system, and they bombarded Father Mur- 160 SLOVAKIA gas with offers. Finally, the inventor accepted the bid from a Philadelphia syndicate, the Aether or Ether Telegraph Company, which furnished him with a new laboratory in return for his patent rights. But he had to erect the necessary towers for transmitting and receiving the messages. This Father Murgas did by constructing twin towers, each 60 meters in height, one near his home in Wilkes-Barre and the other about ten miles distant near Scranton, Pa. It is a matter of historical record that in 1905 Father Murgas succeeded in sending a message from his hometower to Scranton. Before he could pursue his experimentation further, however, a violent storm damaged the wooden towers and destroyed the antenas. His company refused to advance the money necessary for repairs and soon after the syndicate was dissolved. Apparently, Father Murgas was unable to raise enough money to make the repairs himself. Moreover, he became embroiled in a patent suit with Marconi (who was subsequently to be credited with the invention of modern radio) and Fessenden. Although Father Murgas won the law-suit, the government controls imposed on all means of communicati on at the outbreak of World War I prevented him from following up his initial success. Thus ended the scientific career of the great Slovak pioneer in wireless telegraphy. From this time until his death in 1929 he devoted all his time exclusively to pastoral service and patriotic work among his Slovak people. JOZEF M. PETZVAL Jozef Maximilian Petzval (Pecval)-180 7-1895-was a Slovak despite claims by Magyars and Austrians to the contrary. He was born in Spisska Bela in Slovakia. After completing his schooling in Podolinec, Levoca and the Lyceum in Kosice (in Slovakia) he attended the polytechnical institute at the University of Budapest. He paid his own way from his salary as a city engineer. After receiving his doctorate in mathematics he obtained a professorship at the University of Vienna in 1836. Petzval secured living quarters in an abandoned monastery on Kahlenberg hill above the city. Here he established his own mechanical laboratory where he began producing SLOVAKIA 161 special optical lens of such quality so that soon they were in demand in all parts of the world. When the daguerrotype photo apparatus appeared on the scene in the 1830's Petzval opened his own studio where he made invaluable contributions to modern photography. By 1840 he developed a photo lens that increased the degree of light ten-fold, thereby considerably decreasing the time of exposure. Voigtlander, an optician in Vienna, became the recipient of a real windfall when Petzval surrendered his formulas in the science of optics to him in return for a contract. Voigtlander refused to live up to the agreement. Accordingly, Petzval became so bitterly involved in litigation that this caused him to become a recluse . .. a final outcome of his misanthropic tendencies. Petzval developed the basics for the production of lens for people afflicted with astigmatism, and his process was adopted in the 1880's by the great Zeiss corporation in Jena. From Petzval's laboratories came the first high-power telescopes and fieldglasses, super electric spotlights and other improvements in the field of optics, as well as new developments in the mathematical sciences. It was only during World War II that Petzval's name was discovered inscribed (in German) on a memorial tablet in his birthplace in Spisska Bela, Slovakia. STEFAN BANIC stefan Banic, the inventor of the parachute, emigrated from his native Slovakia in search of a job in the U.S. He worked at odd jobs and tinkered with an invention that resulted in the making of the first real, workable parachute for which he obtained patent rights from the U.S. Patent Office in 1914. Banic sold the patent rights to a company for a mere pittance and the company made millions on government orders from the U.S. Army Air force during the first World War. (A. A. Hoch, Vyndlezy, ktore zmenili svet (Inventions which changed the world). Published by Mlade Leta, Bratislava, 1959).  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Famous Slovak Inventors Description An account of the resource from A. A. Hoch, Vynálezy, ktoré zmenili svet (Inventions Which Changed the World), pub. Mladé Letá, Bratislava, 1959. covers Štefan A. Jedlík, Aurel Stodola, Jozef Murgaš, Jozef M. Petzval, Štefan Banič Slovakia, Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974 pp. 156-161 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hoch, Alois Adalbert, 1888-1978 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 SNK https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/515b0e4ac86bbf6f0063a375becb5f25.pdf 9f300ab3cdcf65f756d206de1ede1137 PDF Text Text 162 SLOVAKIA WINNING ESSAYS Slovak League of America Scholarship Program I. SLOVAK BACKGROUND OF EVENTS THROUGH THE SOVIET TAKEOVER IN 1968 By Jane N o o n a n Prior to World War I and the formation of the CzechoSlovak State, the Czech lands and Slovakia were contiguous but separate and geographically situated in the heart of central Europe, at the crossroads of the continent, between the Carpathian Mountains on the north and the Danube and Tisza Rivers on the south. Its inhabitants are known as Slovaks and Czechs and with the Poles of Poland belong to the group of Western Slavs. Since early in the Middle Ages, these and other Slavic peoples have been involved in the great European struggles. During World War I, the spirit of nationalism was greatly stimulated within the Austro-Hungarian Empire. This spirit was reflected by increasing demands for outright independence for the different nations within that empire. In the course of that war, Czech political leaders established a secret committee which directed the activities of the Czech nationalists at home and abroad. Thomas G. Masaryk, as the leader of this movement, toured Europe and the United States where he received encouragement and support. Meanwhile, a movement arose among the large number of Americans of Slovak descent promoting Slovakia's separation from Hungary. Three different solutions of the Slovak problem were imagined-Slovakia as a new state, as a partner of a Czecho-Slovak Federation, and as a territory forming a political union with the prospective Polish Republic. �SLOVAKIA 163 The Slovak League of America entered into contact with the Americans of Czech descent and in 1915 signed with their organization the Cleveland Agreement, and in 1918 the Pittsburgh Pact, both of which aimed at the creation of a Czecho-Slovak federal state. In these documents, the Slovak organization stipulated that Slovakia should be an equal member with the Czech lands and have complete legislative, executive, judicial, and cultural independence in strictly national matters, while matters of common interest, such as foreign affairs and defense, should be within the competence of a common parliament. History shows that Masaryk did not live up to the commitments of the Pittsburgh Pact even though he was one of its signers. Redistributio n of land was an urgent problem facing the new government and a Land Reform Act, therefore, was one of the first measures passed by the Czecho-Slovak Parliament. This act entitled the state to take over, after compensation , all land from the great estates in excess of a fixed maximum, and to permit land purchases by those who needed it most. Thus, the agrarian reform program greatly improved the material conditions of the rural population and averted disturbances. The cultural level of the Slovaks and Czechs was high and their passion for education prompted the new republic t o establish additional free schools and by improving existing schools. The Czecho-Slovak State also forged ahead in the field of social improvement . All groups and interests possessed the right of organization and thus organized labor had its trade unions, farmers their societies, and white-collar workers and businessmen their associations. Health and other types of social insurance were either provided for or encouraged by the State and provision was made for State assistance to housing and co-ops. As to the religious situation, 80 % of the population was Roman Catholic, but the Protestant element played a role far beyond its numerical strength. Many prominent political leaders, Thomas G. Masaryk among them, belonged to the Protestant faith . Economically and financially, Czecho-Slovakia was a sound state in central Europe. As an exporting country it was severly hit by the world economic depression of the �164 SLOVAKIA early thirties, but, by timely adjustments to new price and exchange levels, it was one of the first European countries to weather the crisis. Before Hitler came to power in 1933, Czecho-Slovakia was an enthusiastic supporter of the League of Nations and collaborated whole-heartedly in the negotiations which brought Germany and the Soviet Union into the League. However, when Hitler came to power, Czecho-Slovakia's foreign relations entered into a critical phase. Desperately anxious to avert a new war, France and Great Britain proposed in 1938 to Czecho-Slovakia that she not oppose the leaders of the Sudeten German movement, and further cede to Germany all areas with a German majority. When Czecho-Slovakia demurred, she was informed that she must accept the proposal or bear the consequences alone. The result was that Czecho-Slovakia gave in and the country was divided on the lines dictated by Hitler. After Munich'~' , Czecho-Slovakia tried to adjust itself to the new situation. President Benes resigned and left the country - and the transition to Hitler's New Order was swift. The administration was purged, the press put under rigorous control and anti-democratic measures were enacted. According to the Nuremberg documents, Hitler at that time had already decided to destroy Czecho-Slovakia. But there was apparently no definite decision on Slovakia as to whether to place it under German occupation or to have it occupied by Hungary. On March 14, 1939, the government of Dr. Jozef Tiso of Slovakia proclaimed Slovakia as an independent republic. Dr. Tiso was a Monsignor in the Roman Catholic Church and Vice-President of the People's Party of Slovakia. The Slovak people considered the act was the result of the Prague regime's violations of agreements that had been signed between Prague ( the Czech capital) and Bratislava (the capital of Slovakia) and which agreements had been incorporated in their Constitution. Public demonstrations spread throughout Slovakia. Hitler then suggested, in order to prevent Hungary possibly taking over Slovakia, that there be a declaration of Slovakia's independence. Even though the Slovak State was largely the result of a tense international situation, it nevertheless corresponded to the aspirations of the Slovak people for freedom �SLOVAKIA 165 and the principle of self-determination and self-government. The Slovak state was far from being a perfect democracy in the traditional sense. It, however, reflected a compromise between the past and present, between an old tradition and a temporarily determined political dynamism in Central Europe. But, in general, it was an expression of the selfpreservation instinct of the Slovak nation. In 1941, the Slovak Government found it necessary, because of circumstances, to join Germany in the war against the Soviet Union. However, the Slovak forces, during the Second World War, did not engage in combat against any of the Western Powers. In 1944, an uprising, improvised by Russian Communists as well as Slovak communists, took place and of course the Germans intervened. It took the Nazis exactly two months to crush this rebellion and in the meantime the Red Army laying the ground work for its invasion, held up for more than three months on the Carpathian Mountains, watching this national tragedy quietly. Around 30,000 Slovaks of all political shades were killed in this uprising. Once the uprising had been liquidated, the Soviet Army began to advance and finally occupied Slovakia's territory by mid-April, 1945. Meanwhile, Dr. Benes and most of the Cabinet flew to Moscow where the new Czecho-Slovak Government was to be formed. Dr. Benes and his political entourage believed, or at least hoped, that collaboration between democracy and communism was possible and that co-existence could be achieved without the loss of freedom. They fostered the illusion that the Czech and Slovak Communists were different from other Reds and that their methods would turn out to be evolutionary rather than revolutionary. Thus, the Communist seizure of power in 1948 may be traced back to the 1945 Moscow meeting, and so it was that in April of 1945, Benes proclaimed the so-called 'Kosice Program' for the new Government of re-established CzechoSlovakia. The 'Kosice Program' was in effect a death sentence for the past. In July, 1947, an important event illustrated the new course of Czecho-Slovakia's foreign relations when the Czecho-Slovak Government had unanimously accepted the invitation to a conference of the Marshall Plan, which was �166 SLOVAKIA to be held in Paris. But Moscow reacted vehemently, asserting that Czecho-Slovakia, by accepting the Marshall Plan, would be participating in a political scheme directed against the Soviet Union and demanded that the Government reverse its decision. The Government complied. This was just the beginning of open interference by the Soviets in Czecho-Slovakia's foreign affairs. Then, with the Communist undermining the February, 1948 elections in Czecho-Slovakia, and Benes because of the Communistic pressure accepting the resignations of the 12 Democratic Minister, the Iron Curtain descended on the Czecho-Slovak frontier. Since 1948, Czechs and Slovaks had no independent foreign policy of their own, while internally both the Slovaks and Czechs have been forced to accept systematically 'introduced Soviet institutions which were designed to submerge their national and ethnic consciousness. Furthermore, the Russians have recklessly fostered heavy industry in Slovakia to serve Soviet military and economic needs, while wishes and well-being of the local people go almost totally unheeded. Hence, the Russians enjoy scant confidence and support from the bulk of the Slovak people who look upon them not as "socialist brothers" but instead as tyrans. The government of Czecho-Slovakia is communist, although people qualified to estimate have guessed that no more than 12 to 15 % are Party members or are unqualified supporters of communism. Thus, the peoples of Czecho-Slovakia were pitifully robbed of their economic, spiritual, and intellectual will under the terror of Stalin. This continued for approximately two decades. By the latter part of 1967, Party Chief Novotny of Czecho-Slovakia found himself enmeshed in a political crisis of major proportions; he had alienated the country's educated factions, the economy was in a mess and no one trusted or approved of his efforts to improve the situation, and finally, the Slovaks, led by Alexander Dubcek were daily gaining power towards the goal of getting more of their own people in high government office. Eventually, on February 18, 1968, Novotny lost his job as Party Chief to Alexander Dubcek. The inevitable pressure of circumstances caused Dubcek, a proud Slovak, to transform Czecho-Slovakia into the most liberal state east of the Iron Curtain. �SLOVAKIA 167 Literary and press censorship was abolished, many victims of the Stalinist terror trials were publicly rehabilitated, freedom of minority opinion was guaranteed, travel and trade restrictions with the West were eased, the first strike of Czecho-Slovakia workers under communism was allowed, the police were required to wear numbered badges for identification, the church was partially freed of restraints, and finally the National Assembly was allowed to develop real legislative powers. Mr. Dubcek wanted the government to reflect the will of the people and to respect their traditions. On April 15, 1968, Dubcek unveiled his plans for the future as he published his "Action Program" in which he outlined his plans for even more freedom of the press, rights of assembly, and even larger increase of trade with the rest of Europe, especially with West Germany. Hence, in early 1968, Alexander Dubcek, who began as a leader of the aggrieved Slovaks, ended up as a national symbol for the entire nation. This event, however, created a situation that was both unique and dangerous to continued Russian domination of Eastern Europe. The reforms contemplated for Czecho-Slovakia went far beyond anything attempted before in the Soviet Bloc. Furthermore, there was a clearly pronounced anti-Soviet character to the popular responses to the planned liberalization reforms. Dubcek, although an ardent socialist, attempted to apply the principle that practicing socialism must respect the traditions of the country. All of the foregoing consequently alarmed the Russians, who publicly sought, at every opportunity available, to confer with Dubcek and privately to undermine his support and popularity in every way possible. And so on the night of August 21, 1968,' great hordes of Russian-led tanks and troops crossed into Czecho-Slovakia from neighboring Iron Curtain countries to end the most valiant and extensive attempt to liberalize a communist dominated land. This protest movement, although initiated to a large degree by Slovaks and led by a Slovak Dubcek, had nevertheless succeeded in rallying all segments of the country to seek a freer, more democratic way of life. The Soviets dared not let the noble experiment last, and therefore, in contradiction to all moral and international treaty �168 SLOVAKIA law, they intimidated the Slovaks and Czechs into partial submission by massed military might. Dubcek pleaded with his fellow countrymen that the only way to keep the nation from being literally destroyed by the Russians was to maintain strict discipline and order, as the withdrawal of Russian military force depended on the order in the country. However, the dislike for the invaders was so strong that the Slovaks and Czechs did protest and cursed and spat upon the troops, and some futile attempts at armed resistance was made by courageous young Slovaks who hurled gasoline bombs on tanks, thereby setting them ablaze and their crews scurrying. On August 21, 1968, Russian tanks ended a period of approximately 71/2 months of comparative freedom for the Slovaks and Czechs, and in one brutal week's work, the U.S.S.R. with its "rape of Czecho-Slovakia" made it crystalclear that even a little freedom is more than Soviet communism can tolerate. In conclusion, one must remember it has been said that the longest journey always starts with a single step, and possibly this can be applied to the efforts of the Slovak people to free themselves from the heavy burden of Russian oppression. Hopefully someday in the near future, they will be able to take more, even broader strides towards their freedom. In any case, it does not seem probable that the Slovaks will be forced to step back again. No other nation has suffered so much nor been more misunderstood as had been Slovakia and yet still possesses a fire of determination for its freedom and self-determination. Slovakia did emerge but unfortunately was stifled; yet she will again someday rise up to stand among the free and independent peoples of the earth as mistress of her own household. So be it! an agreement signed in Munich, Germany on September 30, 1938 forcing Czecho-Slovakia to give up the Sudetenland, part of its territory, to Nazi Germany. • Munich - (First place - College) BIBLIOGRAPHY BOOKS Freidin, Seymour, The Forgotten P eople, 1962, Charles Scribner & Soru. Kavka, Frantisek, A n Outline of Czecho-Slovak History, Prague, Orbis, 1963. �SLOVAKIA 169 Kirschbaum, Joseph M., "Twenty Years of Czech and Communist Rule in Slovakia," SLovakia, 1965. Levine, Isaac D., Intervention, 1969, Van Rees Press. Oddo, Gilbert L., Slovakia and its People, 1960, Robert Speller and Sons. Pauco, Joseph (ed.), Slovakia, 1966, 1968, 1969, Slovak League of America. Roberts, Adam and Windsor, Philip, Czechoslovakia 1968, 1969, Columbia University Press. Schwartz, Harry, Prague's 200 Days, 1969, Frederick A. Praeger, Inc. Zubek, T. J ., O.F.M., Church of Silence in Slovakia, 1969, J. J . Lach. MAGAZINES Newsweek, Prague Defies the Kremlin, July 29, 1968. Reader's Digest, The Rape of Czechoslovakia, November, 1968. Time, Self-Determination for Czechoslovakia, April 5, 1968; Czechoslovakia-Approaching Total Eclipse, April 6, 1970; Alexander Dubcek's AU Too Human Face, May 18, 1970. PAMPHLETS AND PAPERS Committee on Un-American Activities, Soviet Total War, 1956. Embassy of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, Background Notes Department of State, Socialist Republic Background Notes. New York Times, February 10, 1970, Students in Prague Now Know Their Beautiful Dream is Over, by Alvin Shuster. Hrobak, Philip A., Who Betrayed Slovakia to the Reds. THE SLOVAK ARTS IN PERSPECTIVE Marlene B a rt o s It is \from the vantage point of a multi-ethnic democracy such as the United States that Slovak cultural history can best be placed in true perspective. This paper is an attempt to do so. Because Slovak cultural history has so many ramifications that reach deeply in the histories of neighboring nations, this presentation considers only the theatrical and musical arts, and then only in historical delineation. Analyses and evaluations must remain for the future. The earliest recorded report of a theatrical presentation in Slovakia is the performance of a Christmas play in Bratislava in 1439. By the mid-1500's, plays seem to have been regularly presented. The year 1544 to 1545, for example, records the performances of two plays in German; the one entitled Judith, the other, The Five Wise and Unwise Maidens. Similar reports record activity in Bardejov and Kremnica. (Dejiny slovenskej literatury, 1960. History of Slovak Literature.) � 162 SLOVAKIA WINNING ESSAYS Slovak League of America Scholarship Program I. SLOVAK BACKGROUND OF EVENTS THROUGH THE SOVIET TAKEOVER IN 1968 By Jane N o o n a n Prior to World War I and the formation of the CzechoSlovak State, the Czech lands and Slovakia were contiguous but separate and geographically situated in the heart of central Europe, at the crossroads of the continent, between the Carpathian Mountains on the north and the Danube and Tisza Rivers on the south. Its inhabitants are known as Slovaks and Czechs and with the Poles of Poland belong to the group of Western Slavs. Since early in the Middle Ages, these and other Slavic peoples have been involved in the great European struggles. During World War I, the spirit of nationalism was greatly stimulated within the Austro-Hungarian Empire. This spirit was reflected by increasing demands for outright independence for the different nations within that empire. In the course of that war, Czech political leaders established a secret committee which directed the activities of the Czech nationalists at home and abroad. Thomas G. Masaryk, as the leader of this movement, toured Europe and the United States where he received encouragement and support. Meanwhile, a movement arose among the large number of Americans of Slovak descent promoting Slovakia's separation from Hungary. Three different solutions of the Slovak problem were imagined-Slovakia as a new state, as a partner of a Czecho-Slovak Federation, and as a territory forming a political union with the prospective Polish Republic. �SLOVAKIA 163 The Slovak League of America entered into contact with the Americans of Czech descent and in 1915 signed with their organization the Cleveland Agreement, and in 1918 the Pittsburgh Pact, both of which aimed at the creation of a Czecho-Slovak federal state. In these documents, the Slovak organization stipulated that Slovakia should be an equal member with the Czech lands and have complete legislative, executive, judicial, and cultural independence in strictly national matters, while matters of common interest, such as foreign affairs and defense, should be within the competence of a common parliament. History shows that Masaryk did not live up to the commitments of the Pittsburgh Pact even though he was one of its signers. Redistributio n of land was an urgent problem facing the new government and a Land Reform Act, therefore, was one of the first measures passed by the Czecho-Slovak Parliament. This act entitled the state to take over, after compensation , all land from the great estates in excess of a fixed maximum, and to permit land purchases by those who needed it most. Thus, the agrarian reform program greatly improved the material conditions of the rural population and averted disturbances. The cultural level of the Slovaks and Czechs was high and their passion for education prompted the new republic t o establish additional free schools and by improving existing schools. The Czecho-Slovak State also forged ahead in the field of social improvement . All groups and interests possessed the right of organization and thus organized labor had its trade unions, farmers their societies, and white-collar workers and businessmen their associations. Health and other types of social insurance were either provided for or encouraged by the State and provision was made for State assistance to housing and co-ops. As to the religious situation, 80 % of the population was Roman Catholic, but the Protestant element played a role far beyond its numerical strength. Many prominent political leaders, Thomas G. Masaryk among them, belonged to the Protestant faith . Economically and financially, Czecho-Slovakia was a sound state in central Europe. As an exporting country it was severly hit by the world economic depression of the �164 SLOVAKIA early thirties, but, by timely adjustments to new price and exchange levels, it was one of the first European countries to weather the crisis. Before Hitler came to power in 1933, Czecho-Slovakia was an enthusiastic supporter of the League of Nations and collaborated whole-heartedly in the negotiations which brought Germany and the Soviet Union into the League. However, when Hitler came to power, Czecho-Slovakia's foreign relations entered into a critical phase. Desperately anxious to avert a new war, France and Great Britain proposed in 1938 to Czecho-Slovakia that she not oppose the leaders of the Sudeten German movement, and further cede to Germany all areas with a German majority. When Czecho-Slovakia demurred, she was informed that she must accept the proposal or bear the consequences alone. The result was that Czecho-Slovakia gave in and the country was divided on the lines dictated by Hitler. After Munich'~' , Czecho-Slovakia tried to adjust itself to the new situation. President Benes resigned and left the country - and the transition to Hitler's New Order was swift. The administration was purged, the press put under rigorous control and anti-democratic measures were enacted. According to the Nuremberg documents, Hitler at that time had already decided to destroy Czecho-Slovakia. But there was apparently no definite decision on Slovakia as to whether to place it under German occupation or to have it occupied by Hungary. On March 14, 1939, the government of Dr. Jozef Tiso of Slovakia proclaimed Slovakia as an independent republic. Dr. Tiso was a Monsignor in the Roman Catholic Church and Vice-President of the People's Party of Slovakia. The Slovak people considered the act was the result of the Prague regime's violations of agreements that had been signed between Prague ( the Czech capital) and Bratislava (the capital of Slovakia) and which agreements had been incorporated in their Constitution. Public demonstrations spread throughout Slovakia. Hitler then suggested, in order to prevent Hungary possibly taking over Slovakia, that there be a declaration of Slovakia's independence. Even though the Slovak State was largely the result of a tense international situation, it nevertheless corresponded to the aspirations of the Slovak people for freedom �SLOVAKIA 165 and the principle of self-determination and self-government. The Slovak state was far from being a perfect democracy in the traditional sense. It, however, reflected a compromise between the past and present, between an old tradition and a temporarily determined political dynamism in Central Europe. But, in general, it was an expression of the selfpreservation instinct of the Slovak nation. In 1941, the Slovak Government found it necessary, because of circumstances, to join Germany in the war against the Soviet Union. However, the Slovak forces, during the Second World War, did not engage in combat against any of the Western Powers. In 1944, an uprising, improvised by Russian Communists as well as Slovak communists, took place and of course the Germans intervened. It took the Nazis exactly two months to crush this rebellion and in the meantime the Red Army laying the ground work for its invasion, held up for more than three months on the Carpathian Mountains, watching this national tragedy quietly. Around 30,000 Slovaks of all political shades were killed in this uprising. Once the uprising had been liquidated, the Soviet Army began to advance and finally occupied Slovakia's territory by mid-April, 1945. Meanwhile, Dr. Benes and most of the Cabinet flew to Moscow where the new Czecho-Slovak Government was to be formed. Dr. Benes and his political entourage believed, or at least hoped, that collaboration between democracy and communism was possible and that co-existence could be achieved without the loss of freedom. They fostered the illusion that the Czech and Slovak Communists were different from other Reds and that their methods would turn out to be evolutionary rather than revolutionary. Thus, the Communist seizure of power in 1948 may be traced back to the 1945 Moscow meeting, and so it was that in April of 1945, Benes proclaimed the so-called 'Kosice Program' for the new Government of re-established CzechoSlovakia. The 'Kosice Program' was in effect a death sentence for the past. In July, 1947, an important event illustrated the new course of Czecho-Slovakia's foreign relations when the Czecho-Slovak Government had unanimously accepted the invitation to a conference of the Marshall Plan, which was �166 SLOVAKIA to be held in Paris. But Moscow reacted vehemently, asserting that Czecho-Slovakia, by accepting the Marshall Plan, would be participating in a political scheme directed against the Soviet Union and demanded that the Government reverse its decision. The Government complied. This was just the beginning of open interference by the Soviets in Czecho-Slovakia's foreign affairs. Then, with the Communist undermining the February, 1948 elections in Czecho-Slovakia, and Benes because of the Communistic pressure accepting the resignations of the 12 Democratic Minister, the Iron Curtain descended on the Czecho-Slovak frontier. Since 1948, Czechs and Slovaks had no independent foreign policy of their own, while internally both the Slovaks and Czechs have been forced to accept systematically 'introduced Soviet institutions which were designed to submerge their national and ethnic consciousness. Furthermore, the Russians have recklessly fostered heavy industry in Slovakia to serve Soviet military and economic needs, while wishes and well-being of the local people go almost totally unheeded. Hence, the Russians enjoy scant confidence and support from the bulk of the Slovak people who look upon them not as "socialist brothers" but instead as tyrans. The government of Czecho-Slovakia is communist, although people qualified to estimate have guessed that no more than 12 to 15 % are Party members or are unqualified supporters of communism. Thus, the peoples of Czecho-Slovakia were pitifully robbed of their economic, spiritual, and intellectual will under the terror of Stalin. This continued for approximately two decades. By the latter part of 1967, Party Chief Novotny of Czecho-Slovakia found himself enmeshed in a political crisis of major proportions; he had alienated the country's educated factions, the economy was in a mess and no one trusted or approved of his efforts to improve the situation, and finally, the Slovaks, led by Alexander Dubcek were daily gaining power towards the goal of getting more of their own people in high government office. Eventually, on February 18, 1968, Novotny lost his job as Party Chief to Alexander Dubcek. The inevitable pressure of circumstances caused Dubcek, a proud Slovak, to transform Czecho-Slovakia into the most liberal state east of the Iron Curtain. �SLOVAKIA 167 Literary and press censorship was abolished, many victims of the Stalinist terror trials were publicly rehabilitated, freedom of minority opinion was guaranteed, travel and trade restrictions with the West were eased, the first strike of Czecho-Slovakia workers under communism was allowed, the police were required to wear numbered badges for identification, the church was partially freed of restraints, and finally the National Assembly was allowed to develop real legislative powers. Mr. Dubcek wanted the government to reflect the will of the people and to respect their traditions. On April 15, 1968, Dubcek unveiled his plans for the future as he published his "Action Program" in which he outlined his plans for even more freedom of the press, rights of assembly, and even larger increase of trade with the rest of Europe, especially with West Germany. Hence, in early 1968, Alexander Dubcek, who began as a leader of the aggrieved Slovaks, ended up as a national symbol for the entire nation. This event, however, created a situation that was both unique and dangerous to continued Russian domination of Eastern Europe. The reforms contemplated for Czecho-Slovakia went far beyond anything attempted before in the Soviet Bloc. Furthermore, there was a clearly pronounced anti-Soviet character to the popular responses to the planned liberalization reforms. Dubcek, although an ardent socialist, attempted to apply the principle that practicing socialism must respect the traditions of the country. All of the foregoing consequently alarmed the Russians, who publicly sought, at every opportunity available, to confer with Dubcek and privately to undermine his support and popularity in every way possible. And so on the night of August 21, 1968,' great hordes of Russian-led tanks and troops crossed into Czecho-Slovakia from neighboring Iron Curtain countries to end the most valiant and extensive attempt to liberalize a communist dominated land. This protest movement, although initiated to a large degree by Slovaks and led by a Slovak Dubcek, had nevertheless succeeded in rallying all segments of the country to seek a freer, more democratic way of life. The Soviets dared not let the noble experiment last, and therefore, in contradiction to all moral and international treaty �168 SLOVAKIA law, they intimidated the Slovaks and Czechs into partial submission by massed military might. Dubcek pleaded with his fellow countrymen that the only way to keep the nation from being literally destroyed by the Russians was to maintain strict discipline and order, as the withdrawal of Russian military force depended on the order in the country. However, the dislike for the invaders was so strong that the Slovaks and Czechs did protest and cursed and spat upon the troops, and some futile attempts at armed resistance was made by courageous young Slovaks who hurled gasoline bombs on tanks, thereby setting them ablaze and their crews scurrying. On August 21, 1968, Russian tanks ended a period of approximately 71/2 months of comparative freedom for the Slovaks and Czechs, and in one brutal week's work, the U.S.S.R. with its "rape of Czecho-Slovakia" made it crystalclear that even a little freedom is more than Soviet communism can tolerate. In conclusion, one must remember it has been said that the longest journey always starts with a single step, and possibly this can be applied to the efforts of the Slovak people to free themselves from the heavy burden of Russian oppression. Hopefully someday in the near future, they will be able to take more, even broader strides towards their freedom. In any case, it does not seem probable that the Slovaks will be forced to step back again. No other nation has suffered so much nor been more misunderstood as had been Slovakia and yet still possesses a fire of determination for its freedom and self-determination. Slovakia did emerge but unfortunately was stifled; yet she will again someday rise up to stand among the free and independent peoples of the earth as mistress of her own household. So be it! an agreement signed in Munich, Germany on September 30, 1938 forcing Czecho-Slovakia to give up the Sudetenland, part of its territory, to Nazi Germany. • Munich - (First place - College) BIBLIOGRAPHY BOOKS Freidin, Seymour, The Forgotten P eople, 1962, Charles Scribner & Soru. Kavka, Frantisek, A n Outline of Czecho-Slovak History, Prague, Orbis, 1963. �SLOVAKIA 169 Kirschbaum, Joseph M., "Twenty Years of Czech and Communist Rule in Slovakia," SLovakia, 1965. Levine, Isaac D., Intervention, 1969, Van Rees Press. Oddo, Gilbert L., Slovakia and its People, 1960, Robert Speller and Sons. Pauco, Joseph (ed.), Slovakia, 1966, 1968, 1969, Slovak League of America. Roberts, Adam and Windsor, Philip, Czechoslovakia 1968, 1969, Columbia University Press. Schwartz, Harry, Prague's 200 Days, 1969, Frederick A. Praeger, Inc. Zubek, T. J ., O.F.M., Church of Silence in Slovakia, 1969, J. J . Lach. MAGAZINES Newsweek, Prague Defies the Kremlin, July 29, 1968. Reader's Digest, The Rape of Czechoslovakia, November, 1968. Time, Self-Determination for Czechoslovakia, April 5, 1968; Czechoslovakia-Approaching Total Eclipse, April 6, 1970; Alexander Dubcek's AU Too Human Face, May 18, 1970. PAMPHLETS AND PAPERS Committee on Un-American Activities, Soviet Total War, 1956. Embassy of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, Background Notes Department of State, Socialist Republic Background Notes. New York Times, February 10, 1970, Students in Prague Now Know Their Beautiful Dream is Over, by Alvin Shuster. Hrobak, Philip A., Who Betrayed Slovakia to the Reds. THE SLOVAK ARTS IN PERSPECTIVE Marlene B a rt o s It is \from the vantage point of a multi-ethnic democracy such as the United States that Slovak cultural history can best be placed in true perspective. This paper is an attempt to do so. Because Slovak cultural history has so many ramifications that reach deeply in the histories of neighboring nations, this presentation considers only the theatrical and musical arts, and then only in historical delineation. Analyses and evaluations must remain for the future. The earliest recorded report of a theatrical presentation in Slovakia is the performance of a Christmas play in Bratislava in 1439. By the mid-1500's, plays seem to have been regularly presented. The year 1544 to 1545, for example, records the performances of two plays in German; the one entitled Judith, the other, The Five Wise and Unwise Maidens. Similar reports record activity in Bardejov and Kremnica. (Dejiny slovenskej literatury, 1960. History of Slovak Literature.) � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1974, Vol. 24 Description An account of the resource Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document 162 SLOVAKIA WINNING ESSAYS Slovak League of America Scholarship Program I. SLOVAK BACKGROUND OF EVENTS THROUGH THE SOVIET TAKEOVER IN 1968 By Jane N o o n a n Prior to World War I and the formation of the CzechoSlovak State, the Czech lands and Slovakia were contiguous but separate and geographically situated in the heart of central Europe, at the crossroads of the continent, between the Carpathian Mountains on the north and the Danube and Tisza Rivers on the south. Its inhabitants are known as Slovaks and Czechs and with the Poles of Poland belong to the group of Western Slavs. Since early in the Middle Ages, these and other Slavic peoples have been involved in the great European struggles. During World War I, the spirit of nationalism was greatly stimulated within the Austro-Hungarian Empire. This spirit was reflected by increasing demands for outright independence for the different nations within that empire. In the course of that war, Czech political leaders established a secret committee which directed the activities of the Czech nationalists at home and abroad. Thomas G. Masaryk, as the leader of this movement, toured Europe and the United States where he received encouragement and support. Meanwhile, a movement arose among the large number of Americans of Slovak descent promoting Slovakia's separation from Hungary. Three different solutions of the Slovak problem were imagined-Slovakia as a new state, as a partner of a Czecho-Slovak Federation, and as a territory forming a political union with the prospective Polish Republic. SLOVAKIA 163 The Slovak League of America entered into contact with the Americans of Czech descent and in 1915 signed with their organization the Cleveland Agreement, and in 1918 the Pittsburgh Pact, both of which aimed at the creation of a Czecho-Slovak federal state. In these documents, the Slovak organization stipulated that Slovakia should be an equal member with the Czech lands and have complete legislative, executive, judicial, and cultural independence in strictly national matters, while matters of common interest, such as foreign affairs and defense, should be within the competence of a common parliament. History shows that Masaryk did not live up to the commitments of the Pittsburgh Pact even though he was one of its signers. Redistributio n of land was an urgent problem facing the new government and a Land Reform Act, therefore, was one of the first measures passed by the Czecho-Slovak Parliament. This act entitled the state to take over, after compensation , all land from the great estates in excess of a fixed maximum, and to permit land purchases by those who needed it most. Thus, the agrarian reform program greatly improved the material conditions of the rural population and averted disturbances. The cultural level of the Slovaks and Czechs was high and their passion for education prompted the new republic t o establish additional free schools and by improving existing schools. The Czecho-Slovak State also forged ahead in the field of social improvement . All groups and interests possessed the right of organization and thus organized labor had its trade unions, farmers their societies, and white-collar workers and businessmen their associations. Health and other types of social insurance were either provided for or encouraged by the State and provision was made for State assistance to housing and co-ops. As to the religious situation, 80 % of the population was Roman Catholic, but the Protestant element played a role far beyond its numerical strength. Many prominent political leaders, Thomas G. Masaryk among them, belonged to the Protestant faith . Economically and financially, Czecho-Slovakia was a sound state in central Europe. As an exporting country it was severly hit by the world economic depression of the 164 SLOVAKIA early thirties, but, by timely adjustments to new price and exchange levels, it was one of the first European countries to weather the crisis. Before Hitler came to power in 1933, Czecho-Slovakia was an enthusiastic supporter of the League of Nations and collaborated whole-heartedly in the negotiations which brought Germany and the Soviet Union into the League. However, when Hitler came to power, Czecho-Slovakia's foreign relations entered into a critical phase. Desperately anxious to avert a new war, France and Great Britain proposed in 1938 to Czecho-Slovakia that she not oppose the leaders of the Sudeten German movement, and further cede to Germany all areas with a German majority. When Czecho-Slovakia demurred, she was informed that she must accept the proposal or bear the consequences alone. The result was that Czecho-Slovakia gave in and the country was divided on the lines dictated by Hitler. After Munich'~' , Czecho-Slovakia tried to adjust itself to the new situation. President Benes resigned and left the country - and the transition to Hitler's New Order was swift. The administration was purged, the press put under rigorous control and anti-democratic measures were enacted. According to the Nuremberg documents, Hitler at that time had already decided to destroy Czecho-Slovakia. But there was apparently no definite decision on Slovakia as to whether to place it under German occupation or to have it occupied by Hungary. On March 14, 1939, the government of Dr. Jozef Tiso of Slovakia proclaimed Slovakia as an independent republic. Dr. Tiso was a Monsignor in the Roman Catholic Church and Vice-President of the People's Party of Slovakia. The Slovak people considered the act was the result of the Prague regime's violations of agreements that had been signed between Prague ( the Czech capital) and Bratislava (the capital of Slovakia) and which agreements had been incorporated in their Constitution. Public demonstrations spread throughout Slovakia. Hitler then suggested, in order to prevent Hungary possibly taking over Slovakia, that there be a declaration of Slovakia's independence. Even though the Slovak State was largely the result of a tense international situation, it nevertheless corresponded to the aspirations of the Slovak people for freedom SLOVAKIA 165 and the principle of self-determination and self-government. The Slovak state was far from being a perfect democracy in the traditional sense. It, however, reflected a compromise between the past and present, between an old tradition and a temporarily determined political dynamism in Central Europe. But, in general, it was an expression of the selfpreservation instinct of the Slovak nation. In 1941, the Slovak Government found it necessary, because of circumstances, to join Germany in the war against the Soviet Union. However, the Slovak forces, during the Second World War, did not engage in combat against any of the Western Powers. In 1944, an uprising, improvised by Russian Communists as well as Slovak communists, took place and of course the Germans intervened. It took the Nazis exactly two months to crush this rebellion and in the meantime the Red Army laying the ground work for its invasion, held up for more than three months on the Carpathian Mountains, watching this national tragedy quietly. Around 30,000 Slovaks of all political shades were killed in this uprising. Once the uprising had been liquidated, the Soviet Army began to advance and finally occupied Slovakia's territory by mid-April, 1945. Meanwhile, Dr. Benes and most of the Cabinet flew to Moscow where the new Czecho-Slovak Government was to be formed. Dr. Benes and his political entourage believed, or at least hoped, that collaboration between democracy and communism was possible and that co-existence could be achieved without the loss of freedom. They fostered the illusion that the Czech and Slovak Communists were different from other Reds and that their methods would turn out to be evolutionary rather than revolutionary. Thus, the Communist seizure of power in 1948 may be traced back to the 1945 Moscow meeting, and so it was that in April of 1945, Benes proclaimed the so-called 'Kosice Program' for the new Government of re-established CzechoSlovakia. The 'Kosice Program' was in effect a death sentence for the past. In July, 1947, an important event illustrated the new course of Czecho-Slovakia's foreign relations when the Czecho-Slovak Government had unanimously accepted the invitation to a conference of the Marshall Plan, which was 166 SLOVAKIA to be held in Paris. But Moscow reacted vehemently, asserting that Czecho-Slovakia, by accepting the Marshall Plan, would be participating in a political scheme directed against the Soviet Union and demanded that the Government reverse its decision. The Government complied. This was just the beginning of open interference by the Soviets in Czecho-Slovakia's foreign affairs. Then, with the Communist undermining the February, 1948 elections in Czecho-Slovakia, and Benes because of the Communistic pressure accepting the resignations of the 12 Democratic Minister, the Iron Curtain descended on the Czecho-Slovak frontier. Since 1948, Czechs and Slovaks had no independent foreign policy of their own, while internally both the Slovaks and Czechs have been forced to accept systematically 'introduced Soviet institutions which were designed to submerge their national and ethnic consciousness. Furthermore, the Russians have recklessly fostered heavy industry in Slovakia to serve Soviet military and economic needs, while wishes and well-being of the local people go almost totally unheeded. Hence, the Russians enjoy scant confidence and support from the bulk of the Slovak people who look upon them not as "socialist brothers" but instead as tyrans. The government of Czecho-Slovakia is communist, although people qualified to estimate have guessed that no more than 12 to 15 % are Party members or are unqualified supporters of communism. Thus, the peoples of Czecho-Slovakia were pitifully robbed of their economic, spiritual, and intellectual will under the terror of Stalin. This continued for approximately two decades. By the latter part of 1967, Party Chief Novotny of Czecho-Slovakia found himself enmeshed in a political crisis of major proportions; he had alienated the country's educated factions, the economy was in a mess and no one trusted or approved of his efforts to improve the situation, and finally, the Slovaks, led by Alexander Dubcek were daily gaining power towards the goal of getting more of their own people in high government office. Eventually, on February 18, 1968, Novotny lost his job as Party Chief to Alexander Dubcek. The inevitable pressure of circumstances caused Dubcek, a proud Slovak, to transform Czecho-Slovakia into the most liberal state east of the Iron Curtain. SLOVAKIA 167 Literary and press censorship was abolished, many victims of the Stalinist terror trials were publicly rehabilitated, freedom of minority opinion was guaranteed, travel and trade restrictions with the West were eased, the first strike of Czecho-Slovakia workers under communism was allowed, the police were required to wear numbered badges for identification, the church was partially freed of restraints, and finally the National Assembly was allowed to develop real legislative powers. Mr. Dubcek wanted the government to reflect the will of the people and to respect their traditions. On April 15, 1968, Dubcek unveiled his plans for the future as he published his "Action Program" in which he outlined his plans for even more freedom of the press, rights of assembly, and even larger increase of trade with the rest of Europe, especially with West Germany. Hence, in early 1968, Alexander Dubcek, who began as a leader of the aggrieved Slovaks, ended up as a national symbol for the entire nation. This event, however, created a situation that was both unique and dangerous to continued Russian domination of Eastern Europe. The reforms contemplated for Czecho-Slovakia went far beyond anything attempted before in the Soviet Bloc. Furthermore, there was a clearly pronounced anti-Soviet character to the popular responses to the planned liberalization reforms. Dubcek, although an ardent socialist, attempted to apply the principle that practicing socialism must respect the traditions of the country. All of the foregoing consequently alarmed the Russians, who publicly sought, at every opportunity available, to confer with Dubcek and privately to undermine his support and popularity in every way possible. And so on the night of August 21, 1968,' great hordes of Russian-led tanks and troops crossed into Czecho-Slovakia from neighboring Iron Curtain countries to end the most valiant and extensive attempt to liberalize a communist dominated land. This protest movement, although initiated to a large degree by Slovaks and led by a Slovak Dubcek, had nevertheless succeeded in rallying all segments of the country to seek a freer, more democratic way of life. The Soviets dared not let the noble experiment last, and therefore, in contradiction to all moral and international treaty 168 SLOVAKIA law, they intimidated the Slovaks and Czechs into partial submission by massed military might. Dubcek pleaded with his fellow countrymen that the only way to keep the nation from being literally destroyed by the Russians was to maintain strict discipline and order, as the withdrawal of Russian military force depended on the order in the country. However, the dislike for the invaders was so strong that the Slovaks and Czechs did protest and cursed and spat upon the troops, and some futile attempts at armed resistance was made by courageous young Slovaks who hurled gasoline bombs on tanks, thereby setting them ablaze and their crews scurrying. On August 21, 1968, Russian tanks ended a period of approximately 71/2 months of comparative freedom for the Slovaks and Czechs, and in one brutal week's work, the U.S.S.R. with its "rape of Czecho-Slovakia" made it crystalclear that even a little freedom is more than Soviet communism can tolerate. In conclusion, one must remember it has been said that the longest journey always starts with a single step, and possibly this can be applied to the efforts of the Slovak people to free themselves from the heavy burden of Russian oppression. Hopefully someday in the near future, they will be able to take more, even broader strides towards their freedom. In any case, it does not seem probable that the Slovaks will be forced to step back again. No other nation has suffered so much nor been more misunderstood as had been Slovakia and yet still possesses a fire of determination for its freedom and self-determination. Slovakia did emerge but unfortunately was stifled; yet she will again someday rise up to stand among the free and independent peoples of the earth as mistress of her own household. So be it! an agreement signed in Munich, Germany on September 30, 1938 forcing Czecho-Slovakia to give up the Sudetenland, part of its territory, to Nazi Germany. • Munich - (First place - College) BIBLIOGRAPHY BOOKS Freidin, Seymour, The Forgotten P eople, 1962, Charles Scribner & Soru. Kavka, Frantisek, A n Outline of Czecho-Slovak History, Prague, Orbis, 1963. SLOVAKIA 169 Kirschbaum, Joseph M., "Twenty Years of Czech and Communist Rule in Slovakia," SLovakia, 1965. Levine, Isaac D., Intervention, 1969, Van Rees Press. Oddo, Gilbert L., Slovakia and its People, 1960, Robert Speller and Sons. Pauco, Joseph (ed.), Slovakia, 1966, 1968, 1969, Slovak League of America. Roberts, Adam and Windsor, Philip, Czechoslovakia 1968, 1969, Columbia University Press. Schwartz, Harry, Prague's 200 Days, 1969, Frederick A. Praeger, Inc. Zubek, T. J ., O.F.M., Church of Silence in Slovakia, 1969, J. J . Lach. MAGAZINES Newsweek, Prague Defies the Kremlin, July 29, 1968. Reader's Digest, The Rape of Czechoslovakia, November, 1968. Time, Self-Determination for Czechoslovakia, April 5, 1968; Czechoslovakia-Approaching Total Eclipse, April 6, 1970; Alexander Dubcek's AU Too Human Face, May 18, 1970. PAMPHLETS AND PAPERS Committee on Un-American Activities, Soviet Total War, 1956. Embassy of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, Background Notes Department of State, Socialist Republic Background Notes. New York Times, February 10, 1970, Students in Prague Now Know Their Beautiful Dream is Over, by Alvin Shuster. Hrobak, Philip A., Who Betrayed Slovakia to the Reds. THE SLOVAK ARTS IN PERSPECTIVE Marlene B a rt o s It is \from the vantage point of a multi-ethnic democracy such as the United States that Slovak cultural history can best be placed in true perspective. This paper is an attempt to do so. Because Slovak cultural history has so many ramifications that reach deeply in the histories of neighboring nations, this presentation considers only the theatrical and musical arts, and then only in historical delineation. Analyses and evaluations must remain for the future. The earliest recorded report of a theatrical presentation in Slovakia is the performance of a Christmas play in Bratislava in 1439. By the mid-1500's, plays seem to have been regularly presented. The year 1544 to 1545, for example, records the performances of two plays in German; the one entitled Judith, the other, The Five Wise and Unwise Maidens. Similar reports record activity in Bardejov and Kremnica. (Dejiny slovenskej literatury, 1960. History of Slovak Literature.)  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Slovak Background of Events Through the Soviet Takeover in 1968 Description An account of the resource Jane Noonan Slovakia, Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974 pp. 162-169 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Noonan, Jane Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 name https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/75a909bdd8b0fc868aebe25cba299cc4.pdf 3e17d0710ca1e65e2a73b94d244da73e PDF Text Text SLOVAKIA 169 Kirschbaum, Joseph M., "Twenty Years of Czech and Communist Rule in Slovakia," SLovakia, 1965. Levine, Isaac D., Intervention, 1969, Van Rees Press. Oddo, Gilbert L., Slovakia and its People, 1960, Robert Speller and Sons. Pauco, Joseph (ed.), Slovakia, 1966, 1968, 1969, Slovak League of America. Roberts, Adam and Windsor, Philip, Czechoslovakia 1968, 1969, Columbia University Press. Schwartz, Harry, Prague's 200 Days, 1969, Frederick A. Praeger, Inc. Zubek, T. J ., O.F.M., Church of Silence in Slovakia, 1969, J. J . Lach. MAGAZINES Newsweek, Prague Defies the Kremlin, July 29, 1968. Reader's Digest, The Rape of Czechoslovakia, November, 1968. Time, Self-Determination for Czechoslovakia, April 5, 1968; Czechoslovakia-Approaching Total Eclipse, April 6, 1970; Alexander Dubcek's AU Too Human Face, May 18, 1970. PAMPHLETS AND PAPERS Committee on Un-American Activities, Soviet Total War, 1956. Embassy of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, Background Notes Department of State, Socialist Republic Background Notes. New York Times, February 10, 1970, Students in Prague Now Know Their Beautiful Dream is Over, by Alvin Shuster. Hrobak, Philip A., Who Betrayed Slovakia to the Reds. THE SLOVAK ARTS IN PERSPECTIVE Marlene B a rt o s It is \from the vantage point of a multi-ethnic democracy such as the United States that Slovak cultural history can best be placed in true perspective. This paper is an attempt to do so. Because Slovak cultural history has so many ramifications that reach deeply in the histories of neighboring nations, this presentation considers only the theatrical and musical arts, and then only in historical delineation. Analyses and evaluations must remain for the future. The earliest recorded report of a theatrical presentation in Slovakia is the performance of a Christmas play in Bratislava in 1439. By the mid-1500's, plays seem to have been regularly presented. The year 1544 to 1545, for example, records the performances of two plays in German; the one entitled Judith, the other, The Five Wise and Unwise Maidens. Similar reports record activity in Bardejov and Kremnica. (Dejiny slovenskej literatury, 1960. History of Slovak Literature.) �170 SLOVAKIA The 17th century marked dramatic development in Latin at Slovak Jesuit schools, with performances of Seneca, Sophocles, Plautus, and Terentius, among others. These plays were also translated into Slovak, Magyar, and German, and presented in the vernacular. The Piarist Fathers were also active, although their productions did not match the splendor of Jesuit productions in polish or costuming. Jesuit presentations were costumed from Vienna and not infrequently from Venice. Piarist productions, however, were more liberal in content, dealing more with worldly issues, and thus contributed notably to Slovak drama. Original plays in Latin were presented at Slovak Protestant institutions. Isaac Caban (1638-1707), rector at Brezno and later professor at the Presov and Levoca lyceums, wrote a cycle of five Latin plays titled Labarum Triumphale Victrici Palladi Fragariae Solenne (Triumphant Standard of Presov's Victorious Minerva). The cycle was presented in 1665 on five successive days and repeated several times by popular demand. Other original Latin plays by other professors-divines soon appeared. One such play, titled Eleazar Constans, was about a man who was steadfast in his faith. It was presented in Bardejov, in 1668, by students on the anniversary of the founding of their school. This was followed, in 1669, by Papinianus Tetragonus , which met with tremendous success. The nature of the play itself reflected the universal European trend of that time. The protagonist was Papinianus Ictus, a Roman jurist who lived from 140 to 212, "a man brave, steadfast, and honorable." He was executed by Roman Emperor Caracalla because he would not condone the Emperor's fratricide. Papinianus was translated into the prevalent vernaculars-Slovak, German, Magyar-and continued in popularity. A most interesting study for a thesis would be a comparison of the play to the tragedies of Shakespeare, who had been dead only fifty years at that time. Titus Andronicus? Julius Ceasar? Timon of Athens? Anthony and Cleopatra? Coriolanus? Shakespeare drew heavily upon Plutarch's Parallel Lives for the factual bases of his tragedies. Plutarch had �SLOVAKIA 171 already been translated into English and had a profound influence upon English literature; Plutarch was integral to the classical scholarship of Slovakia; Plutarch was the cultural denominator common to England and Slovakia and could therefore serve as the prime basis for a comparative study. Thanks to the well-organized records keeping of the religious orders, much information is available to us about theatrical presentations. From 1601 to 1773, the Jesuits staged over 10,000 plays in Hungary, most of them in Slovakia. The themes of the plays dealt with the bible and with oriental and classical history. Slovak was used for the first time in Bratislava in 1628 as the language of a play entitled About the Sacrament of the Altar. Performances were held every evening during the Lenten season, and the response was so great that more than a thousand tickets were sold every day. An original play entitled Apollo Returned Heaven, by Rector Paul ~uhaj, was performed in Slovak at Levoca, Spisska Kapitula, and Skalica. With the growth of a middle class by the early 1700's came a burgeoning interest in the theater, reaching from the nobility, through the middle-class and the working-class, to the peasantry. The center of this activity in Slovakia was Bratislava, which was also the seat of the Hungarian Parliament. Only a short drive by horse-coach from Vienna, Bratislava teemed with the nobility of the Austrian Imperial Court and consequently that of Hungary and visitors from the other monarchies of Europe. They brought to Bratislava theatrical companies from Austria, Poland, Italy, and Germany. Private theaters became the fashion among such noble families as the Erdody, Eszterhazy, and Zichy, which maintained residences in Bratislava. The permanent theater in Bratislava, from 1741 on, was at Rybarska Brana (Fisherman's Gate). A small summer theater was established in 1760. To the sorrow of Slovak culture, the situation among talented performers of that time still exists today. Persons of outstanding talent would move on to the larger cities of Europe-Budapest, Vienna, Munich, Prague-and asswne a culture that was alien, if not politically hostile, to their Slovak background. Although �172 SLOVAKIA their talents were genetically rooted in Slovakia, the theatrical dynasties they frequently founded were completely alienated, both culturally and politically. The Czech theater was enriched by two Slovaks, Paul Kyrmezer of Banska stiavnica, and George Tesak of Mosovce. Both were refugees from the ravages of the Turks, who held strategic fortresses in Slovakia at that time. Kyrmezer was for a time pastor and school director of various churches in Moravia, being dean in Uherske Hradiste from 1576 until his death in 1589. He wrote several plays and dramas in Old Slovak. George Tesak, who died in Prague in 1617, wrote many plays incorporating music and song, which are considered early forms of the operetta. Both Kyrmezer and Tesak are respected by the Czechs as pioneers in Czech theatrical arts. Adaptations of their works were performed as late as 1938 in Prague, Brno, Olomouc, and other Czech and Moravian centers with great success. The theatrical arts moved ahead quickly in full force in Bratislava, Budapest, and Vienna, which, of course, was reflected in smaller, provincial communities. Music, at this time, became compulsory in all intermediate and higher schools. All professional theaters began to present operas and operettas. Music became an indispensible factor in social and cultural life. Artists-actors, singers, musicians, composers, conductors, and directors-were subsidized by the state and community. Indeed, if one did not attend at least two performances a week, one was almost a social outcast. Many Slovak young men, even from the villages, who came to the big cities to study medicine, pharmacy, law, or philosophy, began to devote themselves to music. They ultimately gave up their original ambitions and enrolled in conservatories of music, undoubtedly causing their parents considerable grief. In this sense they were not unlike our modern youth. · Matthew Kamensky, born in sopron in 1734, composed the first op~ra in Polish, Nedza Uszczesliwiona (Poverty Made Fortunate). He died in Warsaw in 1821 as the popular composer Ka:mi~nski. [Jan Fisher, Dejin,y hudby (History �SLOVAKIA 173 of Music), Spolok sv. Vojtecha (Society of St. Adalbert), Trnava, 1933 ) . Slovakia's central location made the country an important crossing point in the musical lives of surrounding countries. Slovakia was close to the Austrian music of Vienna. But there were also strong Magyar influences. Purely from a Slovak and Slavonic standpoint, the Abbey at Budec was the guardian of liturgical music. The abbey fostered the Cyrilo-Methodian Liturgy and produced many outstanding musicians, composers, and teachers. Bratislava is less than 20 miles, across the Danube, from Rohrau in Austria, where Josef Haydn was born. As a composer of world renown, Haydn contributed outstandingly to the development of the symphony. And as such, he was a teacher of the German genius Ludwig van Beethoven, who raised the symphonic form to its greatest development. Both masters knew Bratislava. Beethoven was only 22 years old when he made Vienna his home in 1792. By 1796 he had already personally endeared himself to Bratislava audiences, although his First Symphony was received with mixed reactions, as elsewhere, when it was first performed in 1800. There is a legend that his Moonlight Sonata was inspired by his love for an innkeeper's daughter in the Slovak spa of Piest'any. Beethoven's fame and popularity brought him many requests for his patronage. One such request, which was fulfilled, came from a young student of music, Jozef Koritansky, who went on to Vienna to become one of the most outstanding of opera stars in Europe. The great Franz Schubert also knew Slovakia. As music teacher to a branch of the Eszterhazy family, he lived in the palace at Zeliezovce. Here he composed his famous Ave Maria, supposedly to express his love for one of the Eszterhazy daughters, which is allegedly why the hymn was banned from churches in some parts of Europe. He, too, was a frequent visitor to Bratislava, where he is known to have had many friends . .Vienna as a cultural magnet, and because of its geographical proximity, drew countless numbers of Slovaks over the centuries. Some went specifically to further their studies. Others went merely to seek their fortunes. At the �174 SLOVAKIA outbreak of World War I, there were innumerable thousands of Slovaks in Vienna. Budapest is an interesting example of Magyar acculturation of Slovaks. The first Magyar opera was composed in 1823 by a Slovak, Jozef Chudy, born in Bratislava. The world-famous composer Ernest Dohnany, was born in Banska Bystrica in 1877. The primadona of the Royal Magyar Theater, Maria Sarvasova, was born in Zvolen in 1894. The leading actress Ilona Bednar was born in Banska stiavnica. Prima ballerina Anna suhaj was a Slovak. The leading actors Jan Sklenar, Tomas Jakub, Pavol Rezar, and Jozef Sedlak, as well as the singers Zoltan Kianicka, Andrej Dvoran, and Jan Mastny, all considered Magyar, had Slovak backgrounds. (Dejiny hudby, Trnava, 1933; Javisko, Turc. Sv. Martin, 1940) As Magyar chauvinism grew in intensity, the Slovak theater in the Slovak highlands suffered, from harassment to direct suppression. Slovak audiences, particularly in the villages, delighted in plays that satirized the Magyarization of the small-town Slovak gentry. Since Magyarization was the planned program of the Budapest government, such plays were considered subversive. Suppression stimulated the growth of the Slovak folk theater, and groups of devoted amateurs sustained the Slovak character through long years of political and cultural oppression. The amateur theater became so ingrained a tradition, that it was brought to the United States by early immigrants, where, with the ubiquitous, multi-functional Slovak choir, it became the fund raiser for most of the Slovak churches, schools, and societies. It would be a long list if one were to enumerate the artists who gained fame on the stages of Budapest and Vienna and whose talents stemmed from the highland villages of Slovakia. It would be an extremely short list to enumerate those artists whose Slovak identity was not obliterated by the cultures of their new environments. There are notable examples, however, of artists who should be mentioned because they emerged as Slovaks through the forces that brought about the fall of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy and brought into being new states, among them Czecho-Slovakia. �SLOVAKIA 175 It was in 1916, a year before the United States entered World War I and when the Austro-Hungarian Empire was already tottering, that a Slovak artist of high professional caliber appeared on the American stage as a Slovak, perhaps for the first time in history. It was Anica Fabry, primadona of the Royal Opera at Budapest. She presented several concerts in New York City, which were favorably reviewed by such newspapers as The New York Times, The Herald Tribune, and the Journal American, among others. Noteworthy is the fact that in the programs of songs Miss Fabry sang were those of a young Slovak composer, Mikulas Schneider-Trnavsky. Following upon the end of the war and the emergence of the states in Central and East Central Europe, the world was able to know the young, talented Slovaks building careers on the stages of Budapest and Vienna. The handsome young Slovak actor-singer Frantisek Kristof Vesely was brought from Vienna to Prague, where he became a leading star in films. From Budapest there returned such outstanding artists as Andrej Bagar, Hana Melickova, and Jozef Kelo. Bratislava was nationalistically awakening in quick tempo. But it soon appeared that the Czechs wanted the National Theater at Bratislava to be a bridge for politicizing and for influencing a pan-Czech Slovak development. This led to an internal struggle that lasted for years, during which Slovaks were gradually beginning to supplant Czechs m thA Slovak National Theater, particular as authors and playwriters.Outstanding foreign plays were being translated into Slovak and presented on the stage. Many Slovaks, however, were applying their talents to the Czech stage, as actors, singers, directors, and ballet performers. They were exceptionally well paid for their talents, it should be said, to prevent them from complementing the Slovak theaters at Bratislava and Kosice, which were, through their high professional standards, too dangerously competitive for the Czech theater at Prague and Brno. The year 1938 decided in favor of the Slovaks. The theater in Bratislava was already on a high professional level. The still relatively young, 39-year-old idol, Frantisek �176 SLOVAKIA Kristof Vesely, came home to Bratislava from Prague. Opera star Belo Turba Nitrancan returned from Brno. New strength arrived through the return of young Slovaks who had been studying abroad. All enriched the Slovak stage. Into this resurging theatrical environment entered the ambitious and talented young Slovak, Gejza Dusik, who in the course of a few years wrote dozens of operettas, Turecky tabak (Turkish Tobacco), Modra ruza (Blue Rose), Pozar na vlak (Watch Out for the Train), Pod cudzou vlajkou (Under a Foreign Flag), to name the most popular. These were received with so great and wide acclaim that they were almost immediately translated into neighboring languages - German, Magyar, Croat, Bulgar, and others. Theaters were filled to standing-room-on ly whenever Dusik's operettas were performed. The names Mayzes, Cikker, and Suchan are known world-wide as contemporary composers of classical music, symphonic and operatic. Their works are in the repertoire of every major, internationally known symphony orchestra and opera company. Mayzes' Janosik Suite musically recreates the legends of the popular Slovak hero-outlaw, who "took from the rich and gave to the poor." Cikker's operas are regularly performed in Germany and England, particularly one based on Dicken's Christmas Carol. Suchon's opera Krutnava (Vortex), in purely Slovak setting and theme, begins in tragedy and ends in happiness, contrary to traditional operatic structure. Nevertheless, Krutnava has established itself even in Italy, the birthplace and home of opera. As already stated, this presentation considers Slovak theatrical and musical arts only in historical delineation. Although the years 1938 to 1945 constitute, in a sense, Slovak cultural risorgimento, those years and the years following up to our time are still within the current historical perspective. As such, they do not lend themselves even to a superficial evaluation that can be objective. Such evaluation is for the future. What may be said today about this period of Slovak risorgimento is that Bratislava surpassed Vienna in the state of the arts. What must be asked today is, "Quo vadis, Bratislava?" ( Second place - College) � SLOVAKIA 169 Kirschbaum, Joseph M., "Twenty Years of Czech and Communist Rule in Slovakia," SLovakia, 1965. Levine, Isaac D., Intervention, 1969, Van Rees Press. Oddo, Gilbert L., Slovakia and its People, 1960, Robert Speller and Sons. Pauco, Joseph (ed.), Slovakia, 1966, 1968, 1969, Slovak League of America. Roberts, Adam and Windsor, Philip, Czechoslovakia 1968, 1969, Columbia University Press. Schwartz, Harry, Prague's 200 Days, 1969, Frederick A. Praeger, Inc. Zubek, T. J ., O.F.M., Church of Silence in Slovakia, 1969, J. J . Lach. MAGAZINES Newsweek, Prague Defies the Kremlin, July 29, 1968. Reader's Digest, The Rape of Czechoslovakia, November, 1968. Time, Self-Determination for Czechoslovakia, April 5, 1968; Czechoslovakia-Approaching Total Eclipse, April 6, 1970; Alexander Dubcek's AU Too Human Face, May 18, 1970. PAMPHLETS AND PAPERS Committee on Un-American Activities, Soviet Total War, 1956. Embassy of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, Background Notes Department of State, Socialist Republic Background Notes. New York Times, February 10, 1970, Students in Prague Now Know Their Beautiful Dream is Over, by Alvin Shuster. Hrobak, Philip A., Who Betrayed Slovakia to the Reds. THE SLOVAK ARTS IN PERSPECTIVE Marlene B a rt o s It is \from the vantage point of a multi-ethnic democracy such as the United States that Slovak cultural history can best be placed in true perspective. This paper is an attempt to do so. Because Slovak cultural history has so many ramifications that reach deeply in the histories of neighboring nations, this presentation considers only the theatrical and musical arts, and then only in historical delineation. Analyses and evaluations must remain for the future. The earliest recorded report of a theatrical presentation in Slovakia is the performance of a Christmas play in Bratislava in 1439. By the mid-1500's, plays seem to have been regularly presented. The year 1544 to 1545, for example, records the performances of two plays in German; the one entitled Judith, the other, The Five Wise and Unwise Maidens. Similar reports record activity in Bardejov and Kremnica. (Dejiny slovenskej literatury, 1960. History of Slovak Literature.) �170 SLOVAKIA The 17th century marked dramatic development in Latin at Slovak Jesuit schools, with performances of Seneca, Sophocles, Plautus, and Terentius, among others. These plays were also translated into Slovak, Magyar, and German, and presented in the vernacular. The Piarist Fathers were also active, although their productions did not match the splendor of Jesuit productions in polish or costuming. Jesuit presentations were costumed from Vienna and not infrequently from Venice. Piarist productions, however, were more liberal in content, dealing more with worldly issues, and thus contributed notably to Slovak drama. Original plays in Latin were presented at Slovak Protestant institutions. Isaac Caban (1638-1707), rector at Brezno and later professor at the Presov and Levoca lyceums, wrote a cycle of five Latin plays titled Labarum Triumphale Victrici Palladi Fragariae Solenne (Triumphant Standard of Presov's Victorious Minerva). The cycle was presented in 1665 on five successive days and repeated several times by popular demand. Other original Latin plays by other professors-divines soon appeared. One such play, titled Eleazar Constans, was about a man who was steadfast in his faith. It was presented in Bardejov, in 1668, by students on the anniversary of the founding of their school. This was followed, in 1669, by Papinianus Tetragonus , which met with tremendous success. The nature of the play itself reflected the universal European trend of that time. The protagonist was Papinianus Ictus, a Roman jurist who lived from 140 to 212, "a man brave, steadfast, and honorable." He was executed by Roman Emperor Caracalla because he would not condone the Emperor's fratricide. Papinianus was translated into the prevalent vernaculars-Slovak, German, Magyar-and continued in popularity. A most interesting study for a thesis would be a comparison of the play to the tragedies of Shakespeare, who had been dead only fifty years at that time. Titus Andronicus? Julius Ceasar? Timon of Athens? Anthony and Cleopatra? Coriolanus? Shakespeare drew heavily upon Plutarch's Parallel Lives for the factual bases of his tragedies. Plutarch had �SLOVAKIA 171 already been translated into English and had a profound influence upon English literature; Plutarch was integral to the classical scholarship of Slovakia; Plutarch was the cultural denominator common to England and Slovakia and could therefore serve as the prime basis for a comparative study. Thanks to the well-organized records keeping of the religious orders, much information is available to us about theatrical presentations. From 1601 to 1773, the Jesuits staged over 10,000 plays in Hungary, most of them in Slovakia. The themes of the plays dealt with the bible and with oriental and classical history. Slovak was used for the first time in Bratislava in 1628 as the language of a play entitled About the Sacrament of the Altar. Performances were held every evening during the Lenten season, and the response was so great that more than a thousand tickets were sold every day. An original play entitled Apollo Returned Heaven, by Rector Paul ~uhaj, was performed in Slovak at Levoca, Spisska Kapitula, and Skalica. With the growth of a middle class by the early 1700's came a burgeoning interest in the theater, reaching from the nobility, through the middle-class and the working-class, to the peasantry. The center of this activity in Slovakia was Bratislava, which was also the seat of the Hungarian Parliament. Only a short drive by horse-coach from Vienna, Bratislava teemed with the nobility of the Austrian Imperial Court and consequently that of Hungary and visitors from the other monarchies of Europe. They brought to Bratislava theatrical companies from Austria, Poland, Italy, and Germany. Private theaters became the fashion among such noble families as the Erdody, Eszterhazy, and Zichy, which maintained residences in Bratislava. The permanent theater in Bratislava, from 1741 on, was at Rybarska Brana (Fisherman's Gate). A small summer theater was established in 1760. To the sorrow of Slovak culture, the situation among talented performers of that time still exists today. Persons of outstanding talent would move on to the larger cities of Europe-Budapest, Vienna, Munich, Prague-and asswne a culture that was alien, if not politically hostile, to their Slovak background. Although �172 SLOVAKIA their talents were genetically rooted in Slovakia, the theatrical dynasties they frequently founded were completely alienated, both culturally and politically. The Czech theater was enriched by two Slovaks, Paul Kyrmezer of Banska stiavnica, and George Tesak of Mosovce. Both were refugees from the ravages of the Turks, who held strategic fortresses in Slovakia at that time. Kyrmezer was for a time pastor and school director of various churches in Moravia, being dean in Uherske Hradiste from 1576 until his death in 1589. He wrote several plays and dramas in Old Slovak. George Tesak, who died in Prague in 1617, wrote many plays incorporating music and song, which are considered early forms of the operetta. Both Kyrmezer and Tesak are respected by the Czechs as pioneers in Czech theatrical arts. Adaptations of their works were performed as late as 1938 in Prague, Brno, Olomouc, and other Czech and Moravian centers with great success. The theatrical arts moved ahead quickly in full force in Bratislava, Budapest, and Vienna, which, of course, was reflected in smaller, provincial communities. Music, at this time, became compulsory in all intermediate and higher schools. All professional theaters began to present operas and operettas. Music became an indispensible factor in social and cultural life. Artists-actors, singers, musicians, composers, conductors, and directors-were subsidized by the state and community. Indeed, if one did not attend at least two performances a week, one was almost a social outcast. Many Slovak young men, even from the villages, who came to the big cities to study medicine, pharmacy, law, or philosophy, began to devote themselves to music. They ultimately gave up their original ambitions and enrolled in conservatories of music, undoubtedly causing their parents considerable grief. In this sense they were not unlike our modern youth. · Matthew Kamensky, born in sopron in 1734, composed the first op~ra in Polish, Nedza Uszczesliwiona (Poverty Made Fortunate). He died in Warsaw in 1821 as the popular composer Ka:mi~nski. [Jan Fisher, Dejin,y hudby (History �SLOVAKIA 173 of Music), Spolok sv. Vojtecha (Society of St. Adalbert), Trnava, 1933 ) . Slovakia's central location made the country an important crossing point in the musical lives of surrounding countries. Slovakia was close to the Austrian music of Vienna. But there were also strong Magyar influences. Purely from a Slovak and Slavonic standpoint, the Abbey at Budec was the guardian of liturgical music. The abbey fostered the Cyrilo-Methodian Liturgy and produced many outstanding musicians, composers, and teachers. Bratislava is less than 20 miles, across the Danube, from Rohrau in Austria, where Josef Haydn was born. As a composer of world renown, Haydn contributed outstandingly to the development of the symphony. And as such, he was a teacher of the German genius Ludwig van Beethoven, who raised the symphonic form to its greatest development. Both masters knew Bratislava. Beethoven was only 22 years old when he made Vienna his home in 1792. By 1796 he had already personally endeared himself to Bratislava audiences, although his First Symphony was received with mixed reactions, as elsewhere, when it was first performed in 1800. There is a legend that his Moonlight Sonata was inspired by his love for an innkeeper's daughter in the Slovak spa of Piest'any. Beethoven's fame and popularity brought him many requests for his patronage. One such request, which was fulfilled, came from a young student of music, Jozef Koritansky, who went on to Vienna to become one of the most outstanding of opera stars in Europe. The great Franz Schubert also knew Slovakia. As music teacher to a branch of the Eszterhazy family, he lived in the palace at Zeliezovce. Here he composed his famous Ave Maria, supposedly to express his love for one of the Eszterhazy daughters, which is allegedly why the hymn was banned from churches in some parts of Europe. He, too, was a frequent visitor to Bratislava, where he is known to have had many friends . .Vienna as a cultural magnet, and because of its geographical proximity, drew countless numbers of Slovaks over the centuries. Some went specifically to further their studies. Others went merely to seek their fortunes. At the �174 SLOVAKIA outbreak of World War I, there were innumerable thousands of Slovaks in Vienna. Budapest is an interesting example of Magyar acculturation of Slovaks. The first Magyar opera was composed in 1823 by a Slovak, Jozef Chudy, born in Bratislava. The world-famous composer Ernest Dohnany, was born in Banska Bystrica in 1877. The primadona of the Royal Magyar Theater, Maria Sarvasova, was born in Zvolen in 1894. The leading actress Ilona Bednar was born in Banska stiavnica. Prima ballerina Anna suhaj was a Slovak. The leading actors Jan Sklenar, Tomas Jakub, Pavol Rezar, and Jozef Sedlak, as well as the singers Zoltan Kianicka, Andrej Dvoran, and Jan Mastny, all considered Magyar, had Slovak backgrounds. (Dejiny hudby, Trnava, 1933; Javisko, Turc. Sv. Martin, 1940) As Magyar chauvinism grew in intensity, the Slovak theater in the Slovak highlands suffered, from harassment to direct suppression. Slovak audiences, particularly in the villages, delighted in plays that satirized the Magyarization of the small-town Slovak gentry. Since Magyarization was the planned program of the Budapest government, such plays were considered subversive. Suppression stimulated the growth of the Slovak folk theater, and groups of devoted amateurs sustained the Slovak character through long years of political and cultural oppression. The amateur theater became so ingrained a tradition, that it was brought to the United States by early immigrants, where, with the ubiquitous, multi-functional Slovak choir, it became the fund raiser for most of the Slovak churches, schools, and societies. It would be a long list if one were to enumerate the artists who gained fame on the stages of Budapest and Vienna and whose talents stemmed from the highland villages of Slovakia. It would be an extremely short list to enumerate those artists whose Slovak identity was not obliterated by the cultures of their new environments. There are notable examples, however, of artists who should be mentioned because they emerged as Slovaks through the forces that brought about the fall of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy and brought into being new states, among them Czecho-Slovakia. �SLOVAKIA 175 It was in 1916, a year before the United States entered World War I and when the Austro-Hungarian Empire was already tottering, that a Slovak artist of high professional caliber appeared on the American stage as a Slovak, perhaps for the first time in history. It was Anica Fabry, primadona of the Royal Opera at Budapest. She presented several concerts in New York City, which were favorably reviewed by such newspapers as The New York Times, The Herald Tribune, and the Journal American, among others. Noteworthy is the fact that in the programs of songs Miss Fabry sang were those of a young Slovak composer, Mikulas Schneider-Trnavsky. Following upon the end of the war and the emergence of the states in Central and East Central Europe, the world was able to know the young, talented Slovaks building careers on the stages of Budapest and Vienna. The handsome young Slovak actor-singer Frantisek Kristof Vesely was brought from Vienna to Prague, where he became a leading star in films. From Budapest there returned such outstanding artists as Andrej Bagar, Hana Melickova, and Jozef Kelo. Bratislava was nationalistically awakening in quick tempo. But it soon appeared that the Czechs wanted the National Theater at Bratislava to be a bridge for politicizing and for influencing a pan-Czech Slovak development. This led to an internal struggle that lasted for years, during which Slovaks were gradually beginning to supplant Czechs m thA Slovak National Theater, particular as authors and playwriters.Outstanding foreign plays were being translated into Slovak and presented on the stage. Many Slovaks, however, were applying their talents to the Czech stage, as actors, singers, directors, and ballet performers. They were exceptionally well paid for their talents, it should be said, to prevent them from complementing the Slovak theaters at Bratislava and Kosice, which were, through their high professional standards, too dangerously competitive for the Czech theater at Prague and Brno. The year 1938 decided in favor of the Slovaks. The theater in Bratislava was already on a high professional level. The still relatively young, 39-year-old idol, Frantisek �176 SLOVAKIA Kristof Vesely, came home to Bratislava from Prague. Opera star Belo Turba Nitrancan returned from Brno. New strength arrived through the return of young Slovaks who had been studying abroad. All enriched the Slovak stage. Into this resurging theatrical environment entered the ambitious and talented young Slovak, Gejza Dusik, who in the course of a few years wrote dozens of operettas, Turecky tabak (Turkish Tobacco), Modra ruza (Blue Rose), Pozar na vlak (Watch Out for the Train), Pod cudzou vlajkou (Under a Foreign Flag), to name the most popular. These were received with so great and wide acclaim that they were almost immediately translated into neighboring languages - German, Magyar, Croat, Bulgar, and others. Theaters were filled to standing-room-on ly whenever Dusik's operettas were performed. The names Mayzes, Cikker, and Suchan are known world-wide as contemporary composers of classical music, symphonic and operatic. Their works are in the repertoire of every major, internationally known symphony orchestra and opera company. Mayzes' Janosik Suite musically recreates the legends of the popular Slovak hero-outlaw, who "took from the rich and gave to the poor." Cikker's operas are regularly performed in Germany and England, particularly one based on Dicken's Christmas Carol. Suchon's opera Krutnava (Vortex), in purely Slovak setting and theme, begins in tragedy and ends in happiness, contrary to traditional operatic structure. Nevertheless, Krutnava has established itself even in Italy, the birthplace and home of opera. As already stated, this presentation considers Slovak theatrical and musical arts only in historical delineation. Although the years 1938 to 1945 constitute, in a sense, Slovak cultural risorgimento, those years and the years following up to our time are still within the current historical perspective. As such, they do not lend themselves even to a superficial evaluation that can be objective. Such evaluation is for the future. What may be said today about this period of Slovak risorgimento is that Bratislava surpassed Vienna in the state of the arts. What must be asked today is, "Quo vadis, Bratislava?" ( Second place - College) � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1974, Vol. 24 Description An account of the resource Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document SLOVAKIA 169 Kirschbaum, Joseph M., "Twenty Years of Czech and Communist Rule in Slovakia," SLovakia, 1965. Levine, Isaac D., Intervention, 1969, Van Rees Press. Oddo, Gilbert L., Slovakia and its People, 1960, Robert Speller and Sons. Pauco, Joseph (ed.), Slovakia, 1966, 1968, 1969, Slovak League of America. Roberts, Adam and Windsor, Philip, Czechoslovakia 1968, 1969, Columbia University Press. Schwartz, Harry, Prague's 200 Days, 1969, Frederick A. Praeger, Inc. Zubek, T. J ., O.F.M., Church of Silence in Slovakia, 1969, J. J . Lach. MAGAZINES Newsweek, Prague Defies the Kremlin, July 29, 1968. Reader's Digest, The Rape of Czechoslovakia, November, 1968. Time, Self-Determination for Czechoslovakia, April 5, 1968; Czechoslovakia-Approaching Total Eclipse, April 6, 1970; Alexander Dubcek's AU Too Human Face, May 18, 1970. PAMPHLETS AND PAPERS Committee on Un-American Activities, Soviet Total War, 1956. Embassy of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, Background Notes Department of State, Socialist Republic Background Notes. New York Times, February 10, 1970, Students in Prague Now Know Their Beautiful Dream is Over, by Alvin Shuster. Hrobak, Philip A., Who Betrayed Slovakia to the Reds. THE SLOVAK ARTS IN PERSPECTIVE Marlene B a rt o s It is \from the vantage point of a multi-ethnic democracy such as the United States that Slovak cultural history can best be placed in true perspective. This paper is an attempt to do so. Because Slovak cultural history has so many ramifications that reach deeply in the histories of neighboring nations, this presentation considers only the theatrical and musical arts, and then only in historical delineation. Analyses and evaluations must remain for the future. The earliest recorded report of a theatrical presentation in Slovakia is the performance of a Christmas play in Bratislava in 1439. By the mid-1500's, plays seem to have been regularly presented. The year 1544 to 1545, for example, records the performances of two plays in German; the one entitled Judith, the other, The Five Wise and Unwise Maidens. Similar reports record activity in Bardejov and Kremnica. (Dejiny slovenskej literatury, 1960. History of Slovak Literature.) 170 SLOVAKIA The 17th century marked dramatic development in Latin at Slovak Jesuit schools, with performances of Seneca, Sophocles, Plautus, and Terentius, among others. These plays were also translated into Slovak, Magyar, and German, and presented in the vernacular. The Piarist Fathers were also active, although their productions did not match the splendor of Jesuit productions in polish or costuming. Jesuit presentations were costumed from Vienna and not infrequently from Venice. Piarist productions, however, were more liberal in content, dealing more with worldly issues, and thus contributed notably to Slovak drama. Original plays in Latin were presented at Slovak Protestant institutions. Isaac Caban (1638-1707), rector at Brezno and later professor at the Presov and Levoca lyceums, wrote a cycle of five Latin plays titled Labarum Triumphale Victrici Palladi Fragariae Solenne (Triumphant Standard of Presov's Victorious Minerva). The cycle was presented in 1665 on five successive days and repeated several times by popular demand. Other original Latin plays by other professors-divines soon appeared. One such play, titled Eleazar Constans, was about a man who was steadfast in his faith. It was presented in Bardejov, in 1668, by students on the anniversary of the founding of their school. This was followed, in 1669, by Papinianus Tetragonus , which met with tremendous success. The nature of the play itself reflected the universal European trend of that time. The protagonist was Papinianus Ictus, a Roman jurist who lived from 140 to 212, "a man brave, steadfast, and honorable." He was executed by Roman Emperor Caracalla because he would not condone the Emperor's fratricide. Papinianus was translated into the prevalent vernaculars-Slovak, German, Magyar-and continued in popularity. A most interesting study for a thesis would be a comparison of the play to the tragedies of Shakespeare, who had been dead only fifty years at that time. Titus Andronicus? Julius Ceasar? Timon of Athens? Anthony and Cleopatra? Coriolanus? Shakespeare drew heavily upon Plutarch's Parallel Lives for the factual bases of his tragedies. Plutarch had SLOVAKIA 171 already been translated into English and had a profound influence upon English literature; Plutarch was integral to the classical scholarship of Slovakia; Plutarch was the cultural denominator common to England and Slovakia and could therefore serve as the prime basis for a comparative study. Thanks to the well-organized records keeping of the religious orders, much information is available to us about theatrical presentations. From 1601 to 1773, the Jesuits staged over 10,000 plays in Hungary, most of them in Slovakia. The themes of the plays dealt with the bible and with oriental and classical history. Slovak was used for the first time in Bratislava in 1628 as the language of a play entitled About the Sacrament of the Altar. Performances were held every evening during the Lenten season, and the response was so great that more than a thousand tickets were sold every day. An original play entitled Apollo Returned Heaven, by Rector Paul ~uhaj, was performed in Slovak at Levoca, Spisska Kapitula, and Skalica. With the growth of a middle class by the early 1700's came a burgeoning interest in the theater, reaching from the nobility, through the middle-class and the working-class, to the peasantry. The center of this activity in Slovakia was Bratislava, which was also the seat of the Hungarian Parliament. Only a short drive by horse-coach from Vienna, Bratislava teemed with the nobility of the Austrian Imperial Court and consequently that of Hungary and visitors from the other monarchies of Europe. They brought to Bratislava theatrical companies from Austria, Poland, Italy, and Germany. Private theaters became the fashion among such noble families as the Erdody, Eszterhazy, and Zichy, which maintained residences in Bratislava. The permanent theater in Bratislava, from 1741 on, was at Rybarska Brana (Fisherman's Gate). A small summer theater was established in 1760. To the sorrow of Slovak culture, the situation among talented performers of that time still exists today. Persons of outstanding talent would move on to the larger cities of Europe-Budapest, Vienna, Munich, Prague-and asswne a culture that was alien, if not politically hostile, to their Slovak background. Although 172 SLOVAKIA their talents were genetically rooted in Slovakia, the theatrical dynasties they frequently founded were completely alienated, both culturally and politically. The Czech theater was enriched by two Slovaks, Paul Kyrmezer of Banska stiavnica, and George Tesak of Mosovce. Both were refugees from the ravages of the Turks, who held strategic fortresses in Slovakia at that time. Kyrmezer was for a time pastor and school director of various churches in Moravia, being dean in Uherske Hradiste from 1576 until his death in 1589. He wrote several plays and dramas in Old Slovak. George Tesak, who died in Prague in 1617, wrote many plays incorporating music and song, which are considered early forms of the operetta. Both Kyrmezer and Tesak are respected by the Czechs as pioneers in Czech theatrical arts. Adaptations of their works were performed as late as 1938 in Prague, Brno, Olomouc, and other Czech and Moravian centers with great success. The theatrical arts moved ahead quickly in full force in Bratislava, Budapest, and Vienna, which, of course, was reflected in smaller, provincial communities. Music, at this time, became compulsory in all intermediate and higher schools. All professional theaters began to present operas and operettas. Music became an indispensible factor in social and cultural life. Artists-actors, singers, musicians, composers, conductors, and directors-were subsidized by the state and community. Indeed, if one did not attend at least two performances a week, one was almost a social outcast. Many Slovak young men, even from the villages, who came to the big cities to study medicine, pharmacy, law, or philosophy, began to devote themselves to music. They ultimately gave up their original ambitions and enrolled in conservatories of music, undoubtedly causing their parents considerable grief. In this sense they were not unlike our modern youth. · Matthew Kamensky, born in sopron in 1734, composed the first op~ra in Polish, Nedza Uszczesliwiona (Poverty Made Fortunate). He died in Warsaw in 1821 as the popular composer Ka:mi~nski. [Jan Fisher, Dejin,y hudby (History SLOVAKIA 173 of Music), Spolok sv. Vojtecha (Society of St. Adalbert), Trnava, 1933 ) . Slovakia's central location made the country an important crossing point in the musical lives of surrounding countries. Slovakia was close to the Austrian music of Vienna. But there were also strong Magyar influences. Purely from a Slovak and Slavonic standpoint, the Abbey at Budec was the guardian of liturgical music. The abbey fostered the Cyrilo-Methodian Liturgy and produced many outstanding musicians, composers, and teachers. Bratislava is less than 20 miles, across the Danube, from Rohrau in Austria, where Josef Haydn was born. As a composer of world renown, Haydn contributed outstandingly to the development of the symphony. And as such, he was a teacher of the German genius Ludwig van Beethoven, who raised the symphonic form to its greatest development. Both masters knew Bratislava. Beethoven was only 22 years old when he made Vienna his home in 1792. By 1796 he had already personally endeared himself to Bratislava audiences, although his First Symphony was received with mixed reactions, as elsewhere, when it was first performed in 1800. There is a legend that his Moonlight Sonata was inspired by his love for an innkeeper's daughter in the Slovak spa of Piest'any. Beethoven's fame and popularity brought him many requests for his patronage. One such request, which was fulfilled, came from a young student of music, Jozef Koritansky, who went on to Vienna to become one of the most outstanding of opera stars in Europe. The great Franz Schubert also knew Slovakia. As music teacher to a branch of the Eszterhazy family, he lived in the palace at Zeliezovce. Here he composed his famous Ave Maria, supposedly to express his love for one of the Eszterhazy daughters, which is allegedly why the hymn was banned from churches in some parts of Europe. He, too, was a frequent visitor to Bratislava, where he is known to have had many friends . .Vienna as a cultural magnet, and because of its geographical proximity, drew countless numbers of Slovaks over the centuries. Some went specifically to further their studies. Others went merely to seek their fortunes. At the 174 SLOVAKIA outbreak of World War I, there were innumerable thousands of Slovaks in Vienna. Budapest is an interesting example of Magyar acculturation of Slovaks. The first Magyar opera was composed in 1823 by a Slovak, Jozef Chudy, born in Bratislava. The world-famous composer Ernest Dohnany, was born in Banska Bystrica in 1877. The primadona of the Royal Magyar Theater, Maria Sarvasova, was born in Zvolen in 1894. The leading actress Ilona Bednar was born in Banska stiavnica. Prima ballerina Anna suhaj was a Slovak. The leading actors Jan Sklenar, Tomas Jakub, Pavol Rezar, and Jozef Sedlak, as well as the singers Zoltan Kianicka, Andrej Dvoran, and Jan Mastny, all considered Magyar, had Slovak backgrounds. (Dejiny hudby, Trnava, 1933; Javisko, Turc. Sv. Martin, 1940) As Magyar chauvinism grew in intensity, the Slovak theater in the Slovak highlands suffered, from harassment to direct suppression. Slovak audiences, particularly in the villages, delighted in plays that satirized the Magyarization of the small-town Slovak gentry. Since Magyarization was the planned program of the Budapest government, such plays were considered subversive. Suppression stimulated the growth of the Slovak folk theater, and groups of devoted amateurs sustained the Slovak character through long years of political and cultural oppression. The amateur theater became so ingrained a tradition, that it was brought to the United States by early immigrants, where, with the ubiquitous, multi-functional Slovak choir, it became the fund raiser for most of the Slovak churches, schools, and societies. It would be a long list if one were to enumerate the artists who gained fame on the stages of Budapest and Vienna and whose talents stemmed from the highland villages of Slovakia. It would be an extremely short list to enumerate those artists whose Slovak identity was not obliterated by the cultures of their new environments. There are notable examples, however, of artists who should be mentioned because they emerged as Slovaks through the forces that brought about the fall of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy and brought into being new states, among them Czecho-Slovakia. SLOVAKIA 175 It was in 1916, a year before the United States entered World War I and when the Austro-Hungarian Empire was already tottering, that a Slovak artist of high professional caliber appeared on the American stage as a Slovak, perhaps for the first time in history. It was Anica Fabry, primadona of the Royal Opera at Budapest. She presented several concerts in New York City, which were favorably reviewed by such newspapers as The New York Times, The Herald Tribune, and the Journal American, among others. Noteworthy is the fact that in the programs of songs Miss Fabry sang were those of a young Slovak composer, Mikulas Schneider-Trnavsky. Following upon the end of the war and the emergence of the states in Central and East Central Europe, the world was able to know the young, talented Slovaks building careers on the stages of Budapest and Vienna. The handsome young Slovak actor-singer Frantisek Kristof Vesely was brought from Vienna to Prague, where he became a leading star in films. From Budapest there returned such outstanding artists as Andrej Bagar, Hana Melickova, and Jozef Kelo. Bratislava was nationalistically awakening in quick tempo. But it soon appeared that the Czechs wanted the National Theater at Bratislava to be a bridge for politicizing and for influencing a pan-Czech Slovak development. This led to an internal struggle that lasted for years, during which Slovaks were gradually beginning to supplant Czechs m thA Slovak National Theater, particular as authors and playwriters.Outstanding foreign plays were being translated into Slovak and presented on the stage. Many Slovaks, however, were applying their talents to the Czech stage, as actors, singers, directors, and ballet performers. They were exceptionally well paid for their talents, it should be said, to prevent them from complementing the Slovak theaters at Bratislava and Kosice, which were, through their high professional standards, too dangerously competitive for the Czech theater at Prague and Brno. The year 1938 decided in favor of the Slovaks. The theater in Bratislava was already on a high professional level. The still relatively young, 39-year-old idol, Frantisek 176 SLOVAKIA Kristof Vesely, came home to Bratislava from Prague. Opera star Belo Turba Nitrancan returned from Brno. New strength arrived through the return of young Slovaks who had been studying abroad. All enriched the Slovak stage. Into this resurging theatrical environment entered the ambitious and talented young Slovak, Gejza Dusik, who in the course of a few years wrote dozens of operettas, Turecky tabak (Turkish Tobacco), Modra ruza (Blue Rose), Pozar na vlak (Watch Out for the Train), Pod cudzou vlajkou (Under a Foreign Flag), to name the most popular. These were received with so great and wide acclaim that they were almost immediately translated into neighboring languages - German, Magyar, Croat, Bulgar, and others. Theaters were filled to standing-room-on ly whenever Dusik's operettas were performed. The names Mayzes, Cikker, and Suchan are known world-wide as contemporary composers of classical music, symphonic and operatic. Their works are in the repertoire of every major, internationally known symphony orchestra and opera company. Mayzes' Janosik Suite musically recreates the legends of the popular Slovak hero-outlaw, who "took from the rich and gave to the poor." Cikker's operas are regularly performed in Germany and England, particularly one based on Dicken's Christmas Carol. Suchon's opera Krutnava (Vortex), in purely Slovak setting and theme, begins in tragedy and ends in happiness, contrary to traditional operatic structure. Nevertheless, Krutnava has established itself even in Italy, the birthplace and home of opera. As already stated, this presentation considers Slovak theatrical and musical arts only in historical delineation. Although the years 1938 to 1945 constitute, in a sense, Slovak cultural risorgimento, those years and the years following up to our time are still within the current historical perspective. As such, they do not lend themselves even to a superficial evaluation that can be objective. Such evaluation is for the future. What may be said today about this period of Slovak risorgimento is that Bratislava surpassed Vienna in the state of the arts. What must be asked today is, "Quo vadis, Bratislava?" ( Second place - College)  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Slovak Arts in Perspective Description An account of the resource Marlene Bartos Slovakia, Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974 pp. 169-176 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Bartos, Marlene Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 name https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/5c313bfa13cf9069d823447544071007.pdf 71baa88f67621894f9b45c50dc7e2861 PDF Text Text SLOVAKIA 177 SLOVAK SOM JA Stephen John Knoblock This is not going to be a composition about our great patrons Saint Cyril and Methodius, nor about the first President the Slovaks had, Dr. Joseph Tiso. I will not write about the founder of the Sisters of Saint Cyril and Methodius, Father Matthew Jankola or of any other great Slovak leader about whom I have only read. Instead I will write about my great-grandparent s who were born in Slovakia and journeyed to this country at the turn of the century. I will tell about their strong love of God, traditions, and the variety of songs which they brought with them, along with stories I have heard from them and my parents. All their traditions today are an integral part of my life. The people of central, southern, and eastern Europe constantly looked toward the United States as a haven free from social injustice, economic serfdom and the threat of national liquidation. The Slovak was no exception. Harassed at home, subject to the insidious pressures of Magyarization, which sought to deprive them of their national character and identity, thousands of Slovak families, including my great-grandparent s, sought refuge in the new world. My great-grandparent s came to the United States on a passenger ship called "Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse" in nineteen hundred, wearing their babuskies and carrying their loved possessions from the old country. Along with goose feathers, perinas, beautifully and artistically embroidered towels and linens, and some fine China pieces, they brought with them most importantly, their strong faith and immense love of God. They settled in little Slovak communities and shared apartments with relatives and friends. Many found work here in Yonkers at the hat factory, Sugar House, or at the Alexander Smith Carpet Mills. It was hard for them in the beginning, but just as any one of the many immigrant groups we can say that they "have made it" in America. They didn't want charity but worked hard and saved their money. They help found our beautiful Church, Most Holy Trinity, and denied themselves many luxuries and pleasures to build a fine school which still stands as a monument to these fine people. �178 SLOVAKIA At that time the Church was the center of their lives. Life revolved around all parish activities. There was no television, airplanes, or mini skirts. Most husbands and wives with their families attended High Mass and Vespers on Sunday afternoon (after their polievka), which was a must. After Vespers many would walk to Glen Park to watch local clubs and teams play soft ball. The Church sponsored many summer outings, Slovak plays and musicals. The Slovak people were a humble close-knit group with an innate reverence, love, and respect for their church and pastors. They were a praying people who always knelt to say morning and evening prayers and the men were not ashamed to be seen praying from their Slovak prayer books and fingering their rosaries. Every Holy Day or well known saint's day was a day for prayer and celebration. Seldom did they miss rosary devotions during the months of May and October or the Stations of the Cross during the season of Lent. Since their lives were so closely related to the church, so too many of their traditions are religious orientated. On the day before Christmas it was considered good luck if a man was the first person to enter a home. The man was expected to Vinsovat' . One major and very loving custom is the traditional Christmas Eve supper. This supper consists of the blessed oblatky, honey, kozare soup (mushroom and sauerkraut), bobal'ky, roshky and kapustnica. This symbolic meal always began and finished with prayers and blessings from the head of the family. The blest oblatky (or Christmas wafers) symbolized the manna that God sent to His people as they sojourned in the desert. Jesus also said that He was the "bread of life." He left us His Body and Blood under the appearances of bread and wine in the Eucharist. The word oblatky derives from the Latin word oblata, which simply means 'offerings'. Blessed bread, associated with Mass and yet distinct from the Eucharist continues to be an important food at our holy meal. We as Slovaks are fortunate in preserving this custom at Christmas, as an aid to worthy reception of Holy Communion as well as a family spiritual communion on this most joyous of feasts. Later that evening they went to Midnight Mass which was always preceeded by the "Koledy" or Slovak Christmas �SLOVAKIA 179 carols. Even today we sing these simple melodic hymns which tell of the events that occured at Bethlehem.Co To Za Krdsne Diet'atko?, Dnesny Den sa Radujme, Narodil Sa Spasitel', Prisli Sme Ku Tebe, are only but a few. My favorite is Novinu Radostnu, a glorious and moving piece written by the late Vendel Galik, organist and choir director of our parish for forty years. Now I am a member of the Most Holy Trinity Choir and am becoming familiar with these simple, yet beautiful hymns. After the solemn, quiet, prayerful season of Post (Lent) came the joyous and happy time of the church year Vel'ka Noc (Easter). When our forefathers sang Aleluja, Radujme Sa, Pan Jezis Kristus Vstal Z Mftvych, they truly were happy and joyfully secure in their faith. Palm Sunday began the holy week with processions of the blessing of the palm branches. Every Slovak, young and old, wore a cross of palms on his lapel, and reverently displayed them at home. Very few missed Mass on Holy Thursday. The procession of priests, altar boys and children venerating the Blessed Sacrament was and is a spiritual experience. It was the custom to visit as many different churches as possible and offer prayers at their altars. Good Friday then was taken a little more seriously. It was a day of prayers and silence. A day to make a visit to Church and say the Way of the Cross. It was a busy day in the kitchen with paskas, nut and poppyseed cakes to be baked and the syrek to be cooked. Dedo usually got the job of grating of horseradish for the making of chren. It was always done outdoors because the aroma was so pungent it actually brought him to tears. On Holy Saturday we always bring our food to church to be blessed by the priest. The food is carried in a basket covered by a specially embroidered cloth or doily. The basket contains baked ham, klobasy, some lamb, decorated hard boiled eggs, chren, butter, paska and my favorite, syrek. The church, filled with hundreds of baskets of food, smelled so good, I could hardly wait for our Easter break~ fast. My great-grandfa ther, so my Mother .tells me, always circled the house with the basket to bring us blessings all year. Now, my Father and I still follow this ritual. I'm not alwas sure why we do all the things we do or �180 SLOVAKIA follow our special customs, but I know without them life would be dull and we wouldn't have much to look forward to. Take any large or small group of Slovak people at a wed.ding, social outing, banquet, family get-to-gether or a bus ride and they invariably start to sing. The man will start with Ja Parobok z Kapusian, and then you'll always hear Pod Tym Nasim Okieneckom, Ked' Komara zenili and the ladies all love Tancuj, Tancuj. Have you ever noticed how the proud Slovak people stand straighter, sing with more gusto and feeling and renewed faith when Hej, Slovaci is played? I always do and I too feel proud and happy to be of Slovak descent. On the)Whole we, too, are happy, singing musical family, and I recall the first few lines of a song, Slovak Som Ja, Slovak Budem and this is the theme of my paper. "Slovak I am and Slovak I will be" and very proud and happy too, if someday I can accomplish as much as my ancestors, and be so well remembered. True, my great-grandparents biographies will never be published, televised or reiterated by great speakers, but the Slovak traditions, customs, and ideals will remain a part of my life. The greatest heritage bequeathed to me is my Catholic Faith ... (First place - High School) No people or nation can blossom culturally, socially, financially and politically without its own state or country. This is true for little or big nations. This is true for America and for Slovakia. THE OLD KR.AEOVIANSKY TUNNEL serves as a warehouse for 50,000 kilograms of the famed bryndza cheese beginning with May each year. � SLOVAKIA 177 SLOVAK SOM JA Stephen John Knoblock This is not going to be a composition about our great patrons Saint Cyril and Methodius, nor about the first President the Slovaks had, Dr. Joseph Tiso. I will not write about the founder of the Sisters of Saint Cyril and Methodius, Father Matthew Jankola or of any other great Slovak leader about whom I have only read. Instead I will write about my great-grandparent s who were born in Slovakia and journeyed to this country at the turn of the century. I will tell about their strong love of God, traditions, and the variety of songs which they brought with them, along with stories I have heard from them and my parents. All their traditions today are an integral part of my life. The people of central, southern, and eastern Europe constantly looked toward the United States as a haven free from social injustice, economic serfdom and the threat of national liquidation. The Slovak was no exception. Harassed at home, subject to the insidious pressures of Magyarization, which sought to deprive them of their national character and identity, thousands of Slovak families, including my great-grandparent s, sought refuge in the new world. My great-grandparent s came to the United States on a passenger ship called "Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse" in nineteen hundred, wearing their babuskies and carrying their loved possessions from the old country. Along with goose feathers, perinas, beautifully and artistically embroidered towels and linens, and some fine China pieces, they brought with them most importantly, their strong faith and immense love of God. They settled in little Slovak communities and shared apartments with relatives and friends. Many found work here in Yonkers at the hat factory, Sugar House, or at the Alexander Smith Carpet Mills. It was hard for them in the beginning, but just as any one of the many immigrant groups we can say that they "have made it" in America. They didn't want charity but worked hard and saved their money. They help found our beautiful Church, Most Holy Trinity, and denied themselves many luxuries and pleasures to build a fine school which still stands as a monument to these fine people. �178 SLOVAKIA At that time the Church was the center of their lives. Life revolved around all parish activities. There was no television, airplanes, or mini skirts. Most husbands and wives with their families attended High Mass and Vespers on Sunday afternoon (after their polievka), which was a must. After Vespers many would walk to Glen Park to watch local clubs and teams play soft ball. The Church sponsored many summer outings, Slovak plays and musicals. The Slovak people were a humble close-knit group with an innate reverence, love, and respect for their church and pastors. They were a praying people who always knelt to say morning and evening prayers and the men were not ashamed to be seen praying from their Slovak prayer books and fingering their rosaries. Every Holy Day or well known saint's day was a day for prayer and celebration. Seldom did they miss rosary devotions during the months of May and October or the Stations of the Cross during the season of Lent. Since their lives were so closely related to the church, so too many of their traditions are religious orientated. On the day before Christmas it was considered good luck if a man was the first person to enter a home. The man was expected to Vinsovat' . One major and very loving custom is the traditional Christmas Eve supper. This supper consists of the blessed oblatky, honey, kozare soup (mushroom and sauerkraut), bobal'ky, roshky and kapustnica. This symbolic meal always began and finished with prayers and blessings from the head of the family. The blest oblatky (or Christmas wafers) symbolized the manna that God sent to His people as they sojourned in the desert. Jesus also said that He was the "bread of life." He left us His Body and Blood under the appearances of bread and wine in the Eucharist. The word oblatky derives from the Latin word oblata, which simply means 'offerings'. Blessed bread, associated with Mass and yet distinct from the Eucharist continues to be an important food at our holy meal. We as Slovaks are fortunate in preserving this custom at Christmas, as an aid to worthy reception of Holy Communion as well as a family spiritual communion on this most joyous of feasts. Later that evening they went to Midnight Mass which was always preceeded by the "Koledy" or Slovak Christmas �SLOVAKIA 179 carols. Even today we sing these simple melodic hymns which tell of the events that occured at Bethlehem.Co To Za Krdsne Diet'atko?, Dnesny Den sa Radujme, Narodil Sa Spasitel', Prisli Sme Ku Tebe, are only but a few. My favorite is Novinu Radostnu, a glorious and moving piece written by the late Vendel Galik, organist and choir director of our parish for forty years. Now I am a member of the Most Holy Trinity Choir and am becoming familiar with these simple, yet beautiful hymns. After the solemn, quiet, prayerful season of Post (Lent) came the joyous and happy time of the church year Vel'ka Noc (Easter). When our forefathers sang Aleluja, Radujme Sa, Pan Jezis Kristus Vstal Z Mftvych, they truly were happy and joyfully secure in their faith. Palm Sunday began the holy week with processions of the blessing of the palm branches. Every Slovak, young and old, wore a cross of palms on his lapel, and reverently displayed them at home. Very few missed Mass on Holy Thursday. The procession of priests, altar boys and children venerating the Blessed Sacrament was and is a spiritual experience. It was the custom to visit as many different churches as possible and offer prayers at their altars. Good Friday then was taken a little more seriously. It was a day of prayers and silence. A day to make a visit to Church and say the Way of the Cross. It was a busy day in the kitchen with paskas, nut and poppyseed cakes to be baked and the syrek to be cooked. Dedo usually got the job of grating of horseradish for the making of chren. It was always done outdoors because the aroma was so pungent it actually brought him to tears. On Holy Saturday we always bring our food to church to be blessed by the priest. The food is carried in a basket covered by a specially embroidered cloth or doily. The basket contains baked ham, klobasy, some lamb, decorated hard boiled eggs, chren, butter, paska and my favorite, syrek. The church, filled with hundreds of baskets of food, smelled so good, I could hardly wait for our Easter break~ fast. My great-grandfa ther, so my Mother .tells me, always circled the house with the basket to bring us blessings all year. Now, my Father and I still follow this ritual. I'm not alwas sure why we do all the things we do or �180 SLOVAKIA follow our special customs, but I know without them life would be dull and we wouldn't have much to look forward to. Take any large or small group of Slovak people at a wed.ding, social outing, banquet, family get-to-gether or a bus ride and they invariably start to sing. The man will start with Ja Parobok z Kapusian, and then you'll always hear Pod Tym Nasim Okieneckom, Ked' Komara zenili and the ladies all love Tancuj, Tancuj. Have you ever noticed how the proud Slovak people stand straighter, sing with more gusto and feeling and renewed faith when Hej, Slovaci is played? I always do and I too feel proud and happy to be of Slovak descent. On the)Whole we, too, are happy, singing musical family, and I recall the first few lines of a song, Slovak Som Ja, Slovak Budem and this is the theme of my paper. "Slovak I am and Slovak I will be" and very proud and happy too, if someday I can accomplish as much as my ancestors, and be so well remembered. True, my great-grandparents biographies will never be published, televised or reiterated by great speakers, but the Slovak traditions, customs, and ideals will remain a part of my life. The greatest heritage bequeathed to me is my Catholic Faith ... (First place - High School) No people or nation can blossom culturally, socially, financially and politically without its own state or country. This is true for little or big nations. This is true for America and for Slovakia. THE OLD KR.AEOVIANSKY TUNNEL serves as a warehouse for 50,000 kilograms of the famed bryndza cheese beginning with May each year. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1974, Vol. 24 Description An account of the resource Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document SLOVAKIA 177 SLOVAK SOM JA Stephen John Knoblock This is not going to be a composition about our great patrons Saint Cyril and Methodius, nor about the first President the Slovaks had, Dr. Joseph Tiso. I will not write about the founder of the Sisters of Saint Cyril and Methodius, Father Matthew Jankola or of any other great Slovak leader about whom I have only read. Instead I will write about my great-grandparent s who were born in Slovakia and journeyed to this country at the turn of the century. I will tell about their strong love of God, traditions, and the variety of songs which they brought with them, along with stories I have heard from them and my parents. All their traditions today are an integral part of my life. The people of central, southern, and eastern Europe constantly looked toward the United States as a haven free from social injustice, economic serfdom and the threat of national liquidation. The Slovak was no exception. Harassed at home, subject to the insidious pressures of Magyarization, which sought to deprive them of their national character and identity, thousands of Slovak families, including my great-grandparent s, sought refuge in the new world. My great-grandparent s came to the United States on a passenger ship called "Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse" in nineteen hundred, wearing their babuskies and carrying their loved possessions from the old country. Along with goose feathers, perinas, beautifully and artistically embroidered towels and linens, and some fine China pieces, they brought with them most importantly, their strong faith and immense love of God. They settled in little Slovak communities and shared apartments with relatives and friends. Many found work here in Yonkers at the hat factory, Sugar House, or at the Alexander Smith Carpet Mills. It was hard for them in the beginning, but just as any one of the many immigrant groups we can say that they "have made it" in America. They didn't want charity but worked hard and saved their money. They help found our beautiful Church, Most Holy Trinity, and denied themselves many luxuries and pleasures to build a fine school which still stands as a monument to these fine people. 178 SLOVAKIA At that time the Church was the center of their lives. Life revolved around all parish activities. There was no television, airplanes, or mini skirts. Most husbands and wives with their families attended High Mass and Vespers on Sunday afternoon (after their polievka), which was a must. After Vespers many would walk to Glen Park to watch local clubs and teams play soft ball. The Church sponsored many summer outings, Slovak plays and musicals. The Slovak people were a humble close-knit group with an innate reverence, love, and respect for their church and pastors. They were a praying people who always knelt to say morning and evening prayers and the men were not ashamed to be seen praying from their Slovak prayer books and fingering their rosaries. Every Holy Day or well known saint's day was a day for prayer and celebration. Seldom did they miss rosary devotions during the months of May and October or the Stations of the Cross during the season of Lent. Since their lives were so closely related to the church, so too many of their traditions are religious orientated. On the day before Christmas it was considered good luck if a man was the first person to enter a home. The man was expected to Vinsovat' . One major and very loving custom is the traditional Christmas Eve supper. This supper consists of the blessed oblatky, honey, kozare soup (mushroom and sauerkraut), bobal'ky, roshky and kapustnica. This symbolic meal always began and finished with prayers and blessings from the head of the family. The blest oblatky (or Christmas wafers) symbolized the manna that God sent to His people as they sojourned in the desert. Jesus also said that He was the "bread of life." He left us His Body and Blood under the appearances of bread and wine in the Eucharist. The word oblatky derives from the Latin word oblata, which simply means 'offerings'. Blessed bread, associated with Mass and yet distinct from the Eucharist continues to be an important food at our holy meal. We as Slovaks are fortunate in preserving this custom at Christmas, as an aid to worthy reception of Holy Communion as well as a family spiritual communion on this most joyous of feasts. Later that evening they went to Midnight Mass which was always preceeded by the "Koledy" or Slovak Christmas SLOVAKIA 179 carols. Even today we sing these simple melodic hymns which tell of the events that occured at Bethlehem.Co To Za Krdsne Diet'atko?, Dnesny Den sa Radujme, Narodil Sa Spasitel', Prisli Sme Ku Tebe, are only but a few. My favorite is Novinu Radostnu, a glorious and moving piece written by the late Vendel Galik, organist and choir director of our parish for forty years. Now I am a member of the Most Holy Trinity Choir and am becoming familiar with these simple, yet beautiful hymns. After the solemn, quiet, prayerful season of Post (Lent) came the joyous and happy time of the church year Vel'ka Noc (Easter). When our forefathers sang Aleluja, Radujme Sa, Pan Jezis Kristus Vstal Z Mftvych, they truly were happy and joyfully secure in their faith. Palm Sunday began the holy week with processions of the blessing of the palm branches. Every Slovak, young and old, wore a cross of palms on his lapel, and reverently displayed them at home. Very few missed Mass on Holy Thursday. The procession of priests, altar boys and children venerating the Blessed Sacrament was and is a spiritual experience. It was the custom to visit as many different churches as possible and offer prayers at their altars. Good Friday then was taken a little more seriously. It was a day of prayers and silence. A day to make a visit to Church and say the Way of the Cross. It was a busy day in the kitchen with paskas, nut and poppyseed cakes to be baked and the syrek to be cooked. Dedo usually got the job of grating of horseradish for the making of chren. It was always done outdoors because the aroma was so pungent it actually brought him to tears. On Holy Saturday we always bring our food to church to be blessed by the priest. The food is carried in a basket covered by a specially embroidered cloth or doily. The basket contains baked ham, klobasy, some lamb, decorated hard boiled eggs, chren, butter, paska and my favorite, syrek. The church, filled with hundreds of baskets of food, smelled so good, I could hardly wait for our Easter break~ fast. My great-grandfa ther, so my Mother .tells me, always circled the house with the basket to bring us blessings all year. Now, my Father and I still follow this ritual. I'm not alwas sure why we do all the things we do or 180 SLOVAKIA follow our special customs, but I know without them life would be dull and we wouldn't have much to look forward to. Take any large or small group of Slovak people at a wed.ding, social outing, banquet, family get-to-gether or a bus ride and they invariably start to sing. The man will start with Ja Parobok z Kapusian, and then you'll always hear Pod Tym Nasim Okieneckom, Ked' Komara zenili and the ladies all love Tancuj, Tancuj. Have you ever noticed how the proud Slovak people stand straighter, sing with more gusto and feeling and renewed faith when Hej, Slovaci is played? I always do and I too feel proud and happy to be of Slovak descent. On the)Whole we, too, are happy, singing musical family, and I recall the first few lines of a song, Slovak Som Ja, Slovak Budem and this is the theme of my paper. "Slovak I am and Slovak I will be" and very proud and happy too, if someday I can accomplish as much as my ancestors, and be so well remembered. True, my great-grandparents biographies will never be published, televised or reiterated by great speakers, but the Slovak traditions, customs, and ideals will remain a part of my life. The greatest heritage bequeathed to me is my Catholic Faith ... (First place - High School) No people or nation can blossom culturally, socially, financially and politically without its own state or country. This is true for little or big nations. This is true for America and for Slovakia. THE OLD KR.AEOVIANSKY TUNNEL serves as a warehouse for 50,000 kilograms of the famed bryndza cheese beginning with May each year.  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Slovák som ja Description An account of the resource Stephen John Knoblock Slovakia, Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974 pp. 177-180 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Knoblock, Stephen John Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 SNK https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/329328bd44102fc8e3fc31826c3d7211.pdf ada238b3dd98531f7a084d213a4f9584 PDF Text Text SLOVAKIA 181 ,J.. M. Ki rs ch b au m, Ph.D.: Noted Slovak Jubilarians Andrej Z a r n o v "Les elites emigrees vivent tragiquement. Elles sont contraintes a une vie hasardeuse, solitaire, humiliee. Elles sont amenees par l'exil a l'epreuve a reviser leurs valeurs, et a en connaitre ou a en creer d'autres ... " Albert Thibaudet, Histoire de la litterature fra~aise de 1780 a nos jours, Paris, 1936. Since 1945, when Slovakia was overrun by the Soviet armies and subject to communist rule, a number of poets and writers left their native land in protest against political oppression in their homeland and with the intention of working in the free world for freedom and independence of their country. This political mission is especially true with regard to the emigre writers and poets who left Slovakia in 1945-1949 among whom were several of the leading Slovak writers and poets. A similar example can be found mutatis mutandis only in 19th century Poland, when after the revolution of 1830 the best Polish poets (Mickiewicz, Krasinski, Slowacki) and a number of writers and intellectuals escaped the Russians and made Paris the center of Polish literature. The fate of Slovak poets and writers was, of course, not as favorable as that of Polish "grande emigration." Some of the more prominent Slovak writers were soon captured in Austria and brought back to Slovakia and imprisoned (Milo Urban, A. zarnov, Tido J. Gaspar) while others had to fight against false denunciations and other pressures, in order to survive and create. In spite of this, "the 50 odd Slovak men of letters living on this side of the Iron Curtain kept the lights of Slovak culture burning while they were out of their native country. This may sound emotional or sentimental, yet it is a sad truth that in the years 1950-55 there hardly appeared in Slovakia a single book worthy of reading. In those years indeed the emigre literature was the contemporary Slovak literature." 1 �182 SLOVAKIA Slovak poets and writers in exile continued to play especially the role of the "conscience of the nation" and that of interpreters of the aspirations of the Slovak people, traditionally assumed by Slovak poets and writers. More than in any other nation, not only the national rebirth was the work of Slovak poets and writers, but also the struggle for political rights and social justice; the first national rebellion was led by them, and they kept the national spirit alive in time of despair. Since the time when the poet Jan Holly (1785-1849) awakened the Slovak intelligentsia by unveiling to them the glorious past of Slovak ancestors in the Great Moravian period, and by giving them hope for a better future, Slovak poetry was an instrument of the national struggle, an expression of the national ideals and hopes, of national sufferings and joy. The poets and writers were the heralds and prophets of a new and better world, often being also social revolutionary leaders. This tradition was cultivated in Slovak literature over the past one hundred and fifty years and was even strengthened during the crucial years of Slovakia's national struggle in this century. Slovak poets and writers in exile have not considered themselves exempt from this special mission. On the contrary, exile made them more patriotic and the sufferings of the Slovak people more conscious of their duty to be the "conscience" of their nation and the interpreters of the aspiration of the Slovak people. In the countryside of New York State, one of the best contemporary Slovak poets, Andrej zarnov (by his own name Prof. Frantisek subik), attained on November 19, 1973 the prestigous age of 70. If the present Slovak generations owe a tribute to any poet for his participation in the struggle for national rights and equality with other nations, Andrej zarnov deserves such recognition from Slovaks abroad as well as in Slovakia. Born in 1903 in the village of Kuklov in Western Slovakia, zarnov remained proud of his rural heritage even when he achieved the position of University Professor of Pathology and high recognition from critics and readers for his literary work. He made his secondary studies in Skalica and Trnava and his study of medicine in Bratislava where he was active in student organizations and became �SLOVAKIA 183 well-known for his fiery verses already during his university years. In 1926, :2:arnov accompanied Msgr. Andrej Hlinka on the triumphant journey around the United States. At that time neither zarnov nor the American Slovaks could expect that after the dramatic events of the Second World War, he would return to the United States as an exile, persecuted for his patriotism and his part in the International Red Cross Commission which examined during the Second World War the brutal massacre of 10,000 Polish officers by the Soviets in Katyn. zarnov left Slovakia in 1945, but he was forcibly "repatriated" from Austria, arrested and jailed. In 1952 he left Slovakia in a dramatic flight and settled first near Washington and later at Wingdale, N. Y. where he lives presently with his family. 2 ZARNOV'S WORK AND PLACE IN SLOVAK LITERATURE Perhaps to no other country more than to Slovakia is the statement of historians applicable, that in Central and Eastern European national movements were the concern of poets, writers and scholars and that they created the nationalities. Not only was the national rebirth the work of Slovak poets and writers, but also the struggle for political rights and social justice; the first national rebellion was led by them, and they kept the national spirit alive in time of despair. Since the first great Slovak poet, Jan Holly (1785-1849) awakened the Slovak intelligentsia by unveiling to them the glorious past of Slovak ancestors and by giving them a strong faith in a better future of the Slovak people, Slovak poetry was an instrument of national struggle, an expression of the national idea, national sufferings, joys, and hopes. The poets and writers were the heralds and prophets of a new and better world; they were social revolutionaries and national leaders. This tradition was respected in Slovak literature over the past one hundred years, and during the crucial years of Slovak national struggle in this century the role was played by Andrej :2:arnov more prominently than by any other Slovak poet, except for Martin Razus. Andrej :2:arnov appeared in Slovak literature in a period when the Slovak people fought their harsh struggle (against �184 SLOVAKIA the Czech assimilatory tendencies) for preserving their language, national identity and cultural heritage. It was the period of the 20's and 30's of this century, when on one hand Slovakia experienced a strong cultural development, but was at the same time forced into an uneven struggle for her national future, for social justice and political and economic equality. The danger of this situation was not only in the preponderance of means and political power or in the fact that Slovaks were far outnumbered by Czechs, but also in the fact that the masses of the Slovak people were going through the final phase of the process of maturing politically and the Slovak intelligentsia was in cultural and ideological ferment. In this national struggle Zarnov came with his fiery verses full of faith in the Slovak people and his vitality, adYocating national solidarity and protesting against the Czech attempts to rule, exploit and denationalize the Slovak people. At the same time, his poetry dared Slovaks to defend themselves, to stand firmly on their feet and not bow, not to yield. It was a revolutionary call for political and social justice, for national pride and honor which very soon found a favorable echo among the young Slovak intelligentsia and made Zarnov, since he identified himself with his nation's aspirations, sorrows and sufferings, the poet of the Slovak national struggle, and of Slovak patriotism. There was an outburst of poetic production in Slovakia between the two wars, but only Zarnov (besides M. Razus) stood on the barricades of Slovak national struggle with his patriotic poems, his forceful indignation, with his spiritual roots in the national tradition and fervent belief in the victory of the Slovak cause. Zarnov's fiery poetry, after being largely recited and published in periodicals and dailies, had been edited in several volumes. The first one, Strdz pri Morave (The Guard on Morava, 1925) was composed of verses expressing the poet's and his generation's political and spiritual orientation and provoked even the political censors to intervene. The second volwne Brdzda cez uhory (The Furrow Through Fallows, 1929) contained rather meditative and lyrical poetry enquiring into the spiritual ferment and restlessness of the poet's generation. While in the first volwne Zarnov created of his poetry an effective instrument for Slovak �SLOVAKIA 185 national struggle, in the second volume he turned his eyes to the soul of the people he inflamed to struggle and bitterly analyzed its conscience. The third volume Hlas krvi (The Call of the Blood, 1932) and the following volume stit (The Shield, 1940) still contained verses of patriotic inspirations; his last volume Mftvy (The Dead, 1941) contains, however, poetry of deep personal sorrow and refine lyrics inspired by the untimely death of his young son. The profile of a patriotic revolutionary and interpreter of the nation's aspirations and struggle was thus completed in z arnov's last volume by poetry of deep human feelings and meditations. In all his volumes, zarnov preferred rather simple poetic forms, including the free verse. The rhythm of his poetry and his vocabulary were of great effectiveness and from the very beginning it indicated a strong talent. His books are, of course, on the index in Slovakia, but some of his verses are among the most recited by Slovaks in the free world, in which zarnov found refuge after the Communists seized power in Slovakia. ZARNOV'S TRANSLATIONS FROM WORLD LITERATURES zarnov enriched, however, Slovak literature also by many masterful translations of lyrics, epics and dramas. His first translations go back to 1933-34 at which time zarnov published in Slovak dailies and periodicals his version of Przerwa-Tetmajer Jdnosikove motivy (Janosik's Motives). In 1936 zarnov translated for the Slovak National Theatre the well-known play from the life of F. Chopin and Georges Sand Leto v Nohante (The Summer in Nohant) by J. Iwaszkiewicz. A year after, Matica slovenska published Sophocles' Antigona in zarnov's translation and in 1941 King Oedipus. The same year zarnov translated for the Slovak National Theatre the libretto of the opera Rusalka and in 1943 his translation of Zygmunt Krasinski's Nebozskd komedia (The Undivine Comedy) was published by Matica slovenska. After the Second World War, in the oppressive atmosphere of the Communist and Czech domination of Slovakia, zarnov was not allowed to publish his own poetry, but he did not cease creating and talking to his countrymen. In �186 SLOVAKIA 1949 the Society of St. Adalbert published his translation of Murphy's novel on Mary Magdalene The Scarlet Lily, in 1950 appeared the volume of translations from Adam Mickiewicz Poeezia, and in 1951 Hymny (The Hymns) of Jan Kasprowicz. The Communist regime did not, however, allow zarnov to use his pen-name on Kasprowicz's Hymns. They were published as translations by Francis ~ubik. Before his dramatic flight from Slovakia, zarnov prepared for publication his translation of Dante's Peklo (The Hell) and selections of poems by Leopold Staff Vyber z poezie (Selected Poems), but they remained in manusscript. zarnov's masterful translations were highly regarded by Slovak literary critics and by the readers and contributed especially to useful cultural relations of Slovakia with Poland. He received a Silver wreath from the Polish Academy of Literature for his pre-war translation U pol'sk'!}ch b<isnikov ( Among Polish Poets) and during the Second World War he prepared an entire book of translations from Adam Mickiewicz's works. 3 The volume was published "in order to transplant Mickiewicz's works to Slovak soil and thereby strengthen the structure of Slavic brotherhood in the cultural sector," and because "in world literature there are only a few great poets who in the work of their genius accumulate and present so universally, profoundly, and magnificently the history of the efforts, failures and spiritual achievements of their own people as does Adam Mickiewicz, the greatest Polish and all-Slavic poet." The book appeared in 1948, published by the Slovak Catholic cultural institution the "Society of St. Adalbert." We can say without exaggeration that zarnov has been, in his generation, artistically and spiritually the best prepared to transmit the heritage of Mickiewicz's most beautiful poems into Slovak literature. And he did it with great artistic skill and brilliance. His volume Poezia contains not only the eighteen Crimean Sonnets, but also Konrad Wallenrod, the Ode to Youth, To a Polish Mother, To My Muscovite Friends, Sages, A Vision, The Master of Masters, Flight and Out of My Sight, thus presenting some valuable lyrics along with his patriotic verse tale about his fatherland. The Crimean Sonnets in zarnov's translation remain �SLOVAKIA 187 "a wonder," since he has preserved to a great degree the richness of beauty of the poetic expression which always takes us by surprise and makes us marvel at the audacity of thought and the moral courage which produce the special splendor of this collection. zarnov's poetic language is, naturally, modern, his verse and rhythm vivid, and the whole translation audacious. zarnov found in his own rich poetical invention the metaphors and poetic visions to express Mickiewicz's ideas and colorful images. The translation of Konrad Wallenrod is a poetical and genuine interpretation, equalling in beauty Mickiewicz's own work. zarnov is certainly no romantic in the pattern of the last century, but still an enthusiastic patriot who sings in his poetry a hymn to his crucified country, dooming its traitors and fighting for justice, one who has consecrated his life and his heart to his fatherland. More than anyone else among modern Slovak poets he was, therefore predestined to enrich modern Slovak literature by this Byronic work of great charm and poetic vision, which "of the many and often highly inspired types of Byronism in Polish poetry ranks highest." zarnov's versions of the Ode to Youth and To My Muscovite Friends are to be remembered not only for brilliance of translation ( which could be demonstrated only by quotations and comparisons of texts), but also for the purpose which the translator wished to serve. The volume Poezia was published after the tragic experiences with the Russian occupation of Slovakia. zarnov, to whom the national cause has always been a question of honor and personal dedication, addressed, in Mickiewicz's mordant verses, the new Muscovite rulers and summoned Slovak youth to the dynamic faith which Mickiewicz, in the Ode to Youth, expressed for Poles under very similar circumstances. zarnov's translations were thus to serve after a century the same aim as Mickiewicz had assigned to his poetry. Through the literary works of Mickiewicz zarnov wished to teach the Slovaks, as Mickiewicz had the Poles, "to regard as their personal affair the great question of honor and dedication, truth and falsehood, nobility of ends and legitimacy of means for attaining them." zarnov attemped to convince his martyred people that "the national cause must become an autochthonous idea, the ultimate �188 SLOVAKIA moral criterion around which the entire spiritual life of the nation is crystalized." The real function of zarnov's poetry and translation was, like that of Mickiewicz's, not only to provide artistic enjoyment or to refine aesthetic taste, but primarily to equip his people with the spiritual resources necessary to enable them to survive their enslavement and to fight for their freedom. The Muscovite rulers in Slovakia grasped his intention and silenced the book. zarnov, under constant threat of arrest and deportation, and many times in prison, made a dramatic flight from his country and now fights in exile for his ideas. In exile he published a number of patriotic verses and a masterful transcription of several poems by Jan Holly into a modern Slovak language, to remind the Slovaks of their spiritual roots and national heritage, and to confirm once more that he was one of the Slovak poets who penetrated and stirred to the depths the spirits of his generation and especially of the young intelligentsia, helped to bring them to a strong awareness of their spiritual and national individuality, and successfully summoned them to the struggle for justice and freedom. On behalf of that generation, we are sending to the quiet countryside near New York our grateful: Ad multos annos. F OOTNOTES 1) See F. Vnuk, Sedemnast' neurodnych ro kov . N acrt slovenske j li t eratury v rokoch 1945-62. (Middletown, Pa., 1965) , p . 277. 2) F or more details on 2arnov's work and life, see J . Pauco (ed .), L iterarny Almanach Slovaka v Amerike, Middletown, Pa. 1967. 3) On 2arnov's translations from Mickiewicz, see W. Lednicki, Adam . Micki ewicz in W orld Literature, University of California Press, 1956i contribution by J . M. Kirschbaum. lmrich K r u f I i a k The prose and poetry of Slovak emigre writers is varied in themes and literary styles and strongly reflects a deep sadness over the loss of their native country and over the treatment of their people under communism. This is especially characteristic of the writings of poets and writers who had played a prominent role in Slovak literary life before they left their native land. Strong national feelings and "heimweh''; however, can also be found in the works �SLOVAKIA 189 of poets who developed their talents far away from their native country. Prominent in this group of Slovak intellectuals is Dr. Imrich Kruzliak whose 60th birthday we will commemorate on December 8, 1974. Born in the romantic Detva, Kruzliak followed the path of educated Slovaks of his generation from villages and towns who went through secondary schools and universities by their own efforts and talents and, after helping the struggle for national independence, had to pay in jails or in exile for their patriotism. Kruzliak did not leave his native Slovakia in 1945. He decided to stay and fight with other Catholic intellectuals for the preservation of Slovak national traditions and for a place for Catholics in the post-war political life. When in 1947, the Communists began their persecution of Catholic intellectuals, he was arrested, tortured, and kept in jail for a year. To avoid a new arrest, he escaped in 1949 to Austria and in 1951 settled in Munich where he became employed by Radio Free Europe as a commentator on Slovak cultural matters. Writing mostly under the pen-name Marian ziar and initials I. K., mz, Dr. Kruzliak contributed in exile to emigre literature either in poetry or in literary criticism. Although Kruzliak had published verses and literary essays already before and during the war, it was in exile that he became known as a poet and mainly as a cultivated commentator and critic of Slovak literary and cultural life at home and abroad. His essays, comments and book reviews have been published mostly in the quarterly Most, Literdr ny Almanach, Rozhl'ady, but also in annuals and newspapers Jednota, Slovak v Amerike and for the past two years in Horizont of which he has been the editor in chief. His writings have been among the best in Slovak empire literature. We would mention especially his survey of Slovak literature under Communism (Most, 1958), anci essay "Shakespeare and Slovaks" (Most, 1964), a study on the "Literary and artistic cult of Sts. Cyril and Methodius among Slovaks" (Most, 1963) and ":C. stur" (Most, 1965) . In scores of book reviews, Kruzliak enriched Slovak emigre literature with new ideas, well-balanced opinions, and by an effort to keep Slovak cultural life abroad on a European level. �190 SLOVAKIA He also deserves recognition for editing and publishing two volumes of poetry of poets in communist jails Modlitby v putdch (Prayers in Shackles, Munich, 1955) and translations from Polish, Magyar and Russian poets of the period of "thaw" Podaj ndm ruku, Eur6pa ( Give us Helping Hand, Europe, Munich, 1957). One of his extensive surveys of Slovak culture under Communism was published in mimeographed book form and his contribution on Slovak culture since 1945 appeared in the symposium Slovakia in the 19th and 20th Centuries, published by the Slovak World Congress (Toronto, 1973). He also edited special volume of Arena (Vol. 16, 3-4) which the P.E.N. Centre for Writers in Exile published on Slovak literature in London, England in 1963. Dr. Kruzliak does not belong, however, to literary life alone. Since his university years he was among the most active intellectuals in the Slovak public life and a leading figure in the generation which dedicated talents and energies to the struggle of the Slovak people for an equal place among European nations. His literary beginnings are connected with students periodicals (Rozvoj, Svojet') in the 1930's, while his participation in public life began before he obtained his Ph.D. summa cum laude at the Bratislava University. As many members of his generation, he also was inspired by the idealism of ~udovit t5tur, represented in 1920's and 1930's in Slovak national struggle by Andrej Hlinka. Idealism and dedication of those years marked Dr. Kruzliak's whole life in Slovakia as well as in exile. On the threshold of his 60th birthday he continues his life struggle in the Slovak World Congress as the head of the cultural section. The upheavals and tragedies experienced by his generation, marked also his life, but did not break his spirit. Hardly any Slovak generation had to go through such trials. There were, however, also victories and uncomparable cultural and spiritual growth of the Slovak nation to' which that generation contributed at home and in exile. And no other generation had such opportunities to see the world, to learn foreign languages and to absorb cultural values of the most advanced nations. It is on behalf of those who from that generation survived the persecutions of the tyrannical regimes in �191 SLOVAKIA Slovakia and the trials of exile, that we cordially greet Dr. Kruzliak on the threshold of his 60th birthday, wishing him that the Lord may fulfill his desires to see Slovakia free, democratic and equal to other nations. Mikulas sp r i n C For the past 25 years, perhaps the most important role in the Slovak literary life in exile was played by the highly cultivated and sensitive poet, Rev. Mikulas sprinc, whose 60th birthday Slovaks abroad will commemorate on November 30th, 1974. Like Dilong and Strmen, sprinc also came from the "Catholic Moderna" group and was well-known in Slovakia as Secretary and later Director of the Slovak Catholic Academy and organizer of many cultural activities before and during the War. He published during the War two collections of his own poetry and four collections of translations : from Rilke, from several Italian poets, as well as from the works of P. Lippert and Giovanni Papini. At the same time he contributed to nearly all Slovak literary journals and periodicals, in addition to being the editor of the main Slovak Catholic literary monthly Kultiira <19431945 ). s princ left Slovakia later than other Slovak emigre poets and writers, and reached Rome through Austria and Germany. He was named by the Vatican a delegate for helping the Slovak refugees in Austria and Germany, but in 1946 he obtained a visa for the United States where he developed not only extensive organizational cultural activities, but also his talent so that he became one of the leading Slovak Catholic poets in Diaspora. A professor of modern languages and philosophy of arts by vocation, he deserves credit for keeping alive the Slovak literary journal Most , of which he has been editor since 1954, as well as for founding the Association of Slovak Writers and Artists, whose President has been the poet Andrej zarnov. sprinc was also one of the founders of the Slovak Institute in Cleveland, and edited several symposia in addition to his own prolific and varied literary activities. Altogether sprinc published 18 collections of musical and highly cultivated poetry, and an English collection �192 SLOVAKIA Driftwood ( 1969), partly translated by himself and partly by one of his students and a well-known translator of Slovak poetry, Jaroslav Vajda. Those who appreciate a poetry rooted in the strong belief in the Creator without sounding too religious, and those who like the beauty of life in the song of birds, in the colors of flowers, in the sound of the wind, and blue skies or the colors of the rainbow, can find great enjoyment in sprinc's poetry. In his lyrical verses, sprinc echoes the art of Paul Verlaine and the spirit of St. Francis of Assissi. The musical and rhythmical quality of his poetry is rarely equalled by other Slovak emigre poets, except probably Gorazd Zvonicky. The translations of sprinc's verses are not an easy task for translators. Many of his volumes also contain fine poems with patriotic overtones, expressing his love for his lost and oppressed Slovakia. Recent volumes of sprinc's poetry have been artistically illustrated and carefully published, reflecting high artistic quality also in their technical presentation. As a result, reading his beautifully published collections is a double pleasure; they are written by a sensitive and gifted poet but, even more, by a man humbly and joyfully believing in God whose faith and glorification of the Creator sounds so natural and full of hope that one longs for the same beautiful world and the author's joyful soul and spirit. Even though Paul Verlaine seems to be his preferred poet (he wrote his M.A . thesis in French on Verlaine), sprinc is very well versed in Italian, German and Spanish poetry, and contributed to Slovak emigre literature by several excellent translations. To his large and varied cultural activities he has added more than 300 articles, book reviews, comments and contributions to Slovak periodicals, almanacs and newspapers. More than any other poet or writer, sprinc deserves credit for keeping Slovak culture abroad not only alive, but also reflecting the best Slovak national traditions. In spite of his many activities as professor, editor and secretary of the Association of Slovak Writers and Artists, sprinc was able during the past two decades to publish nearly every year a volume of his poetry or a book in prose. Among his published works we find: Ozveny v samotdch (1940), Tak umieral bdsnik Pal'o Oliva (1942), 0 ldske �SLOVAKIA a bolesti (1942), Duinske elegie (1942), O Tebe spieva zem idc sdm 0943), K slobodnym pobreziam (1950), Na r:"•rFlo 'l J () • polnopi 'ti· · poludnfa Z (1955), slnku proti (1953), Tvdrou ')s'ted6~ putnie~±{~ moje Oci (1962), orla (1960), Mladost' a ffPk k?J s _ Brat~la'8 (1967), Andante (1952), kovia utrpenia ,a ~- ~1 • S'! 1 JI ora· ll:170 Palidora, z Piesne (1969), (1968), Driftwood 11 "' · j rn JC lovy ostrov (1973) etc.* t'f" : 'iOr.?.910 I'l Among his translation s we should metftionfGidva:aru Papini's work Witnesses of Suffering (Scraiitott CFA-{J'1i95!!) and among his foreign language writings hi M~..fthesi t Paul Verlaine: Etude de sa poesie religieuse,Wil'i-100',i stiill u v[ ,, , 1 ;. ,.... in manuscrip t. I 'di _Jj(,· ~-II sprinc also published an interesting narra,J;;':vp1!n,:prose about his escape and journey from Slovakia ~f?' ,1i0:Yr'l1Il,~9 States in a volume K slobodnym pobreziam ('J;R>t~'rr r;;~1e Shores), a book on St. Andrew Svorad as vv,:e, ~r~~d l. p~~lf dedicated to the Virgin Mary. For the llth -1 0~~t[;npial<: 0J Christianit y in Slovakia, he edited a collectiop."r~ ~!:5e-? by several Slovak poets under the title Zdravic0-; sp-"'qy j!oRi a Metodovi (Rome, 1963). He also contributec l:11f?: 1aurn~smr~ fully illustrated anthology Odkaz (The Legacy.., 197Jp in f.eJfg~ehte~. which leading Slovak poets and writers are ro "¼o"'"' 10· ""i In prose, he edited the memoirs of Msgr. Joze · KaB3-i a prominent Slovak diplomat at the Vatican du¥fh§ \ .war Spod Rohdcov po Vatikdn (From Rohace M9tiRtim to? · e Vatican, 1973) as well as two symposia comp.~~~ ,cif 'qop; C~ictrfn_tributions by Slovak emigre writers: Ndde7· vit'azria 1J 'R? 'fJf U?'f • -. ::;;_ 1939-1-.~4(} republika Slovenskd and 1947) Hope, ous ' ,.., Republic 1939-1949, Scranton, Pa., 1949). 9.i · V)\1)')1Sh'1 ·i•h ai 1~f'd2 c( aii~ Literary work of this envergure and 1 we -Iiifre > ; case; a does not need to be praised. It is again 1 • if'tceW!. Laudat'·a'¥f have to repeat the Latin dictum: Opus fivities It was a blessing for Slovak literature and cultubr-a~i abroad that sprinc left Slovakia. Therefore, ori~he~ooa §i6n of his 60th birthday, we cannot be more sincer.e"1wlierfJ,we - :>.r. ,h,i< say: Ad multos annos! 1 (JJ Jy3c-riqz~t{ :llC J *) :r-r::;m For more details on Sprinc and his work, see Literltrfi'y 11.lrMnbcn for 1967, p. 232-234, and Most, Vol. I, 2, 1954, and Vol. 13~ 4;-1956!!') �194 SLOVAKIA Teodorik Zubek To the ranks of prominent Slovak intellectuals in exile whose 60th birthday we will commemorate in 1974, also belongs Prof. T. J. Zubek, oustanding member of the Slovak Franciscan Order in Slovakia and the United States, who was born on April 4, 1914 in Malacky, Western Slovakia. Professor Zubek filled an important gap in exile activities by his theological writings and mainly by presenting the religious situation in post war Slovakia to the Western World. At the same time he deserves recognition for reviving the Order of Slovak Franciscan Fathers in the United States who under his leadership become active not only in the religious field but also in education and cultural life. Well educated at Slovak and foreign Universities (Zagreb, Croatia; Fribourg, Switzerland), Dr. Zubek played leading role in his Order in Slovakia, and had to pay under the Communist regime for his patriotism and service to God by detention in the concentration camp for priests in Svaty Benadik. After his escape in 1951, he found refuge in Austria and Rome, Italy, from where he came to the United States in 1952. Soon after his arrival to the U.S.A. Dr. Zubek became Professor of Theology at Seton Hall University, Newark, N. J. and published an authoritative work on the Communist persecution of religion in his native country Church of Silence in Slovakia (J. Lach Publ., Whiting, Ind., 1956). This book and his scholarly contributions to American religious and academic periodicals (Homiletic and Pastoral Review, Jurist, Ameri can Ecclesiastical Review, The Catholic Educator and others) performed an important service to the Slovak cause among Western intellectuals. Some of his studies rank among the best writings on contemporary theological and educational topics. From the Slovak point of view, of great importance among his English writings is also his presentation of the case of Msgr. Tiso and the fate of Slovak bishops (Slovak Bishops - Martyrs of Christ, 1963) to Western readers. Exposed to hostile propaganda during the War and after, many people in the free world maintained biased attitudes towards Slovakia even among clergy and in academic circles. Dr. Zubek was among the first Slovak emigre �SLOVAKIA 195 intellectuals who grasped the need for writing on Slovakia in English and in non-Slovak periodicals, and for doing it in a much more reserved manner than we can afford in our Slovak publications. Dr. Zubek contributed at the same time to Slovak periodicals and newspapers, to Slovak Studies, and edited the religious monthly Listy Sv. Frantiska (Leaflets of St. Francis) published by his Order of which he was the head as Provincial Delegate. He also took part in Slovak emigre cultural and organizational activities aiming at the unity and co-operation, namely in Slovak Liberation Council and Slovak World Congress, at the Conference on Slovakia held in Toronto in 1971 and elsewhere. From the very beginning of his exile has been considered as one of the most distinguished representatives of Slovak clergymen abroad. By his activities, high education and devotion to the work for God and bonum commune, Dr. Zubek upheld the noble tradition of the Franciscan Order in Slovakia, whose members belonged to the best educators, historians, writers and poets in the centuries of Slovak national revival as well as in this century. It is with sincere admiration for his work and great human qualities that we greet him on his sixtieth birthday with a heartfelt: Ad multos annos! Jozef Pa u co For more than a century, journalists and editors played in Slovak national life a role going far beyond their profession. Starting with Eudovit stur in the middle of the 19th century, leading Slovak journalists were also political leaders, poets, writers, historians, grammarians and organizers of cultural and political institutions. This phenomenon appeared in Slovakia as well as among Slovaks abroad, especially in the United States and Canada. After stur, S. H . Vajansky was an outstanding example of a journalist, who also was a prominent poet, novelist and fighter for the Slovak cause. In the following generation Karol Sidor and Konstantin Culen remained faithful to that tradition in Slovakia and on the American continent. Both of them were journalists by profession, but they also wrote a �[96 SLOVAKIA am lil,erary works and books dealing with the ofoSI~aks and their struggle for freedom. h'eq>ast 25 years, an austanding example of journalist who became a historian, political writer and organizer • .Joll!uraI &F.~ political activities, was Dr. Jozef Pauco, ~ '1We .1 2¥thday was celebrated by Slovaks abroad on ~ 8f.f9 r¥R~L 1974. Pauco's admiration for E. stur goes Bi~ 1t2,1r.. ,years when he wrote his Ph.D. thesis at the I}, ·1-ffi ·1i v~c13ratislava, which was later published under 9} yt • {,1J{!,OJJYChova u sturovcov (Popular Education in nt) . Since that time Dr. Pauco also followed ~ ' x' MB, ~ f8o}§jeps of K. Sidor and K. culen in his work as ~n !n eing a political exile, in his dedication to the ~ ~.HJ.Iijijle:iJer2 freecto111: , and independence for Slovakia and i - fillfp,tjfj>_n with American Slovaks and Slovak-American organizations. bibliography listed below indicates, Dr. As thej seJect ' ' r[J J)l [IQ[ f y Hjj r(~mgs are not only extensive, but also cover e.vera1' ~ cfs9!rom history to political science and belles 12t ,nw .fil~S.V O II . pub1·ished works . part of his 1l 1 :e~ . .tS s19.a y, th e maJor . t ct· f d t S {:_!(, ''IS I'I .'11 ' hJfiIH~W . , rAR?"ever, a e en mg he Slovak cause. This :a cr1°fsB~afiW even his works on American Slovaks, which !fh~ Y#1 ~9 ~fo~);'o his best writings and in their method and $I&»Jay flDif compare with standard works on the subj~cf.'."'i frer fof. F. Hrusovsky and K. culen, he actually deserves main credit for systematic research into the past and present of American Slovaks. His books on their history atest to his great love for jjl_jz~ i 9_mt branch of the Slovak people. In addition, lzli-l ~ftlltl.futijsplayed in his works on American Slovaks, of Wlli.Plb :ti~cY~mninous history of the First Catholic Slovak ~smrubip rrecent book on Slovak Pioneers in America 4%fill:YJ O ~fkteular attention, that history was the field W~fttmt~ ld use his academic education and thorough fmID'{fflP.g.f~mf@lovak American organizational structure and ~ ~g:njfl~J:?.g ~ of individual leaders. As a result, whoever }Y!UsiYfOOl ~(tc,::omplete history of American Slovak~, will lff)lUiffifHfliiO.l:Wlfite authoritatively without ~sing Dr. Pauco's , ~f4J!!g)}V~rks. 110Ui-Bi¥unMjgl,lly, a larger number of books, essays an(\ MMtje b&;ia . Pauco deals, however, with Slova~a•s strugglaj::Rf!~~p.filldence l;l,nd with the _defense of leading Slovak h'i&j t> n; b~ �SLOVAKIA 197 personalities, especially Dr. Jozef Tiso, against whom many incorrect views and misconceptions were spread in the West during and after the Second World War. Slovakia and Slovaks suffered not only under Communism. There was a lot of injustice and descrimination against Slovaks also before the War and during the short period after the War when the Communists ruled together with their Czech and Slovak fellow-travelers from the non-communist parties. In his writings, Dr. Pauco endeavored to fight the falsehood and injustice of· both. It was, however, the communist misrule in Slovakia and the communist ideology which he exposed and fiercely criticized in his writings, advocating Christian democracy and the independence of Slovakia. Besides his own books, essays and thousands of articles, Dr. Pauco also published-as editor-the valuable documentary work Dr. Jozef Tiso o sebe (Dr. Jozef Tiso About Himself), containing the defense of the President of the Slovak Republic at his trial by the communist court, and a number of symposia on leading Slovak exiles (K. Sidor, J.C. Hronsky,· etc.). Furthermore, he deserves recognition for publishing and editing the Literdrny Almanach and the weekly Slovak v Amerike, both of which would have disappeared several years ago without his dedication and sacrifice as well that of his literary active wife. Last but not least, Dr. Pauco has rendered great service to the Slovak cause as the editor of the English periodical dealing with Slovak cultural and political matters, Slovakia. founded by Philip Hrobak. This editorial part of Dr. Pauco's work is of far reaching importance for the activities of Slovaks abroad and can be evaluated adequately only if we imagine how much poorer Slovak cultural life and the struggle for independence would be without these publications. In view of the fact that the historical and geopolitical situation of Slovakia made the Slovak cause a matter of controversy, Dr. Pauco's writings were bol,lild to provoke a strong reaction from the adversaries of the Slovak struggle for independence. His militant spirit, uncompromising attitude and fervor incited them to make denunciations, accusations and . undeserved attacks, but Pauco remained, in spite of all attacks on his person, one of 'the most dedicated defenders of the Slovak cause in his generation. �198 SLOVAKIA He also continues to be the most prolific Slovak journalist and writer on politics and history who remained faithful to stur's tradition and Hlinka-Tiso's ideology of Christian democracy and self-determination for the Slovaks. SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY IN SLOVAK Popular Education ). Matica slovenska. Turciansky Sv. Martin, 1943, pp. 151. Politicko-narodny program Hsns (Political Program of the Slovak People's Party ). Andrej uc. spol. Bratislava, 1944, pp. 96. co po komunizme? (After Communism What?) . Jednota, Middletown, Pa., 1952, pp. 29. Dr. Jozef Ti so o sebe (Dr. Joseph Tiso About Himself) . Slovensky Katolicky Sokol, Passaic, N. J., 1952, pp. 359. (Ed.) Tisov odkaz (Tiso's Message). Jednota, Middletown, Pa., 1953, pp. 89. Stefan Furdek a slovenske prist'ahovalectvo (Stephen Furdek and Slovak Immigration ). J ednota, Middletown, Pa., 1955, pp. 190. Slovcici a komunizmus (The Slovaks and Communism ). Rev. Jan Lach, Whiting, Ind., 1957, pp. 318. P-0d zcistavou krest'anskej demokracie (Under the Banner of the Christian Democracy). Slovenski krest'anski demokrati v Spojenych Statoch, Middletown, Pa. , 1957, pp. 30. Slovenskci rehol'a Sestier sv. Cyrila a Metoda (Slovak Order of the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius). Slovensky .Zensky Spolok sv. Anny, Wyoming Valley, Pa., 1957, pp. 32. Matus Jankola - knaz a ncirodovec (Matus Jankola - A Priest and Patriot). Rad sestier sv. Cyrila a Metoda, Danville, Pa., 1959, pp. 174. Pamiatke Jozefa Cigra Hronskeho (In Memoriam Jozef Cig-er Hronsky) . Literarny Almanach Slovaka v Amerike, Middletown, Pa., 1960, pp. 46. (Ed.) Martin Kopunek) . Laicky apostol Martin Kopunek (Lay Apostle Vychodna Oblast' Sdruzenia Slovenskych Katolikov, Bethlehem, Pa., 1961, pp. 67. (Ed.) Neporazitel'ni (Unconquerables). Prva Katolicka Slovenska Jednota, Middletown, Pa., 1961, pp. 190. Karol Sidor - politik novincir, spisovatel' (Karol Sidor - Politician, Newspaperman, and Writer) . Literarny Almanach Slovaka v Amerike, Middletown, Pa., 1962, pp. 148. (Ed.) Piit'desiatnik Dr. J-0zef Kirschbaum (Dr. Jozef Kirschbaum - Fifty Years Old). Literarny Almanach Slovaka v Amerike, Middletown, Pa., 1963, pp. 171. (Ed.) Prvej Katolickej Slovenskej Jednoty (75 Years of the First rokov 75 Catholic Slovak Union). Prva Katolicka Slovenska Jednota, Cleveland, Ohio, 1965, pp. 560 and XIV. 80 pages of pictures. Na uteku (Flight to Wonderland; serialized in the Weekly Jednota) . Middletown, Pa., 1965. l}udovychova u sturovcov (Stur's Movement - �SLOVAKIA 199 Tak sme sa poznali (So Have We Known One Another). Literarny Almanach Slovaka v Amerike, Middletown, Pa., 1967, pp. 281. Illustra- tions. Slovenski priekopnici v Amerike (Slovak Pioneers in America). First Catholic Slovak Union, Cleveland, Ohio, 1972, pp. 358. Illustrations. IN ENGLISH Unconquerables, Vantage Press, New York, N. Y., 1958, pp. 225. Christian Slovakia Under Communism. The Slovak Catholic Federation, Valparaiso, Ind., 1959, pp. 31. Flight to Wonderland. Robert Speller and Sons, New York, N. Y., 1963, pp. 334. 'i0 Years of the Slovak League of America. Middletown, Pa., 1967, pp. 146. (Ed.) IN GERMAN Dr. Jozef Tiso: Die Wahrheit uber die Slowakei (The Truth About Slovakia). Tisovo Tovarisstvo, in the Emigration, 1948, pp. 187. Illustrated. ARTICLES IN ENGLISH The Practi cal Aspect of a Federation. Slovakia, III, No. 2, 1953, p. 26-36. American Slovaks and March 14, 1939. Slovakia, IV, No. 1, 1954, p. 17-22. The Slovak Republic and Communism. Slovakia, IV, No. 3-4, 1954, p. 35-38. Slovakia Viewed By American Historians. Most, I. No. 4, 1954, p . 17-25. The Failures of Communist Politics in Slovakia, Slovakia, V, No. 4, 1955, p. 3-20. Stu.r's Group in the Service of the People. Slovakia, VI, No. 1, 1956, p. 11-16. I Was Editor of President Tiso's Newspaper. Slovakia, VII, No. 1, 1957, p. 9-12. Dr. Joseph Tiso : Christian Democrat. Slovakia, VII, No. 2, 1957, p. 37-50. The Stirring Days of March 1939. Slovakia, IX, No. 4, 1959, p. 24-32. Slovakia Under Communism. Slovakia, IX, N-0. 5, 1959, p. 1-5; Slovakia, X, No. 6, 1960, p. 62-73 ; Slovakia, XI, No. 1, 1961, p. 13-21. Slovakia's Mid-Nineteenth Century Struggle for National Life. Slovak Studies I, 1961, p. 69-83. The Matica Slovenskd in America. Slovakia, XIII, No. 1, 1963, p. 77-82. American Slovaks and the Beginnings of Czecho-Slovakia. Slovakia, XVI, No. 39, 1966, p. 63-75. Slovak Pioneers in America. Slovakia, XIX, No. 42, 1969, p. l0S-124. Under Dynamic Leadership. 60 Years of the Slovak League of America, 1967, p. 112-146. The Slovak Benedictines Review 50 Years in Cleveland, Ohio. Slovakia, XXII, No. 45, 1972, p. 92-97. Twenty Years of the Slovak Institute in Cleveland. Slovakia, XXIII, No. 46, 1973, p. 16-23. Cultural Revival of American and Canadian Slovaks. Slovakia, XXIII, No. 46, 1973, p. 72-81. Mother M. Emerentia Petrasek. Slovakia, XXIII, No. 46, 1973, p. 123-128. �200 SLOVAKIA EVALUATION OF DR. PAUCO'S WRITINGS BY REVIEWERS The number of book reviews published on individual Pauco's works is too large to be listed in this survey. In general, we can say that extensive reviews and commentaries, written by known Slovak authors, scholars, poets and cultural workers, were published not only in newspapers, but also in literary and cultural periodicals (Most, Furdek, Slovakia) and almanacs. Book reviews in Slovak language prevail, but his major writings were evaluated and commented upon also in English, mostly by reviewers born or educated on the American continent. The majority of reviewers of Dr. Pauco's books evaluated his writings favorably not only because of their ideological contents and usefulness for preservation of Slovak cultural heritage but also for their literary, and in many instances, scholarly value, thorough research and vast knowledge of the Slovak past and present. Deeply involved in Slovak political and cultural life since his students years, Dr. Pauco was a participant in historical events or closely associated with persons he writes about in a majority of his books, which gives to some of his works particular significance. On the other hand, his books on the history of American Slovaks fill an important gap and therefore the reviewers valued them for their contribution to the neglected history of American Slovaks as well as for their documentation and objectivity with which Pauco approached his subjects. Among the reviewers of Dr. Pauco's books and publications edited by him were K. culen, Prof. F. Hrusovsky, J . E. Bor, M. Jankovsky, J. M. Kirschbaum, J. C. Krajsa, M. K. Mlynarovic, J. Mest'ancik, Prof. K. Murin, Rev. Andrew Pier, O.S.B., Dr. B. Pissko, Dr. J. Rekem, Dr. J. Stasko, Rev. Mother Emerentia, Rev. Sister Tarcisia and many others. The book 75 Years of the FCSU was reviewed by 15 and his recent book Slovak Pioneers in America by 9 reviewers. All reviews were favorable . The evaluation by American born reviewers deserves, however special mention. Prof. V. R. Greene of the Kansas State University, who has learned to read and understand Slovak and wrote his �SLOVAKIA 201 Ph.D. thesis on East European immigrants in Pennsylvania , said on Pauco's 75 Years of the First Catholic Slovak Union: "Not only is it a complete and most comprehensiv e history of the Jednota and the Slovaks in America, but its many references, footnotes and bibliography will satisfy any serious reader and research historian." Mother M. Emerentia, SS.C.M. in her extensive review published in Jednota (June 30, 1965) referred to Matthew Arnold's statement that "Great creative works in literature result from happy concurence of two notable powers, the power of the man and the power of the moment," and wrote on Pauco's book: "Such a happy concurence of two notable powers has been strikingly exemplified before our eyes this year. For the power of the moment there was the 75th anniversary of the First Catholic Slovak Union in 1965, calling for the writing of the history of this remarkable organization. For the power of the man there was Joseph Pauco, Ph.D., a gifted author, historian and scholar, capable and willing to assume the task of writing this history. The result is a truly monumental contribution to Slovak history and literature, entitled 75 rokov Prvej Katolickej Slovenskej Jednoty." The book Tak sme sa poznali (So Have We Known One Another, 1967) attracted the attention of Slovak exiles as well as of American born Slovak intellectuals. "Dr. J. Pauco's Memoirs encompass - according to Sister M. Tarcisia - multiple and varied personal contacts as well as deep insight, broad vision and a skillful pen. The author is a scholar, a man of the people, an editor, a journalist, a lecturer, a politcian. The era he portrays was at once shatteringly disruptive and marvelously formative in its application to Central Europe and specifically to Slovakia. The men who played the leading roles in the drama of the Slovak Republic (1939-1945) were true to human nature: some giants, some midgets, some heroes, some traitors. Tak sme sa poznali is a tremendously vital book. In recounting his experience in the Slovak Republic - all of which he saw, part of which he was - Dr. Pauco has written authentic history. As such it will live and flourish." �202 SLOVAKIA Pauco's last book Slovenskt priekopnici v Amerike (Slovak Pioneers in America, 1972) was favorably reviewed and welcome as a valuable contribution to the history of American Slovaks by a dozen of Slovak writers, scholars, journalists and cultural workers. In the opinion of the American born editor of Jednota, J. C. Krajsa, "Pauco's work required serious research and documentation. In an objective manner he credits the life and work of the pioneers and categorizes them in their proper niche in the history of the American Slovaks, in America and the Slovak nation. He presents those leading pioneers who played the greatest role in the cultural field; those who organized fraternal societies, parishes, schools, and religious orders; those who preserved the literary culture with the publication of newspapers and books; and those who were fired with the ideal of liberty that even permeated to Slovakia." The book is in Krajsa's view "in itself a pioneer book. Nothing to date has been published in such documentary detail about American Slovak pioneers. The First Catholic Slovak Union is proud to publish this vital literary work of Dr. Joseph Pauco." According to another prominent American Slovak, Fr. J. A. Gajdosik "Pauco's book is one sure way to arousing interest in the Slovak heritage on a personal and individual basis, especially among our younger people. Hopefully, an English translation will be made in the near future, so that devotion to the Slovak ethnicity will be fostered. "The book should bolster Dr. Joseph Pauco's strong thoughts about the termination and death of the Slovak language in the United States. The book is also a warning to our fair-weather-Slovaks, who claim that they received little if anything from their Slovak ancestors, for it teaches that much Slovak affluence and prestige is directly the result of the conduct and work of our pioneers. "It behooves our brethren who are ashamed of their Slovak ethnicity, to study their history, and learn how everything they have was given to them, and that they should give themselves for others as our pioneers did. The ultimate lesson is that we, American of Slovak ancestry, should foster and serve the Slovak cause and ideal, at least as much, if not better than our pioneers in early America." �203 SLOVAKIA REVIEWS OF PAUCO'S WRITINGS IN LEADING PERIODICALS MOST co po komunizme? (I, 1, 1954, p . 44) Tisov odkaz (I, 2, 1954, p. 39-40. Dr. Karol Murin) Dr. Jozef Tiso o sebe (I, 3, 1954, p. 41-43. F. Hrusovsky) Stefan Furdek a slovenske prist'ahovalectvo (II, 2, 1955, p. 136-137) Mest'ancik) Slovcici a komunizmus (IV, 3, 1957, p. 132-133. Unconquerables (VI, 1-2, 1959, p. 83-85. Andrew Pier, O.S.B.) Christian Slovakia Under Communism (VI, 3, 1959, p. 186-187. Andrew Jan Pier, O.S.B. ) Pi:it'desiatnik Dr. Jozef Kirschbaum (XI, 3-4, 1964, p. 181) Slovakia (XI, 3-4, 1964, p. 182-183) Litercirny Almanach Slovcika v Amerike na rok 1965 (XII, 1-2, 1965, p. 82-83) Slovakia (XII, 3-4, 1965, p. 189) SLOVAKIA 75 rokov Prvej Katolickej Slovenskej Jednoty (XV, 38, 1965, p . 152-155. Mother M. Emerentia, SS.C.M.) Litercirny Almanach Slovcika v Amerike 1967 (XVII, 40, 1967, p. 190-192. Sister M. Tarcisia Gregorovic, SS.C.M.) Tak sme sa poznali (XVIII, 41, 1968, p . 159-164. Sister M. Tarcisia, SS. C.M.) Slovenski priekopnici v Amerike ( XXIII , 46, 1973, p. 196-197. Joseph C. Krajsa) F URD EK All writings by Dr. Pauco on the history of American Slovaks are evaluated by J . M. Kirschbaum in his article Dr. Pauco' s W ritings and the History of American Slovaks (Furdek, 1974, p. 75-80) . Francis V n u k : A BIOGRAPHICAL VALEDICTION In spite of the fact that the Slovaks are among the oldest inhabitants of the Central European region their efforts to secure a fully independent life has been seldom appreciated and rarely understood. But frustrations and disappointments can never deter a nation from its ultimate aim, and where one generation fails another will rise to continue the struggle. The natural aspirations of a nature and self-respecting nation cannot be suppressed by terror, nor silenced by bribes, nor extinguished by an apparent � SLOVAKIA 181 ,J.. M. Ki rs ch b au m, Ph.D.: Noted Slovak Jubilarians Andrej Z a r n o v "Les elites emigrees vivent tragiquement. Elles sont contraintes a une vie hasardeuse, solitaire, humiliee. Elles sont amenees par l'exil a l'epreuve a reviser leurs valeurs, et a en connaitre ou a en creer d'autres ... " Albert Thibaudet, Histoire de la litterature fra~aise de 1780 a nos jours, Paris, 1936. Since 1945, when Slovakia was overrun by the Soviet armies and subject to communist rule, a number of poets and writers left their native land in protest against political oppression in their homeland and with the intention of working in the free world for freedom and independence of their country. This political mission is especially true with regard to the emigre writers and poets who left Slovakia in 1945-1949 among whom were several of the leading Slovak writers and poets. A similar example can be found mutatis mutandis only in 19th century Poland, when after the revolution of 1830 the best Polish poets (Mickiewicz, Krasinski, Slowacki) and a number of writers and intellectuals escaped the Russians and made Paris the center of Polish literature. The fate of Slovak poets and writers was, of course, not as favorable as that of Polish "grande emigration." Some of the more prominent Slovak writers were soon captured in Austria and brought back to Slovakia and imprisoned (Milo Urban, A. zarnov, Tido J. Gaspar) while others had to fight against false denunciations and other pressures, in order to survive and create. In spite of this, "the 50 odd Slovak men of letters living on this side of the Iron Curtain kept the lights of Slovak culture burning while they were out of their native country. This may sound emotional or sentimental, yet it is a sad truth that in the years 1950-55 there hardly appeared in Slovakia a single book worthy of reading. In those years indeed the emigre literature was the contemporary Slovak literature." 1 �182 SLOVAKIA Slovak poets and writers in exile continued to play especially the role of the "conscience of the nation" and that of interpreters of the aspirations of the Slovak people, traditionally assumed by Slovak poets and writers. More than in any other nation, not only the national rebirth was the work of Slovak poets and writers, but also the struggle for political rights and social justice; the first national rebellion was led by them, and they kept the national spirit alive in time of despair. Since the time when the poet Jan Holly (1785-1849) awakened the Slovak intelligentsia by unveiling to them the glorious past of Slovak ancestors in the Great Moravian period, and by giving them hope for a better future, Slovak poetry was an instrument of the national struggle, an expression of the national ideals and hopes, of national sufferings and joy. The poets and writers were the heralds and prophets of a new and better world, often being also social revolutionary leaders. This tradition was cultivated in Slovak literature over the past one hundred and fifty years and was even strengthened during the crucial years of Slovakia's national struggle in this century. Slovak poets and writers in exile have not considered themselves exempt from this special mission. On the contrary, exile made them more patriotic and the sufferings of the Slovak people more conscious of their duty to be the "conscience" of their nation and the interpreters of the aspiration of the Slovak people. In the countryside of New York State, one of the best contemporary Slovak poets, Andrej zarnov (by his own name Prof. Frantisek subik), attained on November 19, 1973 the prestigous age of 70. If the present Slovak generations owe a tribute to any poet for his participation in the struggle for national rights and equality with other nations, Andrej zarnov deserves such recognition from Slovaks abroad as well as in Slovakia. Born in 1903 in the village of Kuklov in Western Slovakia, zarnov remained proud of his rural heritage even when he achieved the position of University Professor of Pathology and high recognition from critics and readers for his literary work. He made his secondary studies in Skalica and Trnava and his study of medicine in Bratislava where he was active in student organizations and became �SLOVAKIA 183 well-known for his fiery verses already during his university years. In 1926, :2:arnov accompanied Msgr. Andrej Hlinka on the triumphant journey around the United States. At that time neither zarnov nor the American Slovaks could expect that after the dramatic events of the Second World War, he would return to the United States as an exile, persecuted for his patriotism and his part in the International Red Cross Commission which examined during the Second World War the brutal massacre of 10,000 Polish officers by the Soviets in Katyn. zarnov left Slovakia in 1945, but he was forcibly "repatriated" from Austria, arrested and jailed. In 1952 he left Slovakia in a dramatic flight and settled first near Washington and later at Wingdale, N. Y. where he lives presently with his family. 2 ZARNOV'S WORK AND PLACE IN SLOVAK LITERATURE Perhaps to no other country more than to Slovakia is the statement of historians applicable, that in Central and Eastern European national movements were the concern of poets, writers and scholars and that they created the nationalities. Not only was the national rebirth the work of Slovak poets and writers, but also the struggle for political rights and social justice; the first national rebellion was led by them, and they kept the national spirit alive in time of despair. Since the first great Slovak poet, Jan Holly (1785-1849) awakened the Slovak intelligentsia by unveiling to them the glorious past of Slovak ancestors and by giving them a strong faith in a better future of the Slovak people, Slovak poetry was an instrument of national struggle, an expression of the national idea, national sufferings, joys, and hopes. The poets and writers were the heralds and prophets of a new and better world; they were social revolutionaries and national leaders. This tradition was respected in Slovak literature over the past one hundred years, and during the crucial years of Slovak national struggle in this century the role was played by Andrej :2:arnov more prominently than by any other Slovak poet, except for Martin Razus. Andrej :2:arnov appeared in Slovak literature in a period when the Slovak people fought their harsh struggle (against �184 SLOVAKIA the Czech assimilatory tendencies) for preserving their language, national identity and cultural heritage. It was the period of the 20's and 30's of this century, when on one hand Slovakia experienced a strong cultural development, but was at the same time forced into an uneven struggle for her national future, for social justice and political and economic equality. The danger of this situation was not only in the preponderance of means and political power or in the fact that Slovaks were far outnumbered by Czechs, but also in the fact that the masses of the Slovak people were going through the final phase of the process of maturing politically and the Slovak intelligentsia was in cultural and ideological ferment. In this national struggle Zarnov came with his fiery verses full of faith in the Slovak people and his vitality, adYocating national solidarity and protesting against the Czech attempts to rule, exploit and denationalize the Slovak people. At the same time, his poetry dared Slovaks to defend themselves, to stand firmly on their feet and not bow, not to yield. It was a revolutionary call for political and social justice, for national pride and honor which very soon found a favorable echo among the young Slovak intelligentsia and made Zarnov, since he identified himself with his nation's aspirations, sorrows and sufferings, the poet of the Slovak national struggle, and of Slovak patriotism. There was an outburst of poetic production in Slovakia between the two wars, but only Zarnov (besides M. Razus) stood on the barricades of Slovak national struggle with his patriotic poems, his forceful indignation, with his spiritual roots in the national tradition and fervent belief in the victory of the Slovak cause. Zarnov's fiery poetry, after being largely recited and published in periodicals and dailies, had been edited in several volumes. The first one, Strdz pri Morave (The Guard on Morava, 1925) was composed of verses expressing the poet's and his generation's political and spiritual orientation and provoked even the political censors to intervene. The second volwne Brdzda cez uhory (The Furrow Through Fallows, 1929) contained rather meditative and lyrical poetry enquiring into the spiritual ferment and restlessness of the poet's generation. While in the first volwne Zarnov created of his poetry an effective instrument for Slovak �SLOVAKIA 185 national struggle, in the second volume he turned his eyes to the soul of the people he inflamed to struggle and bitterly analyzed its conscience. The third volume Hlas krvi (The Call of the Blood, 1932) and the following volume stit (The Shield, 1940) still contained verses of patriotic inspirations; his last volume Mftvy (The Dead, 1941) contains, however, poetry of deep personal sorrow and refine lyrics inspired by the untimely death of his young son. The profile of a patriotic revolutionary and interpreter of the nation's aspirations and struggle was thus completed in z arnov's last volume by poetry of deep human feelings and meditations. In all his volumes, zarnov preferred rather simple poetic forms, including the free verse. The rhythm of his poetry and his vocabulary were of great effectiveness and from the very beginning it indicated a strong talent. His books are, of course, on the index in Slovakia, but some of his verses are among the most recited by Slovaks in the free world, in which zarnov found refuge after the Communists seized power in Slovakia. ZARNOV'S TRANSLATIONS FROM WORLD LITERATURES zarnov enriched, however, Slovak literature also by many masterful translations of lyrics, epics and dramas. His first translations go back to 1933-34 at which time zarnov published in Slovak dailies and periodicals his version of Przerwa-Tetmajer Jdnosikove motivy (Janosik's Motives). In 1936 zarnov translated for the Slovak National Theatre the well-known play from the life of F. Chopin and Georges Sand Leto v Nohante (The Summer in Nohant) by J. Iwaszkiewicz. A year after, Matica slovenska published Sophocles' Antigona in zarnov's translation and in 1941 King Oedipus. The same year zarnov translated for the Slovak National Theatre the libretto of the opera Rusalka and in 1943 his translation of Zygmunt Krasinski's Nebozskd komedia (The Undivine Comedy) was published by Matica slovenska. After the Second World War, in the oppressive atmosphere of the Communist and Czech domination of Slovakia, zarnov was not allowed to publish his own poetry, but he did not cease creating and talking to his countrymen. In �186 SLOVAKIA 1949 the Society of St. Adalbert published his translation of Murphy's novel on Mary Magdalene The Scarlet Lily, in 1950 appeared the volume of translations from Adam Mickiewicz Poeezia, and in 1951 Hymny (The Hymns) of Jan Kasprowicz. The Communist regime did not, however, allow zarnov to use his pen-name on Kasprowicz's Hymns. They were published as translations by Francis ~ubik. Before his dramatic flight from Slovakia, zarnov prepared for publication his translation of Dante's Peklo (The Hell) and selections of poems by Leopold Staff Vyber z poezie (Selected Poems), but they remained in manusscript. zarnov's masterful translations were highly regarded by Slovak literary critics and by the readers and contributed especially to useful cultural relations of Slovakia with Poland. He received a Silver wreath from the Polish Academy of Literature for his pre-war translation U pol'sk'!}ch b<isnikov ( Among Polish Poets) and during the Second World War he prepared an entire book of translations from Adam Mickiewicz's works. 3 The volume was published "in order to transplant Mickiewicz's works to Slovak soil and thereby strengthen the structure of Slavic brotherhood in the cultural sector," and because "in world literature there are only a few great poets who in the work of their genius accumulate and present so universally, profoundly, and magnificently the history of the efforts, failures and spiritual achievements of their own people as does Adam Mickiewicz, the greatest Polish and all-Slavic poet." The book appeared in 1948, published by the Slovak Catholic cultural institution the "Society of St. Adalbert." We can say without exaggeration that zarnov has been, in his generation, artistically and spiritually the best prepared to transmit the heritage of Mickiewicz's most beautiful poems into Slovak literature. And he did it with great artistic skill and brilliance. His volume Poezia contains not only the eighteen Crimean Sonnets, but also Konrad Wallenrod, the Ode to Youth, To a Polish Mother, To My Muscovite Friends, Sages, A Vision, The Master of Masters, Flight and Out of My Sight, thus presenting some valuable lyrics along with his patriotic verse tale about his fatherland. The Crimean Sonnets in zarnov's translation remain �SLOVAKIA 187 "a wonder," since he has preserved to a great degree the richness of beauty of the poetic expression which always takes us by surprise and makes us marvel at the audacity of thought and the moral courage which produce the special splendor of this collection. zarnov's poetic language is, naturally, modern, his verse and rhythm vivid, and the whole translation audacious. zarnov found in his own rich poetical invention the metaphors and poetic visions to express Mickiewicz's ideas and colorful images. The translation of Konrad Wallenrod is a poetical and genuine interpretation, equalling in beauty Mickiewicz's own work. zarnov is certainly no romantic in the pattern of the last century, but still an enthusiastic patriot who sings in his poetry a hymn to his crucified country, dooming its traitors and fighting for justice, one who has consecrated his life and his heart to his fatherland. More than anyone else among modern Slovak poets he was, therefore predestined to enrich modern Slovak literature by this Byronic work of great charm and poetic vision, which "of the many and often highly inspired types of Byronism in Polish poetry ranks highest." zarnov's versions of the Ode to Youth and To My Muscovite Friends are to be remembered not only for brilliance of translation ( which could be demonstrated only by quotations and comparisons of texts), but also for the purpose which the translator wished to serve. The volume Poezia was published after the tragic experiences with the Russian occupation of Slovakia. zarnov, to whom the national cause has always been a question of honor and personal dedication, addressed, in Mickiewicz's mordant verses, the new Muscovite rulers and summoned Slovak youth to the dynamic faith which Mickiewicz, in the Ode to Youth, expressed for Poles under very similar circumstances. zarnov's translations were thus to serve after a century the same aim as Mickiewicz had assigned to his poetry. Through the literary works of Mickiewicz zarnov wished to teach the Slovaks, as Mickiewicz had the Poles, "to regard as their personal affair the great question of honor and dedication, truth and falsehood, nobility of ends and legitimacy of means for attaining them." zarnov attemped to convince his martyred people that "the national cause must become an autochthonous idea, the ultimate �188 SLOVAKIA moral criterion around which the entire spiritual life of the nation is crystalized." The real function of zarnov's poetry and translation was, like that of Mickiewicz's, not only to provide artistic enjoyment or to refine aesthetic taste, but primarily to equip his people with the spiritual resources necessary to enable them to survive their enslavement and to fight for their freedom. The Muscovite rulers in Slovakia grasped his intention and silenced the book. zarnov, under constant threat of arrest and deportation, and many times in prison, made a dramatic flight from his country and now fights in exile for his ideas. In exile he published a number of patriotic verses and a masterful transcription of several poems by Jan Holly into a modern Slovak language, to remind the Slovaks of their spiritual roots and national heritage, and to confirm once more that he was one of the Slovak poets who penetrated and stirred to the depths the spirits of his generation and especially of the young intelligentsia, helped to bring them to a strong awareness of their spiritual and national individuality, and successfully summoned them to the struggle for justice and freedom. On behalf of that generation, we are sending to the quiet countryside near New York our grateful: Ad multos annos. F OOTNOTES 1) See F. Vnuk, Sedemnast' neurodnych ro kov . N acrt slovenske j li t eratury v rokoch 1945-62. (Middletown, Pa., 1965) , p . 277. 2) F or more details on 2arnov's work and life, see J . Pauco (ed .), L iterarny Almanach Slovaka v Amerike, Middletown, Pa. 1967. 3) On 2arnov's translations from Mickiewicz, see W. Lednicki, Adam . Micki ewicz in W orld Literature, University of California Press, 1956i contribution by J . M. Kirschbaum. lmrich K r u f I i a k The prose and poetry of Slovak emigre writers is varied in themes and literary styles and strongly reflects a deep sadness over the loss of their native country and over the treatment of their people under communism. This is especially characteristic of the writings of poets and writers who had played a prominent role in Slovak literary life before they left their native land. Strong national feelings and "heimweh''; however, can also be found in the works �SLOVAKIA 189 of poets who developed their talents far away from their native country. Prominent in this group of Slovak intellectuals is Dr. Imrich Kruzliak whose 60th birthday we will commemorate on December 8, 1974. Born in the romantic Detva, Kruzliak followed the path of educated Slovaks of his generation from villages and towns who went through secondary schools and universities by their own efforts and talents and, after helping the struggle for national independence, had to pay in jails or in exile for their patriotism. Kruzliak did not leave his native Slovakia in 1945. He decided to stay and fight with other Catholic intellectuals for the preservation of Slovak national traditions and for a place for Catholics in the post-war political life. When in 1947, the Communists began their persecution of Catholic intellectuals, he was arrested, tortured, and kept in jail for a year. To avoid a new arrest, he escaped in 1949 to Austria and in 1951 settled in Munich where he became employed by Radio Free Europe as a commentator on Slovak cultural matters. Writing mostly under the pen-name Marian ziar and initials I. K., mz, Dr. Kruzliak contributed in exile to emigre literature either in poetry or in literary criticism. Although Kruzliak had published verses and literary essays already before and during the war, it was in exile that he became known as a poet and mainly as a cultivated commentator and critic of Slovak literary and cultural life at home and abroad. His essays, comments and book reviews have been published mostly in the quarterly Most, Literdr ny Almanach, Rozhl'ady, but also in annuals and newspapers Jednota, Slovak v Amerike and for the past two years in Horizont of which he has been the editor in chief. His writings have been among the best in Slovak empire literature. We would mention especially his survey of Slovak literature under Communism (Most, 1958), anci essay "Shakespeare and Slovaks" (Most, 1964), a study on the "Literary and artistic cult of Sts. Cyril and Methodius among Slovaks" (Most, 1963) and ":C. stur" (Most, 1965) . In scores of book reviews, Kruzliak enriched Slovak emigre literature with new ideas, well-balanced opinions, and by an effort to keep Slovak cultural life abroad on a European level. �190 SLOVAKIA He also deserves recognition for editing and publishing two volumes of poetry of poets in communist jails Modlitby v putdch (Prayers in Shackles, Munich, 1955) and translations from Polish, Magyar and Russian poets of the period of "thaw" Podaj ndm ruku, Eur6pa ( Give us Helping Hand, Europe, Munich, 1957). One of his extensive surveys of Slovak culture under Communism was published in mimeographed book form and his contribution on Slovak culture since 1945 appeared in the symposium Slovakia in the 19th and 20th Centuries, published by the Slovak World Congress (Toronto, 1973). He also edited special volume of Arena (Vol. 16, 3-4) which the P.E.N. Centre for Writers in Exile published on Slovak literature in London, England in 1963. Dr. Kruzliak does not belong, however, to literary life alone. Since his university years he was among the most active intellectuals in the Slovak public life and a leading figure in the generation which dedicated talents and energies to the struggle of the Slovak people for an equal place among European nations. His literary beginnings are connected with students periodicals (Rozvoj, Svojet') in the 1930's, while his participation in public life began before he obtained his Ph.D. summa cum laude at the Bratislava University. As many members of his generation, he also was inspired by the idealism of ~udovit t5tur, represented in 1920's and 1930's in Slovak national struggle by Andrej Hlinka. Idealism and dedication of those years marked Dr. Kruzliak's whole life in Slovakia as well as in exile. On the threshold of his 60th birthday he continues his life struggle in the Slovak World Congress as the head of the cultural section. The upheavals and tragedies experienced by his generation, marked also his life, but did not break his spirit. Hardly any Slovak generation had to go through such trials. There were, however, also victories and uncomparable cultural and spiritual growth of the Slovak nation to' which that generation contributed at home and in exile. And no other generation had such opportunities to see the world, to learn foreign languages and to absorb cultural values of the most advanced nations. It is on behalf of those who from that generation survived the persecutions of the tyrannical regimes in �191 SLOVAKIA Slovakia and the trials of exile, that we cordially greet Dr. Kruzliak on the threshold of his 60th birthday, wishing him that the Lord may fulfill his desires to see Slovakia free, democratic and equal to other nations. Mikulas sp r i n C For the past 25 years, perhaps the most important role in the Slovak literary life in exile was played by the highly cultivated and sensitive poet, Rev. Mikulas sprinc, whose 60th birthday Slovaks abroad will commemorate on November 30th, 1974. Like Dilong and Strmen, sprinc also came from the "Catholic Moderna" group and was well-known in Slovakia as Secretary and later Director of the Slovak Catholic Academy and organizer of many cultural activities before and during the War. He published during the War two collections of his own poetry and four collections of translations : from Rilke, from several Italian poets, as well as from the works of P. Lippert and Giovanni Papini. At the same time he contributed to nearly all Slovak literary journals and periodicals, in addition to being the editor of the main Slovak Catholic literary monthly Kultiira <19431945 ). s princ left Slovakia later than other Slovak emigre poets and writers, and reached Rome through Austria and Germany. He was named by the Vatican a delegate for helping the Slovak refugees in Austria and Germany, but in 1946 he obtained a visa for the United States where he developed not only extensive organizational cultural activities, but also his talent so that he became one of the leading Slovak Catholic poets in Diaspora. A professor of modern languages and philosophy of arts by vocation, he deserves credit for keeping alive the Slovak literary journal Most , of which he has been editor since 1954, as well as for founding the Association of Slovak Writers and Artists, whose President has been the poet Andrej zarnov. sprinc was also one of the founders of the Slovak Institute in Cleveland, and edited several symposia in addition to his own prolific and varied literary activities. Altogether sprinc published 18 collections of musical and highly cultivated poetry, and an English collection �192 SLOVAKIA Driftwood ( 1969), partly translated by himself and partly by one of his students and a well-known translator of Slovak poetry, Jaroslav Vajda. Those who appreciate a poetry rooted in the strong belief in the Creator without sounding too religious, and those who like the beauty of life in the song of birds, in the colors of flowers, in the sound of the wind, and blue skies or the colors of the rainbow, can find great enjoyment in sprinc's poetry. In his lyrical verses, sprinc echoes the art of Paul Verlaine and the spirit of St. Francis of Assissi. The musical and rhythmical quality of his poetry is rarely equalled by other Slovak emigre poets, except probably Gorazd Zvonicky. The translations of sprinc's verses are not an easy task for translators. Many of his volumes also contain fine poems with patriotic overtones, expressing his love for his lost and oppressed Slovakia. Recent volumes of sprinc's poetry have been artistically illustrated and carefully published, reflecting high artistic quality also in their technical presentation. As a result, reading his beautifully published collections is a double pleasure; they are written by a sensitive and gifted poet but, even more, by a man humbly and joyfully believing in God whose faith and glorification of the Creator sounds so natural and full of hope that one longs for the same beautiful world and the author's joyful soul and spirit. Even though Paul Verlaine seems to be his preferred poet (he wrote his M.A . thesis in French on Verlaine), sprinc is very well versed in Italian, German and Spanish poetry, and contributed to Slovak emigre literature by several excellent translations. To his large and varied cultural activities he has added more than 300 articles, book reviews, comments and contributions to Slovak periodicals, almanacs and newspapers. More than any other poet or writer, sprinc deserves credit for keeping Slovak culture abroad not only alive, but also reflecting the best Slovak national traditions. In spite of his many activities as professor, editor and secretary of the Association of Slovak Writers and Artists, sprinc was able during the past two decades to publish nearly every year a volume of his poetry or a book in prose. Among his published works we find: Ozveny v samotdch (1940), Tak umieral bdsnik Pal'o Oliva (1942), 0 ldske �SLOVAKIA a bolesti (1942), Duinske elegie (1942), O Tebe spieva zem idc sdm 0943), K slobodnym pobreziam (1950), Na r:"•rFlo 'l J () • polnopi 'ti· · poludnfa Z (1955), slnku proti (1953), Tvdrou ')s'ted6~ putnie~±{~ moje Oci (1962), orla (1960), Mladost' a ffPk k?J s _ Brat~la'8 (1967), Andante (1952), kovia utrpenia ,a ~- ~1 • S'! 1 JI ora· ll:170 Palidora, z Piesne (1969), (1968), Driftwood 11 "' · j rn JC lovy ostrov (1973) etc.* t'f" : 'iOr.?.910 I'l Among his translation s we should metftionfGidva:aru Papini's work Witnesses of Suffering (Scraiitott CFA-{J'1i95!!) and among his foreign language writings hi M~..fthesi t Paul Verlaine: Etude de sa poesie religieuse,Wil'i-100',i stiill u v[ ,, , 1 ;. ,.... in manuscrip t. I 'di _Jj(,· ~-II sprinc also published an interesting narra,J;;':vp1!n,:prose about his escape and journey from Slovakia ~f?' ,1i0:Yr'l1Il,~9 States in a volume K slobodnym pobreziam ('J;R>t~'rr r;;~1e Shores), a book on St. Andrew Svorad as vv,:e, ~r~~d l. p~~lf dedicated to the Virgin Mary. For the llth -1 0~~t[;npial<: 0J Christianit y in Slovakia, he edited a collectiop."r~ ~!:5e-? by several Slovak poets under the title Zdravic0-; sp-"'qy j!oRi a Metodovi (Rome, 1963). He also contributec l:11f?: 1aurn~smr~ fully illustrated anthology Odkaz (The Legacy.., 197Jp in f.eJfg~ehte~. which leading Slovak poets and writers are ro "¼o"'"' 10· ""i In prose, he edited the memoirs of Msgr. Joze · KaB3-i a prominent Slovak diplomat at the Vatican du¥fh§ \ .war Spod Rohdcov po Vatikdn (From Rohace M9tiRtim to? · e Vatican, 1973) as well as two symposia comp.~~~ ,cif 'qop; C~ictrfn_tributions by Slovak emigre writers: Ndde7· vit'azria 1J 'R? 'fJf U?'f • -. ::;;_ 1939-1-.~4(} republika Slovenskd and 1947) Hope, ous ' ,.., Republic 1939-1949, Scranton, Pa., 1949). 9.i · V)\1)')1Sh'1 ·i•h ai 1~f'd2 c( aii~ Literary work of this envergure and 1 we -Iiifre > ; case; a does not need to be praised. It is again 1 • if'tceW!. Laudat'·a'¥f have to repeat the Latin dictum: Opus fivities It was a blessing for Slovak literature and cultubr-a~i abroad that sprinc left Slovakia. Therefore, ori~he~ooa §i6n of his 60th birthday, we cannot be more sincer.e"1wlierfJ,we - :>.r. ,h,i< say: Ad multos annos! 1 (JJ Jy3c-riqz~t{ :llC J *) :r-r::;m For more details on Sprinc and his work, see Literltrfi'y 11.lrMnbcn for 1967, p. 232-234, and Most, Vol. I, 2, 1954, and Vol. 13~ 4;-1956!!') �194 SLOVAKIA Teodorik Zubek To the ranks of prominent Slovak intellectuals in exile whose 60th birthday we will commemorate in 1974, also belongs Prof. T. J. Zubek, oustanding member of the Slovak Franciscan Order in Slovakia and the United States, who was born on April 4, 1914 in Malacky, Western Slovakia. Professor Zubek filled an important gap in exile activities by his theological writings and mainly by presenting the religious situation in post war Slovakia to the Western World. At the same time he deserves recognition for reviving the Order of Slovak Franciscan Fathers in the United States who under his leadership become active not only in the religious field but also in education and cultural life. Well educated at Slovak and foreign Universities (Zagreb, Croatia; Fribourg, Switzerland), Dr. Zubek played leading role in his Order in Slovakia, and had to pay under the Communist regime for his patriotism and service to God by detention in the concentration camp for priests in Svaty Benadik. After his escape in 1951, he found refuge in Austria and Rome, Italy, from where he came to the United States in 1952. Soon after his arrival to the U.S.A. Dr. Zubek became Professor of Theology at Seton Hall University, Newark, N. J. and published an authoritative work on the Communist persecution of religion in his native country Church of Silence in Slovakia (J. Lach Publ., Whiting, Ind., 1956). This book and his scholarly contributions to American religious and academic periodicals (Homiletic and Pastoral Review, Jurist, Ameri can Ecclesiastical Review, The Catholic Educator and others) performed an important service to the Slovak cause among Western intellectuals. Some of his studies rank among the best writings on contemporary theological and educational topics. From the Slovak point of view, of great importance among his English writings is also his presentation of the case of Msgr. Tiso and the fate of Slovak bishops (Slovak Bishops - Martyrs of Christ, 1963) to Western readers. Exposed to hostile propaganda during the War and after, many people in the free world maintained biased attitudes towards Slovakia even among clergy and in academic circles. Dr. Zubek was among the first Slovak emigre �SLOVAKIA 195 intellectuals who grasped the need for writing on Slovakia in English and in non-Slovak periodicals, and for doing it in a much more reserved manner than we can afford in our Slovak publications. Dr. Zubek contributed at the same time to Slovak periodicals and newspapers, to Slovak Studies, and edited the religious monthly Listy Sv. Frantiska (Leaflets of St. Francis) published by his Order of which he was the head as Provincial Delegate. He also took part in Slovak emigre cultural and organizational activities aiming at the unity and co-operation, namely in Slovak Liberation Council and Slovak World Congress, at the Conference on Slovakia held in Toronto in 1971 and elsewhere. From the very beginning of his exile has been considered as one of the most distinguished representatives of Slovak clergymen abroad. By his activities, high education and devotion to the work for God and bonum commune, Dr. Zubek upheld the noble tradition of the Franciscan Order in Slovakia, whose members belonged to the best educators, historians, writers and poets in the centuries of Slovak national revival as well as in this century. It is with sincere admiration for his work and great human qualities that we greet him on his sixtieth birthday with a heartfelt: Ad multos annos! Jozef Pa u co For more than a century, journalists and editors played in Slovak national life a role going far beyond their profession. Starting with Eudovit stur in the middle of the 19th century, leading Slovak journalists were also political leaders, poets, writers, historians, grammarians and organizers of cultural and political institutions. This phenomenon appeared in Slovakia as well as among Slovaks abroad, especially in the United States and Canada. After stur, S. H . Vajansky was an outstanding example of a journalist, who also was a prominent poet, novelist and fighter for the Slovak cause. In the following generation Karol Sidor and Konstantin Culen remained faithful to that tradition in Slovakia and on the American continent. Both of them were journalists by profession, but they also wrote a �[96 SLOVAKIA am lil,erary works and books dealing with the ofoSI~aks and their struggle for freedom. h'eq>ast 25 years, an austanding example of journalist who became a historian, political writer and organizer • .Joll!uraI &F.~ political activities, was Dr. Jozef Pauco, ~ '1We .1 2¥thday was celebrated by Slovaks abroad on ~ 8f.f9 r¥R~L 1974. Pauco's admiration for E. stur goes Bi~ 1t2,1r.. ,years when he wrote his Ph.D. thesis at the I}, ·1-ffi ·1i v~c13ratislava, which was later published under 9} yt • {,1J{!,OJJYChova u sturovcov (Popular Education in nt) . Since that time Dr. Pauco also followed ~ ' x' MB, ~ f8o}§jeps of K. Sidor and K. culen in his work as ~n !n eing a political exile, in his dedication to the ~ ~.HJ.Iijijle:iJer2 freecto111: , and independence for Slovakia and i - fillfp,tjfj>_n with American Slovaks and Slovak-American organizations. bibliography listed below indicates, Dr. As thej seJect ' ' r[J J)l [IQ[ f y Hjj r(~mgs are not only extensive, but also cover e.vera1' ~ cfs9!rom history to political science and belles 12t ,nw .fil~S.V O II . pub1·ished works . part of his 1l 1 :e~ . .tS s19.a y, th e maJor . t ct· f d t S {:_!(, ''IS I'I .'11 ' hJfiIH~W . , rAR?"ever, a e en mg he Slovak cause. This :a cr1°fsB~afiW even his works on American Slovaks, which !fh~ Y#1 ~9 ~fo~);'o his best writings and in their method and $I&»Jay flDif compare with standard works on the subj~cf.'."'i frer fof. F. Hrusovsky and K. culen, he actually deserves main credit for systematic research into the past and present of American Slovaks. His books on their history atest to his great love for jjl_jz~ i 9_mt branch of the Slovak people. In addition, lzli-l ~ftlltl.futijsplayed in his works on American Slovaks, of Wlli.Plb :ti~cY~mninous history of the First Catholic Slovak ~smrubip rrecent book on Slovak Pioneers in America 4%fill:YJ O ~fkteular attention, that history was the field W~fttmt~ ld use his academic education and thorough fmID'{fflP.g.f~mf@lovak American organizational structure and ~ ~g:njfl~J:?.g ~ of individual leaders. As a result, whoever }Y!UsiYfOOl ~(tc,::omplete history of American Slovak~, will lff)lUiffifHfliiO.l:Wlfite authoritatively without ~sing Dr. Pauco's , ~f4J!!g)}V~rks. 110Ui-Bi¥unMjgl,lly, a larger number of books, essays an(\ MMtje b&;ia . Pauco deals, however, with Slova~a•s strugglaj::Rf!~~p.filldence l;l,nd with the _defense of leading Slovak h'i&j t> n; b~ �SLOVAKIA 197 personalities, especially Dr. Jozef Tiso, against whom many incorrect views and misconceptions were spread in the West during and after the Second World War. Slovakia and Slovaks suffered not only under Communism. There was a lot of injustice and descrimination against Slovaks also before the War and during the short period after the War when the Communists ruled together with their Czech and Slovak fellow-travelers from the non-communist parties. In his writings, Dr. Pauco endeavored to fight the falsehood and injustice of· both. It was, however, the communist misrule in Slovakia and the communist ideology which he exposed and fiercely criticized in his writings, advocating Christian democracy and the independence of Slovakia. Besides his own books, essays and thousands of articles, Dr. Pauco also published-as editor-the valuable documentary work Dr. Jozef Tiso o sebe (Dr. Jozef Tiso About Himself), containing the defense of the President of the Slovak Republic at his trial by the communist court, and a number of symposia on leading Slovak exiles (K. Sidor, J.C. Hronsky,· etc.). Furthermore, he deserves recognition for publishing and editing the Literdrny Almanach and the weekly Slovak v Amerike, both of which would have disappeared several years ago without his dedication and sacrifice as well that of his literary active wife. Last but not least, Dr. Pauco has rendered great service to the Slovak cause as the editor of the English periodical dealing with Slovak cultural and political matters, Slovakia. founded by Philip Hrobak. This editorial part of Dr. Pauco's work is of far reaching importance for the activities of Slovaks abroad and can be evaluated adequately only if we imagine how much poorer Slovak cultural life and the struggle for independence would be without these publications. In view of the fact that the historical and geopolitical situation of Slovakia made the Slovak cause a matter of controversy, Dr. Pauco's writings were bol,lild to provoke a strong reaction from the adversaries of the Slovak struggle for independence. His militant spirit, uncompromising attitude and fervor incited them to make denunciations, accusations and . undeserved attacks, but Pauco remained, in spite of all attacks on his person, one of 'the most dedicated defenders of the Slovak cause in his generation. �198 SLOVAKIA He also continues to be the most prolific Slovak journalist and writer on politics and history who remained faithful to stur's tradition and Hlinka-Tiso's ideology of Christian democracy and self-determination for the Slovaks. SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY IN SLOVAK Popular Education ). Matica slovenska. Turciansky Sv. Martin, 1943, pp. 151. Politicko-narodny program Hsns (Political Program of the Slovak People's Party ). Andrej uc. spol. Bratislava, 1944, pp. 96. co po komunizme? (After Communism What?) . Jednota, Middletown, Pa., 1952, pp. 29. Dr. Jozef Ti so o sebe (Dr. Joseph Tiso About Himself) . Slovensky Katolicky Sokol, Passaic, N. J., 1952, pp. 359. (Ed.) Tisov odkaz (Tiso's Message). Jednota, Middletown, Pa., 1953, pp. 89. Stefan Furdek a slovenske prist'ahovalectvo (Stephen Furdek and Slovak Immigration ). J ednota, Middletown, Pa., 1955, pp. 190. Slovcici a komunizmus (The Slovaks and Communism ). Rev. Jan Lach, Whiting, Ind., 1957, pp. 318. P-0d zcistavou krest'anskej demokracie (Under the Banner of the Christian Democracy). Slovenski krest'anski demokrati v Spojenych Statoch, Middletown, Pa. , 1957, pp. 30. Slovenskci rehol'a Sestier sv. Cyrila a Metoda (Slovak Order of the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius). Slovensky .Zensky Spolok sv. Anny, Wyoming Valley, Pa., 1957, pp. 32. Matus Jankola - knaz a ncirodovec (Matus Jankola - A Priest and Patriot). Rad sestier sv. Cyrila a Metoda, Danville, Pa., 1959, pp. 174. Pamiatke Jozefa Cigra Hronskeho (In Memoriam Jozef Cig-er Hronsky) . Literarny Almanach Slovaka v Amerike, Middletown, Pa., 1960, pp. 46. (Ed.) Martin Kopunek) . Laicky apostol Martin Kopunek (Lay Apostle Vychodna Oblast' Sdruzenia Slovenskych Katolikov, Bethlehem, Pa., 1961, pp. 67. (Ed.) Neporazitel'ni (Unconquerables). Prva Katolicka Slovenska Jednota, Middletown, Pa., 1961, pp. 190. Karol Sidor - politik novincir, spisovatel' (Karol Sidor - Politician, Newspaperman, and Writer) . Literarny Almanach Slovaka v Amerike, Middletown, Pa., 1962, pp. 148. (Ed.) Piit'desiatnik Dr. J-0zef Kirschbaum (Dr. Jozef Kirschbaum - Fifty Years Old). Literarny Almanach Slovaka v Amerike, Middletown, Pa., 1963, pp. 171. (Ed.) Prvej Katolickej Slovenskej Jednoty (75 Years of the First rokov 75 Catholic Slovak Union). Prva Katolicka Slovenska Jednota, Cleveland, Ohio, 1965, pp. 560 and XIV. 80 pages of pictures. Na uteku (Flight to Wonderland; serialized in the Weekly Jednota) . Middletown, Pa., 1965. l}udovychova u sturovcov (Stur's Movement - �SLOVAKIA 199 Tak sme sa poznali (So Have We Known One Another). Literarny Almanach Slovaka v Amerike, Middletown, Pa., 1967, pp. 281. Illustra- tions. Slovenski priekopnici v Amerike (Slovak Pioneers in America). First Catholic Slovak Union, Cleveland, Ohio, 1972, pp. 358. Illustrations. IN ENGLISH Unconquerables, Vantage Press, New York, N. Y., 1958, pp. 225. Christian Slovakia Under Communism. The Slovak Catholic Federation, Valparaiso, Ind., 1959, pp. 31. Flight to Wonderland. Robert Speller and Sons, New York, N. Y., 1963, pp. 334. 'i0 Years of the Slovak League of America. Middletown, Pa., 1967, pp. 146. (Ed.) IN GERMAN Dr. Jozef Tiso: Die Wahrheit uber die Slowakei (The Truth About Slovakia). Tisovo Tovarisstvo, in the Emigration, 1948, pp. 187. Illustrated. ARTICLES IN ENGLISH The Practi cal Aspect of a Federation. Slovakia, III, No. 2, 1953, p. 26-36. American Slovaks and March 14, 1939. Slovakia, IV, No. 1, 1954, p. 17-22. The Slovak Republic and Communism. Slovakia, IV, No. 3-4, 1954, p. 35-38. Slovakia Viewed By American Historians. Most, I. No. 4, 1954, p . 17-25. The Failures of Communist Politics in Slovakia, Slovakia, V, No. 4, 1955, p. 3-20. Stu.r's Group in the Service of the People. Slovakia, VI, No. 1, 1956, p. 11-16. I Was Editor of President Tiso's Newspaper. Slovakia, VII, No. 1, 1957, p. 9-12. Dr. Joseph Tiso : Christian Democrat. Slovakia, VII, No. 2, 1957, p. 37-50. The Stirring Days of March 1939. Slovakia, IX, No. 4, 1959, p. 24-32. Slovakia Under Communism. Slovakia, IX, N-0. 5, 1959, p. 1-5; Slovakia, X, No. 6, 1960, p. 62-73 ; Slovakia, XI, No. 1, 1961, p. 13-21. Slovakia's Mid-Nineteenth Century Struggle for National Life. Slovak Studies I, 1961, p. 69-83. The Matica Slovenskd in America. Slovakia, XIII, No. 1, 1963, p. 77-82. American Slovaks and the Beginnings of Czecho-Slovakia. Slovakia, XVI, No. 39, 1966, p. 63-75. Slovak Pioneers in America. Slovakia, XIX, No. 42, 1969, p. l0S-124. Under Dynamic Leadership. 60 Years of the Slovak League of America, 1967, p. 112-146. The Slovak Benedictines Review 50 Years in Cleveland, Ohio. Slovakia, XXII, No. 45, 1972, p. 92-97. Twenty Years of the Slovak Institute in Cleveland. Slovakia, XXIII, No. 46, 1973, p. 16-23. Cultural Revival of American and Canadian Slovaks. Slovakia, XXIII, No. 46, 1973, p. 72-81. Mother M. Emerentia Petrasek. Slovakia, XXIII, No. 46, 1973, p. 123-128. �200 SLOVAKIA EVALUATION OF DR. PAUCO'S WRITINGS BY REVIEWERS The number of book reviews published on individual Pauco's works is too large to be listed in this survey. In general, we can say that extensive reviews and commentaries, written by known Slovak authors, scholars, poets and cultural workers, were published not only in newspapers, but also in literary and cultural periodicals (Most, Furdek, Slovakia) and almanacs. Book reviews in Slovak language prevail, but his major writings were evaluated and commented upon also in English, mostly by reviewers born or educated on the American continent. The majority of reviewers of Dr. Pauco's books evaluated his writings favorably not only because of their ideological contents and usefulness for preservation of Slovak cultural heritage but also for their literary, and in many instances, scholarly value, thorough research and vast knowledge of the Slovak past and present. Deeply involved in Slovak political and cultural life since his students years, Dr. Pauco was a participant in historical events or closely associated with persons he writes about in a majority of his books, which gives to some of his works particular significance. On the other hand, his books on the history of American Slovaks fill an important gap and therefore the reviewers valued them for their contribution to the neglected history of American Slovaks as well as for their documentation and objectivity with which Pauco approached his subjects. Among the reviewers of Dr. Pauco's books and publications edited by him were K. culen, Prof. F. Hrusovsky, J . E. Bor, M. Jankovsky, J. M. Kirschbaum, J. C. Krajsa, M. K. Mlynarovic, J. Mest'ancik, Prof. K. Murin, Rev. Andrew Pier, O.S.B., Dr. B. Pissko, Dr. J. Rekem, Dr. J. Stasko, Rev. Mother Emerentia, Rev. Sister Tarcisia and many others. The book 75 Years of the FCSU was reviewed by 15 and his recent book Slovak Pioneers in America by 9 reviewers. All reviews were favorable . The evaluation by American born reviewers deserves, however special mention. Prof. V. R. Greene of the Kansas State University, who has learned to read and understand Slovak and wrote his �SLOVAKIA 201 Ph.D. thesis on East European immigrants in Pennsylvania , said on Pauco's 75 Years of the First Catholic Slovak Union: "Not only is it a complete and most comprehensiv e history of the Jednota and the Slovaks in America, but its many references, footnotes and bibliography will satisfy any serious reader and research historian." Mother M. Emerentia, SS.C.M. in her extensive review published in Jednota (June 30, 1965) referred to Matthew Arnold's statement that "Great creative works in literature result from happy concurence of two notable powers, the power of the man and the power of the moment," and wrote on Pauco's book: "Such a happy concurence of two notable powers has been strikingly exemplified before our eyes this year. For the power of the moment there was the 75th anniversary of the First Catholic Slovak Union in 1965, calling for the writing of the history of this remarkable organization. For the power of the man there was Joseph Pauco, Ph.D., a gifted author, historian and scholar, capable and willing to assume the task of writing this history. The result is a truly monumental contribution to Slovak history and literature, entitled 75 rokov Prvej Katolickej Slovenskej Jednoty." The book Tak sme sa poznali (So Have We Known One Another, 1967) attracted the attention of Slovak exiles as well as of American born Slovak intellectuals. "Dr. J. Pauco's Memoirs encompass - according to Sister M. Tarcisia - multiple and varied personal contacts as well as deep insight, broad vision and a skillful pen. The author is a scholar, a man of the people, an editor, a journalist, a lecturer, a politcian. The era he portrays was at once shatteringly disruptive and marvelously formative in its application to Central Europe and specifically to Slovakia. The men who played the leading roles in the drama of the Slovak Republic (1939-1945) were true to human nature: some giants, some midgets, some heroes, some traitors. Tak sme sa poznali is a tremendously vital book. In recounting his experience in the Slovak Republic - all of which he saw, part of which he was - Dr. Pauco has written authentic history. As such it will live and flourish." �202 SLOVAKIA Pauco's last book Slovenskt priekopnici v Amerike (Slovak Pioneers in America, 1972) was favorably reviewed and welcome as a valuable contribution to the history of American Slovaks by a dozen of Slovak writers, scholars, journalists and cultural workers. In the opinion of the American born editor of Jednota, J. C. Krajsa, "Pauco's work required serious research and documentation. In an objective manner he credits the life and work of the pioneers and categorizes them in their proper niche in the history of the American Slovaks, in America and the Slovak nation. He presents those leading pioneers who played the greatest role in the cultural field; those who organized fraternal societies, parishes, schools, and religious orders; those who preserved the literary culture with the publication of newspapers and books; and those who were fired with the ideal of liberty that even permeated to Slovakia." The book is in Krajsa's view "in itself a pioneer book. Nothing to date has been published in such documentary detail about American Slovak pioneers. The First Catholic Slovak Union is proud to publish this vital literary work of Dr. Joseph Pauco." According to another prominent American Slovak, Fr. J. A. Gajdosik "Pauco's book is one sure way to arousing interest in the Slovak heritage on a personal and individual basis, especially among our younger people. Hopefully, an English translation will be made in the near future, so that devotion to the Slovak ethnicity will be fostered. "The book should bolster Dr. Joseph Pauco's strong thoughts about the termination and death of the Slovak language in the United States. The book is also a warning to our fair-weather-Slovaks, who claim that they received little if anything from their Slovak ancestors, for it teaches that much Slovak affluence and prestige is directly the result of the conduct and work of our pioneers. "It behooves our brethren who are ashamed of their Slovak ethnicity, to study their history, and learn how everything they have was given to them, and that they should give themselves for others as our pioneers did. The ultimate lesson is that we, American of Slovak ancestry, should foster and serve the Slovak cause and ideal, at least as much, if not better than our pioneers in early America." �203 SLOVAKIA REVIEWS OF PAUCO'S WRITINGS IN LEADING PERIODICALS MOST co po komunizme? (I, 1, 1954, p . 44) Tisov odkaz (I, 2, 1954, p. 39-40. Dr. Karol Murin) Dr. Jozef Tiso o sebe (I, 3, 1954, p. 41-43. F. Hrusovsky) Stefan Furdek a slovenske prist'ahovalectvo (II, 2, 1955, p. 136-137) Mest'ancik) Slovcici a komunizmus (IV, 3, 1957, p. 132-133. Unconquerables (VI, 1-2, 1959, p. 83-85. Andrew Pier, O.S.B.) Christian Slovakia Under Communism (VI, 3, 1959, p. 186-187. Andrew Jan Pier, O.S.B. ) Pi:it'desiatnik Dr. Jozef Kirschbaum (XI, 3-4, 1964, p. 181) Slovakia (XI, 3-4, 1964, p. 182-183) Litercirny Almanach Slovcika v Amerike na rok 1965 (XII, 1-2, 1965, p. 82-83) Slovakia (XII, 3-4, 1965, p. 189) SLOVAKIA 75 rokov Prvej Katolickej Slovenskej Jednoty (XV, 38, 1965, p . 152-155. Mother M. Emerentia, SS.C.M.) Litercirny Almanach Slovcika v Amerike 1967 (XVII, 40, 1967, p. 190-192. Sister M. Tarcisia Gregorovic, SS.C.M.) Tak sme sa poznali (XVIII, 41, 1968, p . 159-164. Sister M. Tarcisia, SS. C.M.) Slovenski priekopnici v Amerike ( XXIII , 46, 1973, p. 196-197. Joseph C. Krajsa) F URD EK All writings by Dr. Pauco on the history of American Slovaks are evaluated by J . M. Kirschbaum in his article Dr. Pauco' s W ritings and the History of American Slovaks (Furdek, 1974, p. 75-80) . Francis V n u k : A BIOGRAPHICAL VALEDICTION In spite of the fact that the Slovaks are among the oldest inhabitants of the Central European region their efforts to secure a fully independent life has been seldom appreciated and rarely understood. But frustrations and disappointments can never deter a nation from its ultimate aim, and where one generation fails another will rise to continue the struggle. The natural aspirations of a nature and self-respecting nation cannot be suppressed by terror, nor silenced by bribes, nor extinguished by an apparent � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1974, Vol. 24 Description An account of the resource Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document SLOVAKIA 181 ,J.. M. Ki rs ch b au m, Ph.D.: Noted Slovak Jubilarians Andrej Z a r n o v "Les elites emigrees vivent tragiquement. Elles sont contraintes a une vie hasardeuse, solitaire, humiliee. Elles sont amenees par l'exil a l'epreuve a reviser leurs valeurs, et a en connaitre ou a en creer d'autres ... " Albert Thibaudet, Histoire de la litterature fra~aise de 1780 a nos jours, Paris, 1936. Since 1945, when Slovakia was overrun by the Soviet armies and subject to communist rule, a number of poets and writers left their native land in protest against political oppression in their homeland and with the intention of working in the free world for freedom and independence of their country. This political mission is especially true with regard to the emigre writers and poets who left Slovakia in 1945-1949 among whom were several of the leading Slovak writers and poets. A similar example can be found mutatis mutandis only in 19th century Poland, when after the revolution of 1830 the best Polish poets (Mickiewicz, Krasinski, Slowacki) and a number of writers and intellectuals escaped the Russians and made Paris the center of Polish literature. The fate of Slovak poets and writers was, of course, not as favorable as that of Polish "grande emigration." Some of the more prominent Slovak writers were soon captured in Austria and brought back to Slovakia and imprisoned (Milo Urban, A. zarnov, Tido J. Gaspar) while others had to fight against false denunciations and other pressures, in order to survive and create. In spite of this, "the 50 odd Slovak men of letters living on this side of the Iron Curtain kept the lights of Slovak culture burning while they were out of their native country. This may sound emotional or sentimental, yet it is a sad truth that in the years 1950-55 there hardly appeared in Slovakia a single book worthy of reading. In those years indeed the emigre literature was the contemporary Slovak literature." 1 182 SLOVAKIA Slovak poets and writers in exile continued to play especially the role of the "conscience of the nation" and that of interpreters of the aspirations of the Slovak people, traditionally assumed by Slovak poets and writers. More than in any other nation, not only the national rebirth was the work of Slovak poets and writers, but also the struggle for political rights and social justice; the first national rebellion was led by them, and they kept the national spirit alive in time of despair. Since the time when the poet Jan Holly (1785-1849) awakened the Slovak intelligentsia by unveiling to them the glorious past of Slovak ancestors in the Great Moravian period, and by giving them hope for a better future, Slovak poetry was an instrument of the national struggle, an expression of the national ideals and hopes, of national sufferings and joy. The poets and writers were the heralds and prophets of a new and better world, often being also social revolutionary leaders. This tradition was cultivated in Slovak literature over the past one hundred and fifty years and was even strengthened during the crucial years of Slovakia's national struggle in this century. Slovak poets and writers in exile have not considered themselves exempt from this special mission. On the contrary, exile made them more patriotic and the sufferings of the Slovak people more conscious of their duty to be the "conscience" of their nation and the interpreters of the aspiration of the Slovak people. In the countryside of New York State, one of the best contemporary Slovak poets, Andrej zarnov (by his own name Prof. Frantisek subik), attained on November 19, 1973 the prestigous age of 70. If the present Slovak generations owe a tribute to any poet for his participation in the struggle for national rights and equality with other nations, Andrej zarnov deserves such recognition from Slovaks abroad as well as in Slovakia. Born in 1903 in the village of Kuklov in Western Slovakia, zarnov remained proud of his rural heritage even when he achieved the position of University Professor of Pathology and high recognition from critics and readers for his literary work. He made his secondary studies in Skalica and Trnava and his study of medicine in Bratislava where he was active in student organizations and became SLOVAKIA 183 well-known for his fiery verses already during his university years. In 1926, :2:arnov accompanied Msgr. Andrej Hlinka on the triumphant journey around the United States. At that time neither zarnov nor the American Slovaks could expect that after the dramatic events of the Second World War, he would return to the United States as an exile, persecuted for his patriotism and his part in the International Red Cross Commission which examined during the Second World War the brutal massacre of 10,000 Polish officers by the Soviets in Katyn. zarnov left Slovakia in 1945, but he was forcibly "repatriated" from Austria, arrested and jailed. In 1952 he left Slovakia in a dramatic flight and settled first near Washington and later at Wingdale, N. Y. where he lives presently with his family. 2 ZARNOV'S WORK AND PLACE IN SLOVAK LITERATURE Perhaps to no other country more than to Slovakia is the statement of historians applicable, that in Central and Eastern European national movements were the concern of poets, writers and scholars and that they created the nationalities. Not only was the national rebirth the work of Slovak poets and writers, but also the struggle for political rights and social justice; the first national rebellion was led by them, and they kept the national spirit alive in time of despair. Since the first great Slovak poet, Jan Holly (1785-1849) awakened the Slovak intelligentsia by unveiling to them the glorious past of Slovak ancestors and by giving them a strong faith in a better future of the Slovak people, Slovak poetry was an instrument of national struggle, an expression of the national idea, national sufferings, joys, and hopes. The poets and writers were the heralds and prophets of a new and better world; they were social revolutionaries and national leaders. This tradition was respected in Slovak literature over the past one hundred years, and during the crucial years of Slovak national struggle in this century the role was played by Andrej :2:arnov more prominently than by any other Slovak poet, except for Martin Razus. Andrej :2:arnov appeared in Slovak literature in a period when the Slovak people fought their harsh struggle (against 184 SLOVAKIA the Czech assimilatory tendencies) for preserving their language, national identity and cultural heritage. It was the period of the 20's and 30's of this century, when on one hand Slovakia experienced a strong cultural development, but was at the same time forced into an uneven struggle for her national future, for social justice and political and economic equality. The danger of this situation was not only in the preponderance of means and political power or in the fact that Slovaks were far outnumbered by Czechs, but also in the fact that the masses of the Slovak people were going through the final phase of the process of maturing politically and the Slovak intelligentsia was in cultural and ideological ferment. In this national struggle Zarnov came with his fiery verses full of faith in the Slovak people and his vitality, adYocating national solidarity and protesting against the Czech attempts to rule, exploit and denationalize the Slovak people. At the same time, his poetry dared Slovaks to defend themselves, to stand firmly on their feet and not bow, not to yield. It was a revolutionary call for political and social justice, for national pride and honor which very soon found a favorable echo among the young Slovak intelligentsia and made Zarnov, since he identified himself with his nation's aspirations, sorrows and sufferings, the poet of the Slovak national struggle, and of Slovak patriotism. There was an outburst of poetic production in Slovakia between the two wars, but only Zarnov (besides M. Razus) stood on the barricades of Slovak national struggle with his patriotic poems, his forceful indignation, with his spiritual roots in the national tradition and fervent belief in the victory of the Slovak cause. Zarnov's fiery poetry, after being largely recited and published in periodicals and dailies, had been edited in several volumes. The first one, Strdz pri Morave (The Guard on Morava, 1925) was composed of verses expressing the poet's and his generation's political and spiritual orientation and provoked even the political censors to intervene. The second volwne Brdzda cez uhory (The Furrow Through Fallows, 1929) contained rather meditative and lyrical poetry enquiring into the spiritual ferment and restlessness of the poet's generation. While in the first volwne Zarnov created of his poetry an effective instrument for Slovak SLOVAKIA 185 national struggle, in the second volume he turned his eyes to the soul of the people he inflamed to struggle and bitterly analyzed its conscience. The third volume Hlas krvi (The Call of the Blood, 1932) and the following volume stit (The Shield, 1940) still contained verses of patriotic inspirations; his last volume Mftvy (The Dead, 1941) contains, however, poetry of deep personal sorrow and refine lyrics inspired by the untimely death of his young son. The profile of a patriotic revolutionary and interpreter of the nation's aspirations and struggle was thus completed in z arnov's last volume by poetry of deep human feelings and meditations. In all his volumes, zarnov preferred rather simple poetic forms, including the free verse. The rhythm of his poetry and his vocabulary were of great effectiveness and from the very beginning it indicated a strong talent. His books are, of course, on the index in Slovakia, but some of his verses are among the most recited by Slovaks in the free world, in which zarnov found refuge after the Communists seized power in Slovakia. ZARNOV'S TRANSLATIONS FROM WORLD LITERATURES zarnov enriched, however, Slovak literature also by many masterful translations of lyrics, epics and dramas. His first translations go back to 1933-34 at which time zarnov published in Slovak dailies and periodicals his version of Przerwa-Tetmajer Jdnosikove motivy (Janosik's Motives). In 1936 zarnov translated for the Slovak National Theatre the well-known play from the life of F. Chopin and Georges Sand Leto v Nohante (The Summer in Nohant) by J. Iwaszkiewicz. A year after, Matica slovenska published Sophocles' Antigona in zarnov's translation and in 1941 King Oedipus. The same year zarnov translated for the Slovak National Theatre the libretto of the opera Rusalka and in 1943 his translation of Zygmunt Krasinski's Nebozskd komedia (The Undivine Comedy) was published by Matica slovenska. After the Second World War, in the oppressive atmosphere of the Communist and Czech domination of Slovakia, zarnov was not allowed to publish his own poetry, but he did not cease creating and talking to his countrymen. In 186 SLOVAKIA 1949 the Society of St. Adalbert published his translation of Murphy's novel on Mary Magdalene The Scarlet Lily, in 1950 appeared the volume of translations from Adam Mickiewicz Poeezia, and in 1951 Hymny (The Hymns) of Jan Kasprowicz. The Communist regime did not, however, allow zarnov to use his pen-name on Kasprowicz's Hymns. They were published as translations by Francis ~ubik. Before his dramatic flight from Slovakia, zarnov prepared for publication his translation of Dante's Peklo (The Hell) and selections of poems by Leopold Staff Vyber z poezie (Selected Poems), but they remained in manusscript. zarnov's masterful translations were highly regarded by Slovak literary critics and by the readers and contributed especially to useful cultural relations of Slovakia with Poland. He received a Silver wreath from the Polish Academy of Literature for his pre-war translation U pol'sk'!}ch b<isnikov ( Among Polish Poets) and during the Second World War he prepared an entire book of translations from Adam Mickiewicz's works. 3 The volume was published "in order to transplant Mickiewicz's works to Slovak soil and thereby strengthen the structure of Slavic brotherhood in the cultural sector," and because "in world literature there are only a few great poets who in the work of their genius accumulate and present so universally, profoundly, and magnificently the history of the efforts, failures and spiritual achievements of their own people as does Adam Mickiewicz, the greatest Polish and all-Slavic poet." The book appeared in 1948, published by the Slovak Catholic cultural institution the "Society of St. Adalbert." We can say without exaggeration that zarnov has been, in his generation, artistically and spiritually the best prepared to transmit the heritage of Mickiewicz's most beautiful poems into Slovak literature. And he did it with great artistic skill and brilliance. His volume Poezia contains not only the eighteen Crimean Sonnets, but also Konrad Wallenrod, the Ode to Youth, To a Polish Mother, To My Muscovite Friends, Sages, A Vision, The Master of Masters, Flight and Out of My Sight, thus presenting some valuable lyrics along with his patriotic verse tale about his fatherland. The Crimean Sonnets in zarnov's translation remain SLOVAKIA 187 "a wonder," since he has preserved to a great degree the richness of beauty of the poetic expression which always takes us by surprise and makes us marvel at the audacity of thought and the moral courage which produce the special splendor of this collection. zarnov's poetic language is, naturally, modern, his verse and rhythm vivid, and the whole translation audacious. zarnov found in his own rich poetical invention the metaphors and poetic visions to express Mickiewicz's ideas and colorful images. The translation of Konrad Wallenrod is a poetical and genuine interpretation, equalling in beauty Mickiewicz's own work. zarnov is certainly no romantic in the pattern of the last century, but still an enthusiastic patriot who sings in his poetry a hymn to his crucified country, dooming its traitors and fighting for justice, one who has consecrated his life and his heart to his fatherland. More than anyone else among modern Slovak poets he was, therefore predestined to enrich modern Slovak literature by this Byronic work of great charm and poetic vision, which "of the many and often highly inspired types of Byronism in Polish poetry ranks highest." zarnov's versions of the Ode to Youth and To My Muscovite Friends are to be remembered not only for brilliance of translation ( which could be demonstrated only by quotations and comparisons of texts), but also for the purpose which the translator wished to serve. The volume Poezia was published after the tragic experiences with the Russian occupation of Slovakia. zarnov, to whom the national cause has always been a question of honor and personal dedication, addressed, in Mickiewicz's mordant verses, the new Muscovite rulers and summoned Slovak youth to the dynamic faith which Mickiewicz, in the Ode to Youth, expressed for Poles under very similar circumstances. zarnov's translations were thus to serve after a century the same aim as Mickiewicz had assigned to his poetry. Through the literary works of Mickiewicz zarnov wished to teach the Slovaks, as Mickiewicz had the Poles, "to regard as their personal affair the great question of honor and dedication, truth and falsehood, nobility of ends and legitimacy of means for attaining them." zarnov attemped to convince his martyred people that "the national cause must become an autochthonous idea, the ultimate 188 SLOVAKIA moral criterion around which the entire spiritual life of the nation is crystalized." The real function of zarnov's poetry and translation was, like that of Mickiewicz's, not only to provide artistic enjoyment or to refine aesthetic taste, but primarily to equip his people with the spiritual resources necessary to enable them to survive their enslavement and to fight for their freedom. The Muscovite rulers in Slovakia grasped his intention and silenced the book. zarnov, under constant threat of arrest and deportation, and many times in prison, made a dramatic flight from his country and now fights in exile for his ideas. In exile he published a number of patriotic verses and a masterful transcription of several poems by Jan Holly into a modern Slovak language, to remind the Slovaks of their spiritual roots and national heritage, and to confirm once more that he was one of the Slovak poets who penetrated and stirred to the depths the spirits of his generation and especially of the young intelligentsia, helped to bring them to a strong awareness of their spiritual and national individuality, and successfully summoned them to the struggle for justice and freedom. On behalf of that generation, we are sending to the quiet countryside near New York our grateful: Ad multos annos. F OOTNOTES 1) See F. Vnuk, Sedemnast' neurodnych ro kov . N acrt slovenske j li t eratury v rokoch 1945-62. (Middletown, Pa., 1965) , p . 277. 2) F or more details on 2arnov's work and life, see J . Pauco (ed .), L iterarny Almanach Slovaka v Amerike, Middletown, Pa. 1967. 3) On 2arnov's translations from Mickiewicz, see W. Lednicki, Adam . Micki ewicz in W orld Literature, University of California Press, 1956i contribution by J . M. Kirschbaum. lmrich K r u f I i a k The prose and poetry of Slovak emigre writers is varied in themes and literary styles and strongly reflects a deep sadness over the loss of their native country and over the treatment of their people under communism. This is especially characteristic of the writings of poets and writers who had played a prominent role in Slovak literary life before they left their native land. Strong national feelings and "heimweh''; however, can also be found in the works SLOVAKIA 189 of poets who developed their talents far away from their native country. Prominent in this group of Slovak intellectuals is Dr. Imrich Kruzliak whose 60th birthday we will commemorate on December 8, 1974. Born in the romantic Detva, Kruzliak followed the path of educated Slovaks of his generation from villages and towns who went through secondary schools and universities by their own efforts and talents and, after helping the struggle for national independence, had to pay in jails or in exile for their patriotism. Kruzliak did not leave his native Slovakia in 1945. He decided to stay and fight with other Catholic intellectuals for the preservation of Slovak national traditions and for a place for Catholics in the post-war political life. When in 1947, the Communists began their persecution of Catholic intellectuals, he was arrested, tortured, and kept in jail for a year. To avoid a new arrest, he escaped in 1949 to Austria and in 1951 settled in Munich where he became employed by Radio Free Europe as a commentator on Slovak cultural matters. Writing mostly under the pen-name Marian ziar and initials I. K., mz, Dr. Kruzliak contributed in exile to emigre literature either in poetry or in literary criticism. Although Kruzliak had published verses and literary essays already before and during the war, it was in exile that he became known as a poet and mainly as a cultivated commentator and critic of Slovak literary and cultural life at home and abroad. His essays, comments and book reviews have been published mostly in the quarterly Most, Literdr ny Almanach, Rozhl'ady, but also in annuals and newspapers Jednota, Slovak v Amerike and for the past two years in Horizont of which he has been the editor in chief. His writings have been among the best in Slovak empire literature. We would mention especially his survey of Slovak literature under Communism (Most, 1958), anci essay "Shakespeare and Slovaks" (Most, 1964), a study on the "Literary and artistic cult of Sts. Cyril and Methodius among Slovaks" (Most, 1963) and ":C. stur" (Most, 1965) . In scores of book reviews, Kruzliak enriched Slovak emigre literature with new ideas, well-balanced opinions, and by an effort to keep Slovak cultural life abroad on a European level. 190 SLOVAKIA He also deserves recognition for editing and publishing two volumes of poetry of poets in communist jails Modlitby v putdch (Prayers in Shackles, Munich, 1955) and translations from Polish, Magyar and Russian poets of the period of "thaw" Podaj ndm ruku, Eur6pa ( Give us Helping Hand, Europe, Munich, 1957). One of his extensive surveys of Slovak culture under Communism was published in mimeographed book form and his contribution on Slovak culture since 1945 appeared in the symposium Slovakia in the 19th and 20th Centuries, published by the Slovak World Congress (Toronto, 1973). He also edited special volume of Arena (Vol. 16, 3-4) which the P.E.N. Centre for Writers in Exile published on Slovak literature in London, England in 1963. Dr. Kruzliak does not belong, however, to literary life alone. Since his university years he was among the most active intellectuals in the Slovak public life and a leading figure in the generation which dedicated talents and energies to the struggle of the Slovak people for an equal place among European nations. His literary beginnings are connected with students periodicals (Rozvoj, Svojet') in the 1930's, while his participation in public life began before he obtained his Ph.D. summa cum laude at the Bratislava University. As many members of his generation, he also was inspired by the idealism of ~udovit t5tur, represented in 1920's and 1930's in Slovak national struggle by Andrej Hlinka. Idealism and dedication of those years marked Dr. Kruzliak's whole life in Slovakia as well as in exile. On the threshold of his 60th birthday he continues his life struggle in the Slovak World Congress as the head of the cultural section. The upheavals and tragedies experienced by his generation, marked also his life, but did not break his spirit. Hardly any Slovak generation had to go through such trials. There were, however, also victories and uncomparable cultural and spiritual growth of the Slovak nation to' which that generation contributed at home and in exile. And no other generation had such opportunities to see the world, to learn foreign languages and to absorb cultural values of the most advanced nations. It is on behalf of those who from that generation survived the persecutions of the tyrannical regimes in 191 SLOVAKIA Slovakia and the trials of exile, that we cordially greet Dr. Kruzliak on the threshold of his 60th birthday, wishing him that the Lord may fulfill his desires to see Slovakia free, democratic and equal to other nations. Mikulas sp r i n C For the past 25 years, perhaps the most important role in the Slovak literary life in exile was played by the highly cultivated and sensitive poet, Rev. Mikulas sprinc, whose 60th birthday Slovaks abroad will commemorate on November 30th, 1974. Like Dilong and Strmen, sprinc also came from the "Catholic Moderna" group and was well-known in Slovakia as Secretary and later Director of the Slovak Catholic Academy and organizer of many cultural activities before and during the War. He published during the War two collections of his own poetry and four collections of translations : from Rilke, from several Italian poets, as well as from the works of P. Lippert and Giovanni Papini. At the same time he contributed to nearly all Slovak literary journals and periodicals, in addition to being the editor of the main Slovak Catholic literary monthly Kultiira <19431945 ). s princ left Slovakia later than other Slovak emigre poets and writers, and reached Rome through Austria and Germany. He was named by the Vatican a delegate for helping the Slovak refugees in Austria and Germany, but in 1946 he obtained a visa for the United States where he developed not only extensive organizational cultural activities, but also his talent so that he became one of the leading Slovak Catholic poets in Diaspora. A professor of modern languages and philosophy of arts by vocation, he deserves credit for keeping alive the Slovak literary journal Most , of which he has been editor since 1954, as well as for founding the Association of Slovak Writers and Artists, whose President has been the poet Andrej zarnov. sprinc was also one of the founders of the Slovak Institute in Cleveland, and edited several symposia in addition to his own prolific and varied literary activities. Altogether sprinc published 18 collections of musical and highly cultivated poetry, and an English collection 192 SLOVAKIA Driftwood ( 1969), partly translated by himself and partly by one of his students and a well-known translator of Slovak poetry, Jaroslav Vajda. Those who appreciate a poetry rooted in the strong belief in the Creator without sounding too religious, and those who like the beauty of life in the song of birds, in the colors of flowers, in the sound of the wind, and blue skies or the colors of the rainbow, can find great enjoyment in sprinc's poetry. In his lyrical verses, sprinc echoes the art of Paul Verlaine and the spirit of St. Francis of Assissi. The musical and rhythmical quality of his poetry is rarely equalled by other Slovak emigre poets, except probably Gorazd Zvonicky. The translations of sprinc's verses are not an easy task for translators. Many of his volumes also contain fine poems with patriotic overtones, expressing his love for his lost and oppressed Slovakia. Recent volumes of sprinc's poetry have been artistically illustrated and carefully published, reflecting high artistic quality also in their technical presentation. As a result, reading his beautifully published collections is a double pleasure; they are written by a sensitive and gifted poet but, even more, by a man humbly and joyfully believing in God whose faith and glorification of the Creator sounds so natural and full of hope that one longs for the same beautiful world and the author's joyful soul and spirit. Even though Paul Verlaine seems to be his preferred poet (he wrote his M.A . thesis in French on Verlaine), sprinc is very well versed in Italian, German and Spanish poetry, and contributed to Slovak emigre literature by several excellent translations. To his large and varied cultural activities he has added more than 300 articles, book reviews, comments and contributions to Slovak periodicals, almanacs and newspapers. More than any other poet or writer, sprinc deserves credit for keeping Slovak culture abroad not only alive, but also reflecting the best Slovak national traditions. In spite of his many activities as professor, editor and secretary of the Association of Slovak Writers and Artists, sprinc was able during the past two decades to publish nearly every year a volume of his poetry or a book in prose. Among his published works we find: Ozveny v samotdch (1940), Tak umieral bdsnik Pal'o Oliva (1942), 0 ldske SLOVAKIA a bolesti (1942), Duinske elegie (1942), O Tebe spieva zem idc sdm 0943), K slobodnym pobreziam (1950), Na r:"•rFlo 'l J () • polnopi 'ti· · poludnfa Z (1955), slnku proti (1953), Tvdrou ')s'ted6~ putnie~±{~ moje Oci (1962), orla (1960), Mladost' a ffPk k?J s _ Brat~la'8 (1967), Andante (1952), kovia utrpenia ,a ~- ~1 • S'! 1 JI ora· ll:170 Palidora, z Piesne (1969), (1968), Driftwood 11 "' · j rn JC lovy ostrov (1973) etc.* t'f" : 'iOr.?.910 I'l Among his translation s we should metftionfGidva:aru Papini's work Witnesses of Suffering (Scraiitott CFA-{J'1i95!!) and among his foreign language writings hi M~..fthesi t Paul Verlaine: Etude de sa poesie religieuse,Wil'i-100',i stiill u v[ ,, , 1 ;. ,.... in manuscrip t. I 'di _Jj(,· ~-II sprinc also published an interesting narra,J;;':vp1!n,:prose about his escape and journey from Slovakia ~f?' ,1i0:Yr'l1Il,~9 States in a volume K slobodnym pobreziam ('J;R>t~'rr r;;~1e Shores), a book on St. Andrew Svorad as vv,:e, ~r~~d l. p~~lf dedicated to the Virgin Mary. For the llth -1 0~~t[;npial<: 0J Christianit y in Slovakia, he edited a collectiop."r~ ~!:5e-? by several Slovak poets under the title Zdravic0-; sp-"'qy j!oRi a Metodovi (Rome, 1963). He also contributec l:11f?: 1aurn~smr~ fully illustrated anthology Odkaz (The Legacy.., 197Jp in f.eJfg~ehte~. which leading Slovak poets and writers are ro "¼o"'"' 10· ""i In prose, he edited the memoirs of Msgr. Joze · KaB3-i a prominent Slovak diplomat at the Vatican du¥fh§ \ .war Spod Rohdcov po Vatikdn (From Rohace M9tiRtim to? · e Vatican, 1973) as well as two symposia comp.~~~ ,cif 'qop; C~ictrfn_tributions by Slovak emigre writers: Ndde7· vit'azria 1J 'R? 'fJf U?'f • -. ::;;_ 1939-1-.~4(} republika Slovenskd and 1947) Hope, ous ' ,.., Republic 1939-1949, Scranton, Pa., 1949). 9.i · V)\1)')1Sh'1 ·i•h ai 1~f'd2 c( aii~ Literary work of this envergure and 1 we -Iiifre > ; case; a does not need to be praised. It is again 1 • if'tceW!. Laudat'·a'¥f have to repeat the Latin dictum: Opus fivities It was a blessing for Slovak literature and cultubr-a~i abroad that sprinc left Slovakia. Therefore, ori~he~ooa §i6n of his 60th birthday, we cannot be more sincer.e"1wlierfJ,we - :>.r. ,h,i< say: Ad multos annos! 1 (JJ Jy3c-riqz~t{ :llC J *) :r-r::;m For more details on Sprinc and his work, see Literltrfi'y 11.lrMnbcn for 1967, p. 232-234, and Most, Vol. I, 2, 1954, and Vol. 13~ 4;-1956!!') 194 SLOVAKIA Teodorik Zubek To the ranks of prominent Slovak intellectuals in exile whose 60th birthday we will commemorate in 1974, also belongs Prof. T. J. Zubek, oustanding member of the Slovak Franciscan Order in Slovakia and the United States, who was born on April 4, 1914 in Malacky, Western Slovakia. Professor Zubek filled an important gap in exile activities by his theological writings and mainly by presenting the religious situation in post war Slovakia to the Western World. At the same time he deserves recognition for reviving the Order of Slovak Franciscan Fathers in the United States who under his leadership become active not only in the religious field but also in education and cultural life. Well educated at Slovak and foreign Universities (Zagreb, Croatia; Fribourg, Switzerland), Dr. Zubek played leading role in his Order in Slovakia, and had to pay under the Communist regime for his patriotism and service to God by detention in the concentration camp for priests in Svaty Benadik. After his escape in 1951, he found refuge in Austria and Rome, Italy, from where he came to the United States in 1952. Soon after his arrival to the U.S.A. Dr. Zubek became Professor of Theology at Seton Hall University, Newark, N. J. and published an authoritative work on the Communist persecution of religion in his native country Church of Silence in Slovakia (J. Lach Publ., Whiting, Ind., 1956). This book and his scholarly contributions to American religious and academic periodicals (Homiletic and Pastoral Review, Jurist, Ameri can Ecclesiastical Review, The Catholic Educator and others) performed an important service to the Slovak cause among Western intellectuals. Some of his studies rank among the best writings on contemporary theological and educational topics. From the Slovak point of view, of great importance among his English writings is also his presentation of the case of Msgr. Tiso and the fate of Slovak bishops (Slovak Bishops - Martyrs of Christ, 1963) to Western readers. Exposed to hostile propaganda during the War and after, many people in the free world maintained biased attitudes towards Slovakia even among clergy and in academic circles. Dr. Zubek was among the first Slovak emigre SLOVAKIA 195 intellectuals who grasped the need for writing on Slovakia in English and in non-Slovak periodicals, and for doing it in a much more reserved manner than we can afford in our Slovak publications. Dr. Zubek contributed at the same time to Slovak periodicals and newspapers, to Slovak Studies, and edited the religious monthly Listy Sv. Frantiska (Leaflets of St. Francis) published by his Order of which he was the head as Provincial Delegate. He also took part in Slovak emigre cultural and organizational activities aiming at the unity and co-operation, namely in Slovak Liberation Council and Slovak World Congress, at the Conference on Slovakia held in Toronto in 1971 and elsewhere. From the very beginning of his exile has been considered as one of the most distinguished representatives of Slovak clergymen abroad. By his activities, high education and devotion to the work for God and bonum commune, Dr. Zubek upheld the noble tradition of the Franciscan Order in Slovakia, whose members belonged to the best educators, historians, writers and poets in the centuries of Slovak national revival as well as in this century. It is with sincere admiration for his work and great human qualities that we greet him on his sixtieth birthday with a heartfelt: Ad multos annos! Jozef Pa u co For more than a century, journalists and editors played in Slovak national life a role going far beyond their profession. Starting with Eudovit stur in the middle of the 19th century, leading Slovak journalists were also political leaders, poets, writers, historians, grammarians and organizers of cultural and political institutions. This phenomenon appeared in Slovakia as well as among Slovaks abroad, especially in the United States and Canada. After stur, S. H . Vajansky was an outstanding example of a journalist, who also was a prominent poet, novelist and fighter for the Slovak cause. In the following generation Karol Sidor and Konstantin Culen remained faithful to that tradition in Slovakia and on the American continent. Both of them were journalists by profession, but they also wrote a [96 SLOVAKIA am lil,erary works and books dealing with the ofoSI~aks and their struggle for freedom. h'eq>ast 25 years, an austanding example of journalist who became a historian, political writer and organizer • .Joll!uraI &F.~ political activities, was Dr. Jozef Pauco, ~ '1We .1 2¥thday was celebrated by Slovaks abroad on ~ 8f.f9 r¥R~L 1974. Pauco's admiration for E. stur goes Bi~ 1t2,1r.. ,years when he wrote his Ph.D. thesis at the I}, ·1-ffi ·1i v~c13ratislava, which was later published under 9} yt • {,1J{!,OJJYChova u sturovcov (Popular Education in nt) . Since that time Dr. Pauco also followed ~ ' x' MB, ~ f8o}§jeps of K. Sidor and K. culen in his work as ~n !n eing a political exile, in his dedication to the ~ ~.HJ.Iijijle:iJer2 freecto111: , and independence for Slovakia and i - fillfp,tjfj>_n with American Slovaks and Slovak-American organizations. bibliography listed below indicates, Dr. As thej seJect ' ' r[J J)l [IQ[ f y Hjj r(~mgs are not only extensive, but also cover e.vera1' ~ cfs9!rom history to political science and belles 12t ,nw .fil~S.V O II . pub1·ished works . part of his 1l 1 :e~ . .tS s19.a y, th e maJor . t ct· f d t S {:_!(, ''IS I'I .'11 ' hJfiIH~W . , rAR?"ever, a e en mg he Slovak cause. This :a cr1°fsB~afiW even his works on American Slovaks, which !fh~ Y#1 ~9 ~fo~);'o his best writings and in their method and $I&»Jay flDif compare with standard works on the subj~cf.'."'i frer fof. F. Hrusovsky and K. culen, he actually deserves main credit for systematic research into the past and present of American Slovaks. His books on their history atest to his great love for jjl_jz~ i 9_mt branch of the Slovak people. In addition, lzli-l ~ftlltl.futijsplayed in his works on American Slovaks, of Wlli.Plb :ti~cY~mninous history of the First Catholic Slovak ~smrubip rrecent book on Slovak Pioneers in America 4%fill:YJ O ~fkteular attention, that history was the field W~fttmt~ ld use his academic education and thorough fmID'{fflP.g.f~mf@lovak American organizational structure and ~ ~g:njfl~J:?.g ~ of individual leaders. As a result, whoever }Y!UsiYfOOl ~(tc,::omplete history of American Slovak~, will lff)lUiffifHfliiO.l:Wlfite authoritatively without ~sing Dr. Pauco's , ~f4J!!g)}V~rks. 110Ui-Bi¥unMjgl,lly, a larger number of books, essays an(\ MMtje b&;ia . Pauco deals, however, with Slova~a•s strugglaj::Rf!~~p.filldence l;l,nd with the _defense of leading Slovak h'i&j t> n; b~ SLOVAKIA 197 personalities, especially Dr. Jozef Tiso, against whom many incorrect views and misconceptions were spread in the West during and after the Second World War. Slovakia and Slovaks suffered not only under Communism. There was a lot of injustice and descrimination against Slovaks also before the War and during the short period after the War when the Communists ruled together with their Czech and Slovak fellow-travelers from the non-communist parties. In his writings, Dr. Pauco endeavored to fight the falsehood and injustice of· both. It was, however, the communist misrule in Slovakia and the communist ideology which he exposed and fiercely criticized in his writings, advocating Christian democracy and the independence of Slovakia. Besides his own books, essays and thousands of articles, Dr. Pauco also published-as editor-the valuable documentary work Dr. Jozef Tiso o sebe (Dr. Jozef Tiso About Himself), containing the defense of the President of the Slovak Republic at his trial by the communist court, and a number of symposia on leading Slovak exiles (K. Sidor, J.C. Hronsky,· etc.). Furthermore, he deserves recognition for publishing and editing the Literdrny Almanach and the weekly Slovak v Amerike, both of which would have disappeared several years ago without his dedication and sacrifice as well that of his literary active wife. Last but not least, Dr. Pauco has rendered great service to the Slovak cause as the editor of the English periodical dealing with Slovak cultural and political matters, Slovakia. founded by Philip Hrobak. This editorial part of Dr. Pauco's work is of far reaching importance for the activities of Slovaks abroad and can be evaluated adequately only if we imagine how much poorer Slovak cultural life and the struggle for independence would be without these publications. In view of the fact that the historical and geopolitical situation of Slovakia made the Slovak cause a matter of controversy, Dr. Pauco's writings were bol,lild to provoke a strong reaction from the adversaries of the Slovak struggle for independence. His militant spirit, uncompromising attitude and fervor incited them to make denunciations, accusations and . undeserved attacks, but Pauco remained, in spite of all attacks on his person, one of 'the most dedicated defenders of the Slovak cause in his generation. 198 SLOVAKIA He also continues to be the most prolific Slovak journalist and writer on politics and history who remained faithful to stur's tradition and Hlinka-Tiso's ideology of Christian democracy and self-determination for the Slovaks. SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY IN SLOVAK Popular Education ). Matica slovenska. Turciansky Sv. Martin, 1943, pp. 151. Politicko-narodny program Hsns (Political Program of the Slovak People's Party ). Andrej uc. spol. Bratislava, 1944, pp. 96. co po komunizme? (After Communism What?) . Jednota, Middletown, Pa., 1952, pp. 29. Dr. Jozef Ti so o sebe (Dr. Joseph Tiso About Himself) . Slovensky Katolicky Sokol, Passaic, N. J., 1952, pp. 359. (Ed.) Tisov odkaz (Tiso's Message). Jednota, Middletown, Pa., 1953, pp. 89. Stefan Furdek a slovenske prist'ahovalectvo (Stephen Furdek and Slovak Immigration ). J ednota, Middletown, Pa., 1955, pp. 190. Slovcici a komunizmus (The Slovaks and Communism ). Rev. Jan Lach, Whiting, Ind., 1957, pp. 318. P-0d zcistavou krest'anskej demokracie (Under the Banner of the Christian Democracy). Slovenski krest'anski demokrati v Spojenych Statoch, Middletown, Pa. , 1957, pp. 30. Slovenskci rehol'a Sestier sv. Cyrila a Metoda (Slovak Order of the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius). Slovensky .Zensky Spolok sv. Anny, Wyoming Valley, Pa., 1957, pp. 32. Matus Jankola - knaz a ncirodovec (Matus Jankola - A Priest and Patriot). Rad sestier sv. Cyrila a Metoda, Danville, Pa., 1959, pp. 174. Pamiatke Jozefa Cigra Hronskeho (In Memoriam Jozef Cig-er Hronsky) . Literarny Almanach Slovaka v Amerike, Middletown, Pa., 1960, pp. 46. (Ed.) Martin Kopunek) . Laicky apostol Martin Kopunek (Lay Apostle Vychodna Oblast' Sdruzenia Slovenskych Katolikov, Bethlehem, Pa., 1961, pp. 67. (Ed.) Neporazitel'ni (Unconquerables). Prva Katolicka Slovenska Jednota, Middletown, Pa., 1961, pp. 190. Karol Sidor - politik novincir, spisovatel' (Karol Sidor - Politician, Newspaperman, and Writer) . Literarny Almanach Slovaka v Amerike, Middletown, Pa., 1962, pp. 148. (Ed.) Piit'desiatnik Dr. J-0zef Kirschbaum (Dr. Jozef Kirschbaum - Fifty Years Old). Literarny Almanach Slovaka v Amerike, Middletown, Pa., 1963, pp. 171. (Ed.) Prvej Katolickej Slovenskej Jednoty (75 Years of the First rokov 75 Catholic Slovak Union). Prva Katolicka Slovenska Jednota, Cleveland, Ohio, 1965, pp. 560 and XIV. 80 pages of pictures. Na uteku (Flight to Wonderland; serialized in the Weekly Jednota) . Middletown, Pa., 1965. l}udovychova u sturovcov (Stur's Movement - SLOVAKIA 199 Tak sme sa poznali (So Have We Known One Another). Literarny Almanach Slovaka v Amerike, Middletown, Pa., 1967, pp. 281. Illustra- tions. Slovenski priekopnici v Amerike (Slovak Pioneers in America). First Catholic Slovak Union, Cleveland, Ohio, 1972, pp. 358. Illustrations. IN ENGLISH Unconquerables, Vantage Press, New York, N. Y., 1958, pp. 225. Christian Slovakia Under Communism. The Slovak Catholic Federation, Valparaiso, Ind., 1959, pp. 31. Flight to Wonderland. Robert Speller and Sons, New York, N. Y., 1963, pp. 334. 'i0 Years of the Slovak League of America. Middletown, Pa., 1967, pp. 146. (Ed.) IN GERMAN Dr. Jozef Tiso: Die Wahrheit uber die Slowakei (The Truth About Slovakia). Tisovo Tovarisstvo, in the Emigration, 1948, pp. 187. Illustrated. ARTICLES IN ENGLISH The Practi cal Aspect of a Federation. Slovakia, III, No. 2, 1953, p. 26-36. American Slovaks and March 14, 1939. Slovakia, IV, No. 1, 1954, p. 17-22. The Slovak Republic and Communism. Slovakia, IV, No. 3-4, 1954, p. 35-38. Slovakia Viewed By American Historians. Most, I. No. 4, 1954, p . 17-25. The Failures of Communist Politics in Slovakia, Slovakia, V, No. 4, 1955, p. 3-20. Stu.r's Group in the Service of the People. Slovakia, VI, No. 1, 1956, p. 11-16. I Was Editor of President Tiso's Newspaper. Slovakia, VII, No. 1, 1957, p. 9-12. Dr. Joseph Tiso : Christian Democrat. Slovakia, VII, No. 2, 1957, p. 37-50. The Stirring Days of March 1939. Slovakia, IX, No. 4, 1959, p. 24-32. Slovakia Under Communism. Slovakia, IX, N-0. 5, 1959, p. 1-5; Slovakia, X, No. 6, 1960, p. 62-73 ; Slovakia, XI, No. 1, 1961, p. 13-21. Slovakia's Mid-Nineteenth Century Struggle for National Life. Slovak Studies I, 1961, p. 69-83. The Matica Slovenskd in America. Slovakia, XIII, No. 1, 1963, p. 77-82. American Slovaks and the Beginnings of Czecho-Slovakia. Slovakia, XVI, No. 39, 1966, p. 63-75. Slovak Pioneers in America. Slovakia, XIX, No. 42, 1969, p. l0S-124. Under Dynamic Leadership. 60 Years of the Slovak League of America, 1967, p. 112-146. The Slovak Benedictines Review 50 Years in Cleveland, Ohio. Slovakia, XXII, No. 45, 1972, p. 92-97. Twenty Years of the Slovak Institute in Cleveland. Slovakia, XXIII, No. 46, 1973, p. 16-23. Cultural Revival of American and Canadian Slovaks. Slovakia, XXIII, No. 46, 1973, p. 72-81. Mother M. Emerentia Petrasek. Slovakia, XXIII, No. 46, 1973, p. 123-128. 200 SLOVAKIA EVALUATION OF DR. PAUCO'S WRITINGS BY REVIEWERS The number of book reviews published on individual Pauco's works is too large to be listed in this survey. In general, we can say that extensive reviews and commentaries, written by known Slovak authors, scholars, poets and cultural workers, were published not only in newspapers, but also in literary and cultural periodicals (Most, Furdek, Slovakia) and almanacs. Book reviews in Slovak language prevail, but his major writings were evaluated and commented upon also in English, mostly by reviewers born or educated on the American continent. The majority of reviewers of Dr. Pauco's books evaluated his writings favorably not only because of their ideological contents and usefulness for preservation of Slovak cultural heritage but also for their literary, and in many instances, scholarly value, thorough research and vast knowledge of the Slovak past and present. Deeply involved in Slovak political and cultural life since his students years, Dr. Pauco was a participant in historical events or closely associated with persons he writes about in a majority of his books, which gives to some of his works particular significance. On the other hand, his books on the history of American Slovaks fill an important gap and therefore the reviewers valued them for their contribution to the neglected history of American Slovaks as well as for their documentation and objectivity with which Pauco approached his subjects. Among the reviewers of Dr. Pauco's books and publications edited by him were K. culen, Prof. F. Hrusovsky, J . E. Bor, M. Jankovsky, J. M. Kirschbaum, J. C. Krajsa, M. K. Mlynarovic, J. Mest'ancik, Prof. K. Murin, Rev. Andrew Pier, O.S.B., Dr. B. Pissko, Dr. J. Rekem, Dr. J. Stasko, Rev. Mother Emerentia, Rev. Sister Tarcisia and many others. The book 75 Years of the FCSU was reviewed by 15 and his recent book Slovak Pioneers in America by 9 reviewers. All reviews were favorable . The evaluation by American born reviewers deserves, however special mention. Prof. V. R. Greene of the Kansas State University, who has learned to read and understand Slovak and wrote his SLOVAKIA 201 Ph.D. thesis on East European immigrants in Pennsylvania , said on Pauco's 75 Years of the First Catholic Slovak Union: "Not only is it a complete and most comprehensiv e history of the Jednota and the Slovaks in America, but its many references, footnotes and bibliography will satisfy any serious reader and research historian." Mother M. Emerentia, SS.C.M. in her extensive review published in Jednota (June 30, 1965) referred to Matthew Arnold's statement that "Great creative works in literature result from happy concurence of two notable powers, the power of the man and the power of the moment," and wrote on Pauco's book: "Such a happy concurence of two notable powers has been strikingly exemplified before our eyes this year. For the power of the moment there was the 75th anniversary of the First Catholic Slovak Union in 1965, calling for the writing of the history of this remarkable organization. For the power of the man there was Joseph Pauco, Ph.D., a gifted author, historian and scholar, capable and willing to assume the task of writing this history. The result is a truly monumental contribution to Slovak history and literature, entitled 75 rokov Prvej Katolickej Slovenskej Jednoty." The book Tak sme sa poznali (So Have We Known One Another, 1967) attracted the attention of Slovak exiles as well as of American born Slovak intellectuals. "Dr. J. Pauco's Memoirs encompass - according to Sister M. Tarcisia - multiple and varied personal contacts as well as deep insight, broad vision and a skillful pen. The author is a scholar, a man of the people, an editor, a journalist, a lecturer, a politcian. The era he portrays was at once shatteringly disruptive and marvelously formative in its application to Central Europe and specifically to Slovakia. The men who played the leading roles in the drama of the Slovak Republic (1939-1945) were true to human nature: some giants, some midgets, some heroes, some traitors. Tak sme sa poznali is a tremendously vital book. In recounting his experience in the Slovak Republic - all of which he saw, part of which he was - Dr. Pauco has written authentic history. As such it will live and flourish." 202 SLOVAKIA Pauco's last book Slovenskt priekopnici v Amerike (Slovak Pioneers in America, 1972) was favorably reviewed and welcome as a valuable contribution to the history of American Slovaks by a dozen of Slovak writers, scholars, journalists and cultural workers. In the opinion of the American born editor of Jednota, J. C. Krajsa, "Pauco's work required serious research and documentation. In an objective manner he credits the life and work of the pioneers and categorizes them in their proper niche in the history of the American Slovaks, in America and the Slovak nation. He presents those leading pioneers who played the greatest role in the cultural field; those who organized fraternal societies, parishes, schools, and religious orders; those who preserved the literary culture with the publication of newspapers and books; and those who were fired with the ideal of liberty that even permeated to Slovakia." The book is in Krajsa's view "in itself a pioneer book. Nothing to date has been published in such documentary detail about American Slovak pioneers. The First Catholic Slovak Union is proud to publish this vital literary work of Dr. Joseph Pauco." According to another prominent American Slovak, Fr. J. A. Gajdosik "Pauco's book is one sure way to arousing interest in the Slovak heritage on a personal and individual basis, especially among our younger people. Hopefully, an English translation will be made in the near future, so that devotion to the Slovak ethnicity will be fostered. "The book should bolster Dr. Joseph Pauco's strong thoughts about the termination and death of the Slovak language in the United States. The book is also a warning to our fair-weather-Slovaks, who claim that they received little if anything from their Slovak ancestors, for it teaches that much Slovak affluence and prestige is directly the result of the conduct and work of our pioneers. "It behooves our brethren who are ashamed of their Slovak ethnicity, to study their history, and learn how everything they have was given to them, and that they should give themselves for others as our pioneers did. The ultimate lesson is that we, American of Slovak ancestry, should foster and serve the Slovak cause and ideal, at least as much, if not better than our pioneers in early America." 203 SLOVAKIA REVIEWS OF PAUCO'S WRITINGS IN LEADING PERIODICALS MOST co po komunizme? (I, 1, 1954, p . 44) Tisov odkaz (I, 2, 1954, p. 39-40. Dr. Karol Murin) Dr. Jozef Tiso o sebe (I, 3, 1954, p. 41-43. F. Hrusovsky) Stefan Furdek a slovenske prist'ahovalectvo (II, 2, 1955, p. 136-137) Mest'ancik) Slovcici a komunizmus (IV, 3, 1957, p. 132-133. Unconquerables (VI, 1-2, 1959, p. 83-85. Andrew Pier, O.S.B.) Christian Slovakia Under Communism (VI, 3, 1959, p. 186-187. Andrew Jan Pier, O.S.B. ) Pi:it'desiatnik Dr. Jozef Kirschbaum (XI, 3-4, 1964, p. 181) Slovakia (XI, 3-4, 1964, p. 182-183) Litercirny Almanach Slovcika v Amerike na rok 1965 (XII, 1-2, 1965, p. 82-83) Slovakia (XII, 3-4, 1965, p. 189) SLOVAKIA 75 rokov Prvej Katolickej Slovenskej Jednoty (XV, 38, 1965, p . 152-155. Mother M. Emerentia, SS.C.M.) Litercirny Almanach Slovcika v Amerike 1967 (XVII, 40, 1967, p. 190-192. Sister M. Tarcisia Gregorovic, SS.C.M.) Tak sme sa poznali (XVIII, 41, 1968, p . 159-164. Sister M. Tarcisia, SS. C.M.) Slovenski priekopnici v Amerike ( XXIII , 46, 1973, p. 196-197. Joseph C. Krajsa) F URD EK All writings by Dr. Pauco on the history of American Slovaks are evaluated by J . M. Kirschbaum in his article Dr. Pauco' s W ritings and the History of American Slovaks (Furdek, 1974, p. 75-80) . Francis V n u k : A BIOGRAPHICAL VALEDICTION In spite of the fact that the Slovaks are among the oldest inhabitants of the Central European region their efforts to secure a fully independent life has been seldom appreciated and rarely understood. But frustrations and disappointments can never deter a nation from its ultimate aim, and where one generation fails another will rise to continue the struggle. The natural aspirations of a nature and self-respecting nation cannot be suppressed by terror, nor silenced by bribes, nor extinguished by an apparent  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Noted Slovak Jubilarians Description An account of the resource covers ndrej Žarnov, Imrich Kružliak, Mikuláš Šprinc, Teodorik Zúbek, Jozef Paučo incl. "Evaluation of Dr. Paučo's Writings by Reviewers" and "Reviews of Paučo's Writings in Leading Periodicals" J. M. Kirschbaum Slovakia, Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974 pp. 181-203 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Kirschbaum, Jozef M., 1913-2001 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 SNK https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/6376f63cc018b9fe9d80cf8807fc3bfc.pdf 1fa2404f2402048916991549b5b05250 PDF Text Text 203 SLOVAKIA REVIEWS OF PAUCO'S WRITINGS IN LEADING PERIODICALS MOST co po komunizme? (I, 1, 1954, p . 44) Tisov odkaz (I, 2, 1954, p. 39-40. Dr. Karol Murin) Dr. Jozef Tiso o sebe (I, 3, 1954, p. 41-43. F. Hrusovsky) Stefan Furdek a slovenske prist'ahovalectvo (II, 2, 1955, p. 136-137) Mest'ancik) Slovcici a komunizmus (IV, 3, 1957, p. 132-133. Unconquerables (VI, 1-2, 1959, p. 83-85. Andrew Pier, O.S.B.) Christian Slovakia Under Communism (VI, 3, 1959, p. 186-187. Andrew Jan Pier, O.S.B. ) Pi:it'desiatnik Dr. Jozef Kirschbaum (XI, 3-4, 1964, p. 181) Slovakia (XI, 3-4, 1964, p. 182-183) Litercirny Almanach Slovcika v Amerike na rok 1965 (XII, 1-2, 1965, p. 82-83) Slovakia (XII, 3-4, 1965, p. 189) SLOVAKIA 75 rokov Prvej Katolickej Slovenskej Jednoty (XV, 38, 1965, p . 152-155. Mother M. Emerentia, SS.C.M.) Litercirny Almanach Slovcika v Amerike 1967 (XVII, 40, 1967, p. 190-192. Sister M. Tarcisia Gregorovic, SS.C.M.) Tak sme sa poznali (XVIII, 41, 1968, p . 159-164. Sister M. Tarcisia, SS. C.M.) Slovenski priekopnici v Amerike ( XXIII , 46, 1973, p. 196-197. Joseph C. Krajsa) F URD EK All writings by Dr. Pauco on the history of American Slovaks are evaluated by J . M. Kirschbaum in his article Dr. Pauco' s W ritings and the History of American Slovaks (Furdek, 1974, p. 75-80) . Francis V n u k : A BIOGRAPHICAL VALEDICTION In spite of the fact that the Slovaks are among the oldest inhabitants of the Central European region their efforts to secure a fully independent life has been seldom appreciated and rarely understood. But frustrations and disappointments can never deter a nation from its ultimate aim, and where one generation fails another will rise to continue the struggle. The natural aspirations of a nature and self-respecting nation cannot be suppressed by terror, nor silenced by bribes, nor extinguished by an apparent �204 SLOVAKIA lack of success. In all its history - and especially in the last 200 years - the Slovak nation has always had selfless and dedicated sons who in the struggle for national independence - not unlike Tennyson's Ulysses - were "strong in will to strive, to seek, to find and not to yield." One of these indefatigable fighters is Dr. Jozef Pauco who on February 26th was celebrating his 60th birthday. This memorable occasion makes one pause a moment and look into the past in order to reconstruct a brief outline of his life-career with all its notable moments and achievements. As a man in the forefront of Slovak public activities Dr. Pauco has many friends and admirers and not a few enemies. But - no matter what their feeling towards him are - they would all be unanimous in admitting that the name of Dr. Pauco has become a synonym of hard and continuous work in the cause of his nation. The beginnings of his involvement in this kind of work go back to his student days; the seeds, however, were sown much earlier, in the years of his childhood. Born on February 26th, 1914 (at Pila, near Lucenec) of Slovak peasant stock, young Pauco grew up in a typical Central European village environment where life was harsh, shortages common and rewards only very modest. This situation was further aggravated by the outbreak of World War I, when all able-bodied men were called up and the heavy burden of daily life had.to be carried by the women and old people. Pauco's father had to go too and he never came back. He died as a conscript in the service of those who denied the very existence of the Slovak nation and were seeking its physical extinction. This powerful traumatic experience, combined with the gentle influence of his widowed mother, imbued the young boy with a strong sense of justice, and with a fighting spirit to undo wrongs and to see that one received what was due to him. In Czecho-Slovakia which came into being in October 1918 the Slovaks were faring much better than in the prewar Hungary, but they still were treated by their Czech brethren as minor partners in an unequal Czecho-Slovak partnership. As a young high school student at Nitra (where �SLOVAKIA 205 - according to his mother's wishes - he was preparing for the priesthood) J. Pauco could see this inequality which was both humiliating and insulting. His teachers (as well as other public servants and State employees) were Czechs, while Slovaks were without jobs. Not only did these Czechs occupy jobs and posts which belonged to the Slovaks but they also abused their positions by denigrating the Slovak language, culture, history and way of life. The outcome of this haughty and unsparing attitude towards the Slovak people was quite predictible. A general disenchantment soon gave way to discontent and these sentiments eventually crystallized out as a massive opposition movement led by Andrej Hlinka. Under Hlinka's charismatic leadership Slovakia launched a campaign for administrative self-government (autonomy) which- incidentallyhad been guaranteed to Slovaks back in 1918 by President T. G. Masaryk in the well-known Pittsburgh Agreement. · Hlinka's massive following came from all strata of Slovak society but the most significant support came from the enthusiastic followers among the young people. They provided the Hlinka People's Party with the most convincing arguments vis-a-vis Prague's centralist "Czechoslovak" policies. The young Slovak generation was autonomist in its outlook almost to a man, as was demonstrated at Trencianske Teplice in 1932. J. Pauco soon translated into action his admiration for Hlinka's valiant struggle for Slovak autonomy. His contributions to this common national effort were more and more substantial as he grew older and when in 1936 he came to Bratislava to study Philosophy at the Slovak University he was already a fully-fledged and highly-valued activist within the ranks of the Slovak autonomist movement. In Bratislava he became involved in the affairs of the busy campus life, where at that time the political issues were fought and argued in the most radical manner. (One of Dr. Pauco's ideological opponents was a fellow-student from the Law Faculty, G. Husak, today's Communist boss of Czecho-Slovakia). In addition to the campus activities J . Pauco was a regular contributor to the People's Party dailies and periodicals. This part-time collaboration with �206 SLOVAKIA the press was destined to become the enduring attachmen t of his life. In 1938 the struggle for Slovak autonomy took on a dramatic turn. The artificial facade of "Czechoslo vak" unity could not withstand the combined pressure of internal and external factors and collapsed completely , as predicted by those Slovak politicians whose warnings were never heeded. In the hectic three months September -November 1938 the Czecho-Slovakia of Masaryk and Benes changed beyond recognition . It had to cede the Sudeten territories to Germany, Southern Slovakia to the Magyars, the Teschen region to Poland and internally to grant autonomy to Slovaks and Ruthenians . Slovak autonomy, declared by all the Slovak political parties ( except the Socialists and Communis ts) on October 6th, 1938, was long overdue, but its arrival at this critical time (as an aftermath of the Munich crisis) made its realization easily misinterpr eted. For the Slovaks, however, it was a most welcome developme nt in which they saw the culminatio n of their long political struggle. For the Slovak People's Party (led since the death of A. Hlinka - in August 1938 - by Dr. Jozef Tiso, who became Premier of the Slovak autonomou s governmen t) autonomy was a challenge to show the world around us that we could manage our affairs with skill and responsibil ity. In communic ating its aims and ideals to the people the governmen t required a reliable and prompt press service. Consequen tly J. Pauco was asked to concentrat e his activities mainly in this direction. In March 1939 the Slovaks declared their independen ce and a new state appeared on the map of Europe: the Slovak Republic. The transition from autonomy to independence was rapid and the road to independen ce was somewhat steep. But the Slovaks knew that in the given situation theirs was not to argue and ponder about the road behind, but to do something about the road ahead. They grasped eagerly the historic opportunit y which independence offered and set out to make Slovakia as happy and prosperous a place for all Slovaks as was possible under the given circumstan ces. In this challenging and unique period of Slovak history �SLOVAKIA 207 Dr. Jozef Pauco played a major and politically significant role. Apart from administrative responsibilities (he was acting as a district secretary of the People's Party at Nitra) he steadily maintained his journalistic and editorial connections with numerous political dailies and weeklies. In 1942 Dr. Jozef Tiso, the President of the Slovak Republic, appointed him as Editor-in-Chief of the principal national daily, Slovak. Slovak was the official press organ of the People's Party and of the Slovak government. It is an eloquent testimony to Pauco's journalistic abilities and political maturity that President Tiso placed such an important function on the shoulders of such a youthful (28 years old ) man. Dr. J . Pauco reciprocated this trust and served Dr. Tiso faithfully in the subsequent years. It was his concern to explain and popularize the current governmental policies, to provide ideological guidance, to maintain and foster proud nationalistic sentiments among the people and to instil hope and optimism when the situation became grim and critical. It is a tragic aspect of Slovak history that during the global conflict of 1939-45 Slovakia - unable to escape its geography - was politically under German protection and influence. The enemies of Slovak independence exploited this unfortunate situation and persuaded both the Western Allies and the Soviet Union that in the post-war settlement Slovakia should be again annexed to the Czech lands and that the pre-Munich Czecho-Slovakia should be restored. The Slovak patriots who had fought for and defended the independent Slovak state were branded as fascists, traitors and even criminals and were threatened with severe punishments and retribution. To escape the advancing Red Army Slovak political leaders, administrators, intellectuals and even ordinary citizens fled in thousands to the West where they hoped to find sympathy and understanding for their cause. Dr. J. Pauco and his family (his wife Draga whom he had married in 1942 and infant-son Svatopluk) were among them. The last issue of the daily, Slovak was published in Bratislava on April 1st, 1945 and it sadly signified the end of an era. The bulk of Slovak political refugees eventually sur· �208 SLOVAKIA rendered to the Americans. But the American military, starry-eyed about "the gallant Soviet ally," and having swallowed all the Communist lies about the refugees unthinkingly handed them over to their Communist jailers and executioners. To escape death or a fate worse than death the refugees had to scatter and go into hiding in the hope the West would soon wake up and cease this inhuman practice. Gradually the Western statesmen realized their folly and refused to comply with the bloodthirsty Soviet wishes. The refugees could now breathe relief, but their troubles were far from over. And what was even more tragic for hundreds and thousands of them it was already too late. Dr. J. Pauco was among the lucky ones. Moving from place to place in Austria and Bavaria he finally settled in Munich. During this trying period his son Svatopluk died and many of his close friends and colleagues were forcibly "repatriated" to Slovakia where they faced the vengeance of the so-called "people's tribunals." President Tiso and most of the members of the Slovak government were among them. But these tremendous losses and blows failed to break Pauco's spirit. Believing in justice and convinced that truth would ultimately triumph, he refused to accept defeat. As soon as it was possible (in April 1946) he started the publication of Slobodne Slovensko (Free Slovakia) in war-torn Munich. Though modest in appearance this mimeographed journal was the very embodiment of ardent Slovak nationalism. The journal was a great moral and psychological boost for the hard-pressed and frightened Slovak refugees . To explain the Slovak position to foreigners Dr. Paufo published bulletins in the German and Ukrainian languages. Dr. Pauco's stay in West Germany lasted five years. They were years of extreme hardship and at the same time years of very intense activity. Many events and happenings of this period are recorded in his autobiographical novel The Flight to Wonderland. The "Wonderland" to him was America which since the 1870's has become the adopted country to almost one million Slovaks. He settled in a small provincial township, Middletown, Pa., where a major Slovak fraternalistic society has its printery and where the largest Slovak-English weekly, Jednota is published. He took up the position of �SLOVAKIA 209 associate editor of this paper and has remained there till now. But the editorial work could not possibly absorb all his energies. Soon after his arrival in the USA he was deeply involved in all the aspects of Slovak communal activities. One cannot go through them in detail, but even a simple enumeration of them is impressive enough to confirm what was said at the beginning, i.e . that Pauco's name is synonymous with continuous work in the service of his nation. He participates actively in several Slovak associations and societies: in the Slovak League of America (where he serves as secretary-general and editor of its English language annual, Slovakia) , in the First Catholic Slovak Union, in the Slovak Catholic Federation, etc. He plays a leading role in Slovak political organizations such as the Slovak National Council Abroad, Slovak Liberation Council, Slovak World Congress (as the chairman of its Information Committee. ) He takes a keen interest in the history of the Slovak immigrants in the USA and in this field he has produced five books (including a comprehensive history of the First Catholic Slovak Union, 1890-1965) and a large number of articles. He is owner-publisher of a popular weekly Slovak v Amerike and editor of its prestigious annual Literdrny Almanach. As a writer Dr. Pauco has to his credit two books of fictionalized autobiography (Unconquerables, 1958 and The Flight to Wonderland , 1963), a volume of reminiscences concerning famous people he met ( Tak sme sa poznali, 1966) and several books and pamphlets of political writing (e.g. Slovdci a komunizmus, 1957; co po komunizme?, 1952; Tisov odkaz, 1953; etc.). It is indeed a life rich in achievements and, what is more, one can say without fear of contradiction that - as in the past so in the future - Dr. J. Pauco will certainly enrich it further with many valuable additions in every sphere of his many-sided activity. We, his friends and colleagues, greet him warmly at this momentous milestone of his life and ask the Almighty to grant him health and strength not only to continue in his work but also to reap a justly deserved reward for his efforts. Ad multos annos! � 203 SLOVAKIA REVIEWS OF PAUCO'S WRITINGS IN LEADING PERIODICALS MOST co po komunizme? (I, 1, 1954, p . 44) Tisov odkaz (I, 2, 1954, p. 39-40. Dr. Karol Murin) Dr. Jozef Tiso o sebe (I, 3, 1954, p. 41-43. F. Hrusovsky) Stefan Furdek a slovenske prist'ahovalectvo (II, 2, 1955, p. 136-137) Mest'ancik) Slovcici a komunizmus (IV, 3, 1957, p. 132-133. Unconquerables (VI, 1-2, 1959, p. 83-85. Andrew Pier, O.S.B.) Christian Slovakia Under Communism (VI, 3, 1959, p. 186-187. Andrew Jan Pier, O.S.B. ) Pi:it'desiatnik Dr. Jozef Kirschbaum (XI, 3-4, 1964, p. 181) Slovakia (XI, 3-4, 1964, p. 182-183) Litercirny Almanach Slovcika v Amerike na rok 1965 (XII, 1-2, 1965, p. 82-83) Slovakia (XII, 3-4, 1965, p. 189) SLOVAKIA 75 rokov Prvej Katolickej Slovenskej Jednoty (XV, 38, 1965, p . 152-155. Mother M. Emerentia, SS.C.M.) Litercirny Almanach Slovcika v Amerike 1967 (XVII, 40, 1967, p. 190-192. Sister M. Tarcisia Gregorovic, SS.C.M.) Tak sme sa poznali (XVIII, 41, 1968, p . 159-164. Sister M. Tarcisia, SS. C.M.) Slovenski priekopnici v Amerike ( XXIII , 46, 1973, p. 196-197. Joseph C. Krajsa) F URD EK All writings by Dr. Pauco on the history of American Slovaks are evaluated by J . M. Kirschbaum in his article Dr. Pauco' s W ritings and the History of American Slovaks (Furdek, 1974, p. 75-80) . Francis V n u k : A BIOGRAPHICAL VALEDICTION In spite of the fact that the Slovaks are among the oldest inhabitants of the Central European region their efforts to secure a fully independent life has been seldom appreciated and rarely understood. But frustrations and disappointments can never deter a nation from its ultimate aim, and where one generation fails another will rise to continue the struggle. The natural aspirations of a nature and self-respecting nation cannot be suppressed by terror, nor silenced by bribes, nor extinguished by an apparent �204 SLOVAKIA lack of success. In all its history - and especially in the last 200 years - the Slovak nation has always had selfless and dedicated sons who in the struggle for national independence - not unlike Tennyson's Ulysses - were "strong in will to strive, to seek, to find and not to yield." One of these indefatigable fighters is Dr. Jozef Pauco who on February 26th was celebrating his 60th birthday. This memorable occasion makes one pause a moment and look into the past in order to reconstruct a brief outline of his life-career with all its notable moments and achievements. As a man in the forefront of Slovak public activities Dr. Pauco has many friends and admirers and not a few enemies. But - no matter what their feeling towards him are - they would all be unanimous in admitting that the name of Dr. Pauco has become a synonym of hard and continuous work in the cause of his nation. The beginnings of his involvement in this kind of work go back to his student days; the seeds, however, were sown much earlier, in the years of his childhood. Born on February 26th, 1914 (at Pila, near Lucenec) of Slovak peasant stock, young Pauco grew up in a typical Central European village environment where life was harsh, shortages common and rewards only very modest. This situation was further aggravated by the outbreak of World War I, when all able-bodied men were called up and the heavy burden of daily life had.to be carried by the women and old people. Pauco's father had to go too and he never came back. He died as a conscript in the service of those who denied the very existence of the Slovak nation and were seeking its physical extinction. This powerful traumatic experience, combined with the gentle influence of his widowed mother, imbued the young boy with a strong sense of justice, and with a fighting spirit to undo wrongs and to see that one received what was due to him. In Czecho-Slovakia which came into being in October 1918 the Slovaks were faring much better than in the prewar Hungary, but they still were treated by their Czech brethren as minor partners in an unequal Czecho-Slovak partnership. As a young high school student at Nitra (where �SLOVAKIA 205 - according to his mother's wishes - he was preparing for the priesthood) J. Pauco could see this inequality which was both humiliating and insulting. His teachers (as well as other public servants and State employees) were Czechs, while Slovaks were without jobs. Not only did these Czechs occupy jobs and posts which belonged to the Slovaks but they also abused their positions by denigrating the Slovak language, culture, history and way of life. The outcome of this haughty and unsparing attitude towards the Slovak people was quite predictible. A general disenchantment soon gave way to discontent and these sentiments eventually crystallized out as a massive opposition movement led by Andrej Hlinka. Under Hlinka's charismatic leadership Slovakia launched a campaign for administrative self-government (autonomy) which- incidentallyhad been guaranteed to Slovaks back in 1918 by President T. G. Masaryk in the well-known Pittsburgh Agreement. · Hlinka's massive following came from all strata of Slovak society but the most significant support came from the enthusiastic followers among the young people. They provided the Hlinka People's Party with the most convincing arguments vis-a-vis Prague's centralist "Czechoslovak" policies. The young Slovak generation was autonomist in its outlook almost to a man, as was demonstrated at Trencianske Teplice in 1932. J. Pauco soon translated into action his admiration for Hlinka's valiant struggle for Slovak autonomy. His contributions to this common national effort were more and more substantial as he grew older and when in 1936 he came to Bratislava to study Philosophy at the Slovak University he was already a fully-fledged and highly-valued activist within the ranks of the Slovak autonomist movement. In Bratislava he became involved in the affairs of the busy campus life, where at that time the political issues were fought and argued in the most radical manner. (One of Dr. Pauco's ideological opponents was a fellow-student from the Law Faculty, G. Husak, today's Communist boss of Czecho-Slovakia). In addition to the campus activities J . Pauco was a regular contributor to the People's Party dailies and periodicals. This part-time collaboration with �206 SLOVAKIA the press was destined to become the enduring attachmen t of his life. In 1938 the struggle for Slovak autonomy took on a dramatic turn. The artificial facade of "Czechoslo vak" unity could not withstand the combined pressure of internal and external factors and collapsed completely , as predicted by those Slovak politicians whose warnings were never heeded. In the hectic three months September -November 1938 the Czecho-Slovakia of Masaryk and Benes changed beyond recognition . It had to cede the Sudeten territories to Germany, Southern Slovakia to the Magyars, the Teschen region to Poland and internally to grant autonomy to Slovaks and Ruthenians . Slovak autonomy, declared by all the Slovak political parties ( except the Socialists and Communis ts) on October 6th, 1938, was long overdue, but its arrival at this critical time (as an aftermath of the Munich crisis) made its realization easily misinterpr eted. For the Slovaks, however, it was a most welcome developme nt in which they saw the culminatio n of their long political struggle. For the Slovak People's Party (led since the death of A. Hlinka - in August 1938 - by Dr. Jozef Tiso, who became Premier of the Slovak autonomou s governmen t) autonomy was a challenge to show the world around us that we could manage our affairs with skill and responsibil ity. In communic ating its aims and ideals to the people the governmen t required a reliable and prompt press service. Consequen tly J. Pauco was asked to concentrat e his activities mainly in this direction. In March 1939 the Slovaks declared their independen ce and a new state appeared on the map of Europe: the Slovak Republic. The transition from autonomy to independence was rapid and the road to independen ce was somewhat steep. But the Slovaks knew that in the given situation theirs was not to argue and ponder about the road behind, but to do something about the road ahead. They grasped eagerly the historic opportunit y which independence offered and set out to make Slovakia as happy and prosperous a place for all Slovaks as was possible under the given circumstan ces. In this challenging and unique period of Slovak history �SLOVAKIA 207 Dr. Jozef Pauco played a major and politically significant role. Apart from administrative responsibilities (he was acting as a district secretary of the People's Party at Nitra) he steadily maintained his journalistic and editorial connections with numerous political dailies and weeklies. In 1942 Dr. Jozef Tiso, the President of the Slovak Republic, appointed him as Editor-in-Chief of the principal national daily, Slovak. Slovak was the official press organ of the People's Party and of the Slovak government. It is an eloquent testimony to Pauco's journalistic abilities and political maturity that President Tiso placed such an important function on the shoulders of such a youthful (28 years old ) man. Dr. J . Pauco reciprocated this trust and served Dr. Tiso faithfully in the subsequent years. It was his concern to explain and popularize the current governmental policies, to provide ideological guidance, to maintain and foster proud nationalistic sentiments among the people and to instil hope and optimism when the situation became grim and critical. It is a tragic aspect of Slovak history that during the global conflict of 1939-45 Slovakia - unable to escape its geography - was politically under German protection and influence. The enemies of Slovak independence exploited this unfortunate situation and persuaded both the Western Allies and the Soviet Union that in the post-war settlement Slovakia should be again annexed to the Czech lands and that the pre-Munich Czecho-Slovakia should be restored. The Slovak patriots who had fought for and defended the independent Slovak state were branded as fascists, traitors and even criminals and were threatened with severe punishments and retribution. To escape the advancing Red Army Slovak political leaders, administrators, intellectuals and even ordinary citizens fled in thousands to the West where they hoped to find sympathy and understanding for their cause. Dr. J. Pauco and his family (his wife Draga whom he had married in 1942 and infant-son Svatopluk) were among them. The last issue of the daily, Slovak was published in Bratislava on April 1st, 1945 and it sadly signified the end of an era. The bulk of Slovak political refugees eventually sur· �208 SLOVAKIA rendered to the Americans. But the American military, starry-eyed about "the gallant Soviet ally," and having swallowed all the Communist lies about the refugees unthinkingly handed them over to their Communist jailers and executioners. To escape death or a fate worse than death the refugees had to scatter and go into hiding in the hope the West would soon wake up and cease this inhuman practice. Gradually the Western statesmen realized their folly and refused to comply with the bloodthirsty Soviet wishes. The refugees could now breathe relief, but their troubles were far from over. And what was even more tragic for hundreds and thousands of them it was already too late. Dr. J. Pauco was among the lucky ones. Moving from place to place in Austria and Bavaria he finally settled in Munich. During this trying period his son Svatopluk died and many of his close friends and colleagues were forcibly "repatriated" to Slovakia where they faced the vengeance of the so-called "people's tribunals." President Tiso and most of the members of the Slovak government were among them. But these tremendous losses and blows failed to break Pauco's spirit. Believing in justice and convinced that truth would ultimately triumph, he refused to accept defeat. As soon as it was possible (in April 1946) he started the publication of Slobodne Slovensko (Free Slovakia) in war-torn Munich. Though modest in appearance this mimeographed journal was the very embodiment of ardent Slovak nationalism. The journal was a great moral and psychological boost for the hard-pressed and frightened Slovak refugees . To explain the Slovak position to foreigners Dr. Paufo published bulletins in the German and Ukrainian languages. Dr. Pauco's stay in West Germany lasted five years. They were years of extreme hardship and at the same time years of very intense activity. Many events and happenings of this period are recorded in his autobiographical novel The Flight to Wonderland. The "Wonderland" to him was America which since the 1870's has become the adopted country to almost one million Slovaks. He settled in a small provincial township, Middletown, Pa., where a major Slovak fraternalistic society has its printery and where the largest Slovak-English weekly, Jednota is published. He took up the position of �SLOVAKIA 209 associate editor of this paper and has remained there till now. But the editorial work could not possibly absorb all his energies. Soon after his arrival in the USA he was deeply involved in all the aspects of Slovak communal activities. One cannot go through them in detail, but even a simple enumeration of them is impressive enough to confirm what was said at the beginning, i.e . that Pauco's name is synonymous with continuous work in the service of his nation. He participates actively in several Slovak associations and societies: in the Slovak League of America (where he serves as secretary-general and editor of its English language annual, Slovakia) , in the First Catholic Slovak Union, in the Slovak Catholic Federation, etc. He plays a leading role in Slovak political organizations such as the Slovak National Council Abroad, Slovak Liberation Council, Slovak World Congress (as the chairman of its Information Committee. ) He takes a keen interest in the history of the Slovak immigrants in the USA and in this field he has produced five books (including a comprehensive history of the First Catholic Slovak Union, 1890-1965) and a large number of articles. He is owner-publisher of a popular weekly Slovak v Amerike and editor of its prestigious annual Literdrny Almanach. As a writer Dr. Pauco has to his credit two books of fictionalized autobiography (Unconquerables, 1958 and The Flight to Wonderland , 1963), a volume of reminiscences concerning famous people he met ( Tak sme sa poznali, 1966) and several books and pamphlets of political writing (e.g. Slovdci a komunizmus, 1957; co po komunizme?, 1952; Tisov odkaz, 1953; etc.). It is indeed a life rich in achievements and, what is more, one can say without fear of contradiction that - as in the past so in the future - Dr. J. Pauco will certainly enrich it further with many valuable additions in every sphere of his many-sided activity. We, his friends and colleagues, greet him warmly at this momentous milestone of his life and ask the Almighty to grant him health and strength not only to continue in his work but also to reap a justly deserved reward for his efforts. Ad multos annos! � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1974, Vol. 24 Description An account of the resource Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document 203 SLOVAKIA REVIEWS OF PAUCO'S WRITINGS IN LEADING PERIODICALS MOST co po komunizme? (I, 1, 1954, p . 44) Tisov odkaz (I, 2, 1954, p. 39-40. Dr. Karol Murin) Dr. Jozef Tiso o sebe (I, 3, 1954, p. 41-43. F. Hrusovsky) Stefan Furdek a slovenske prist'ahovalectvo (II, 2, 1955, p. 136-137) Mest'ancik) Slovcici a komunizmus (IV, 3, 1957, p. 132-133. Unconquerables (VI, 1-2, 1959, p. 83-85. Andrew Pier, O.S.B.) Christian Slovakia Under Communism (VI, 3, 1959, p. 186-187. Andrew Jan Pier, O.S.B. ) Pi:it'desiatnik Dr. Jozef Kirschbaum (XI, 3-4, 1964, p. 181) Slovakia (XI, 3-4, 1964, p. 182-183) Litercirny Almanach Slovcika v Amerike na rok 1965 (XII, 1-2, 1965, p. 82-83) Slovakia (XII, 3-4, 1965, p. 189) SLOVAKIA 75 rokov Prvej Katolickej Slovenskej Jednoty (XV, 38, 1965, p . 152-155. Mother M. Emerentia, SS.C.M.) Litercirny Almanach Slovcika v Amerike 1967 (XVII, 40, 1967, p. 190-192. Sister M. Tarcisia Gregorovic, SS.C.M.) Tak sme sa poznali (XVIII, 41, 1968, p . 159-164. Sister M. Tarcisia, SS. C.M.) Slovenski priekopnici v Amerike ( XXIII , 46, 1973, p. 196-197. Joseph C. Krajsa) F URD EK All writings by Dr. Pauco on the history of American Slovaks are evaluated by J . M. Kirschbaum in his article Dr. Pauco' s W ritings and the History of American Slovaks (Furdek, 1974, p. 75-80) . Francis V n u k : A BIOGRAPHICAL VALEDICTION In spite of the fact that the Slovaks are among the oldest inhabitants of the Central European region their efforts to secure a fully independent life has been seldom appreciated and rarely understood. But frustrations and disappointments can never deter a nation from its ultimate aim, and where one generation fails another will rise to continue the struggle. The natural aspirations of a nature and self-respecting nation cannot be suppressed by terror, nor silenced by bribes, nor extinguished by an apparent 204 SLOVAKIA lack of success. In all its history - and especially in the last 200 years - the Slovak nation has always had selfless and dedicated sons who in the struggle for national independence - not unlike Tennyson's Ulysses - were "strong in will to strive, to seek, to find and not to yield." One of these indefatigable fighters is Dr. Jozef Pauco who on February 26th was celebrating his 60th birthday. This memorable occasion makes one pause a moment and look into the past in order to reconstruct a brief outline of his life-career with all its notable moments and achievements. As a man in the forefront of Slovak public activities Dr. Pauco has many friends and admirers and not a few enemies. But - no matter what their feeling towards him are - they would all be unanimous in admitting that the name of Dr. Pauco has become a synonym of hard and continuous work in the cause of his nation. The beginnings of his involvement in this kind of work go back to his student days; the seeds, however, were sown much earlier, in the years of his childhood. Born on February 26th, 1914 (at Pila, near Lucenec) of Slovak peasant stock, young Pauco grew up in a typical Central European village environment where life was harsh, shortages common and rewards only very modest. This situation was further aggravated by the outbreak of World War I, when all able-bodied men were called up and the heavy burden of daily life had.to be carried by the women and old people. Pauco's father had to go too and he never came back. He died as a conscript in the service of those who denied the very existence of the Slovak nation and were seeking its physical extinction. This powerful traumatic experience, combined with the gentle influence of his widowed mother, imbued the young boy with a strong sense of justice, and with a fighting spirit to undo wrongs and to see that one received what was due to him. In Czecho-Slovakia which came into being in October 1918 the Slovaks were faring much better than in the prewar Hungary, but they still were treated by their Czech brethren as minor partners in an unequal Czecho-Slovak partnership. As a young high school student at Nitra (where SLOVAKIA 205 - according to his mother's wishes - he was preparing for the priesthood) J. Pauco could see this inequality which was both humiliating and insulting. His teachers (as well as other public servants and State employees) were Czechs, while Slovaks were without jobs. Not only did these Czechs occupy jobs and posts which belonged to the Slovaks but they also abused their positions by denigrating the Slovak language, culture, history and way of life. The outcome of this haughty and unsparing attitude towards the Slovak people was quite predictible. A general disenchantment soon gave way to discontent and these sentiments eventually crystallized out as a massive opposition movement led by Andrej Hlinka. Under Hlinka's charismatic leadership Slovakia launched a campaign for administrative self-government (autonomy) which- incidentallyhad been guaranteed to Slovaks back in 1918 by President T. G. Masaryk in the well-known Pittsburgh Agreement. · Hlinka's massive following came from all strata of Slovak society but the most significant support came from the enthusiastic followers among the young people. They provided the Hlinka People's Party with the most convincing arguments vis-a-vis Prague's centralist "Czechoslovak" policies. The young Slovak generation was autonomist in its outlook almost to a man, as was demonstrated at Trencianske Teplice in 1932. J. Pauco soon translated into action his admiration for Hlinka's valiant struggle for Slovak autonomy. His contributions to this common national effort were more and more substantial as he grew older and when in 1936 he came to Bratislava to study Philosophy at the Slovak University he was already a fully-fledged and highly-valued activist within the ranks of the Slovak autonomist movement. In Bratislava he became involved in the affairs of the busy campus life, where at that time the political issues were fought and argued in the most radical manner. (One of Dr. Pauco's ideological opponents was a fellow-student from the Law Faculty, G. Husak, today's Communist boss of Czecho-Slovakia). In addition to the campus activities J . Pauco was a regular contributor to the People's Party dailies and periodicals. This part-time collaboration with 206 SLOVAKIA the press was destined to become the enduring attachmen t of his life. In 1938 the struggle for Slovak autonomy took on a dramatic turn. The artificial facade of "Czechoslo vak" unity could not withstand the combined pressure of internal and external factors and collapsed completely , as predicted by those Slovak politicians whose warnings were never heeded. In the hectic three months September -November 1938 the Czecho-Slovakia of Masaryk and Benes changed beyond recognition . It had to cede the Sudeten territories to Germany, Southern Slovakia to the Magyars, the Teschen region to Poland and internally to grant autonomy to Slovaks and Ruthenians . Slovak autonomy, declared by all the Slovak political parties ( except the Socialists and Communis ts) on October 6th, 1938, was long overdue, but its arrival at this critical time (as an aftermath of the Munich crisis) made its realization easily misinterpr eted. For the Slovaks, however, it was a most welcome developme nt in which they saw the culminatio n of their long political struggle. For the Slovak People's Party (led since the death of A. Hlinka - in August 1938 - by Dr. Jozef Tiso, who became Premier of the Slovak autonomou s governmen t) autonomy was a challenge to show the world around us that we could manage our affairs with skill and responsibil ity. In communic ating its aims and ideals to the people the governmen t required a reliable and prompt press service. Consequen tly J. Pauco was asked to concentrat e his activities mainly in this direction. In March 1939 the Slovaks declared their independen ce and a new state appeared on the map of Europe: the Slovak Republic. The transition from autonomy to independence was rapid and the road to independen ce was somewhat steep. But the Slovaks knew that in the given situation theirs was not to argue and ponder about the road behind, but to do something about the road ahead. They grasped eagerly the historic opportunit y which independence offered and set out to make Slovakia as happy and prosperous a place for all Slovaks as was possible under the given circumstan ces. In this challenging and unique period of Slovak history SLOVAKIA 207 Dr. Jozef Pauco played a major and politically significant role. Apart from administrative responsibilities (he was acting as a district secretary of the People's Party at Nitra) he steadily maintained his journalistic and editorial connections with numerous political dailies and weeklies. In 1942 Dr. Jozef Tiso, the President of the Slovak Republic, appointed him as Editor-in-Chief of the principal national daily, Slovak. Slovak was the official press organ of the People's Party and of the Slovak government. It is an eloquent testimony to Pauco's journalistic abilities and political maturity that President Tiso placed such an important function on the shoulders of such a youthful (28 years old ) man. Dr. J . Pauco reciprocated this trust and served Dr. Tiso faithfully in the subsequent years. It was his concern to explain and popularize the current governmental policies, to provide ideological guidance, to maintain and foster proud nationalistic sentiments among the people and to instil hope and optimism when the situation became grim and critical. It is a tragic aspect of Slovak history that during the global conflict of 1939-45 Slovakia - unable to escape its geography - was politically under German protection and influence. The enemies of Slovak independence exploited this unfortunate situation and persuaded both the Western Allies and the Soviet Union that in the post-war settlement Slovakia should be again annexed to the Czech lands and that the pre-Munich Czecho-Slovakia should be restored. The Slovak patriots who had fought for and defended the independent Slovak state were branded as fascists, traitors and even criminals and were threatened with severe punishments and retribution. To escape the advancing Red Army Slovak political leaders, administrators, intellectuals and even ordinary citizens fled in thousands to the West where they hoped to find sympathy and understanding for their cause. Dr. J. Pauco and his family (his wife Draga whom he had married in 1942 and infant-son Svatopluk) were among them. The last issue of the daily, Slovak was published in Bratislava on April 1st, 1945 and it sadly signified the end of an era. The bulk of Slovak political refugees eventually sur· 208 SLOVAKIA rendered to the Americans. But the American military, starry-eyed about "the gallant Soviet ally," and having swallowed all the Communist lies about the refugees unthinkingly handed them over to their Communist jailers and executioners. To escape death or a fate worse than death the refugees had to scatter and go into hiding in the hope the West would soon wake up and cease this inhuman practice. Gradually the Western statesmen realized their folly and refused to comply with the bloodthirsty Soviet wishes. The refugees could now breathe relief, but their troubles were far from over. And what was even more tragic for hundreds and thousands of them it was already too late. Dr. J. Pauco was among the lucky ones. Moving from place to place in Austria and Bavaria he finally settled in Munich. During this trying period his son Svatopluk died and many of his close friends and colleagues were forcibly "repatriated" to Slovakia where they faced the vengeance of the so-called "people's tribunals." President Tiso and most of the members of the Slovak government were among them. But these tremendous losses and blows failed to break Pauco's spirit. Believing in justice and convinced that truth would ultimately triumph, he refused to accept defeat. As soon as it was possible (in April 1946) he started the publication of Slobodne Slovensko (Free Slovakia) in war-torn Munich. Though modest in appearance this mimeographed journal was the very embodiment of ardent Slovak nationalism. The journal was a great moral and psychological boost for the hard-pressed and frightened Slovak refugees . To explain the Slovak position to foreigners Dr. Paufo published bulletins in the German and Ukrainian languages. Dr. Pauco's stay in West Germany lasted five years. They were years of extreme hardship and at the same time years of very intense activity. Many events and happenings of this period are recorded in his autobiographical novel The Flight to Wonderland. The "Wonderland" to him was America which since the 1870's has become the adopted country to almost one million Slovaks. He settled in a small provincial township, Middletown, Pa., where a major Slovak fraternalistic society has its printery and where the largest Slovak-English weekly, Jednota is published. He took up the position of SLOVAKIA 209 associate editor of this paper and has remained there till now. But the editorial work could not possibly absorb all his energies. Soon after his arrival in the USA he was deeply involved in all the aspects of Slovak communal activities. One cannot go through them in detail, but even a simple enumeration of them is impressive enough to confirm what was said at the beginning, i.e . that Pauco's name is synonymous with continuous work in the service of his nation. He participates actively in several Slovak associations and societies: in the Slovak League of America (where he serves as secretary-general and editor of its English language annual, Slovakia) , in the First Catholic Slovak Union, in the Slovak Catholic Federation, etc. He plays a leading role in Slovak political organizations such as the Slovak National Council Abroad, Slovak Liberation Council, Slovak World Congress (as the chairman of its Information Committee. ) He takes a keen interest in the history of the Slovak immigrants in the USA and in this field he has produced five books (including a comprehensive history of the First Catholic Slovak Union, 1890-1965) and a large number of articles. He is owner-publisher of a popular weekly Slovak v Amerike and editor of its prestigious annual Literdrny Almanach. As a writer Dr. Pauco has to his credit two books of fictionalized autobiography (Unconquerables, 1958 and The Flight to Wonderland , 1963), a volume of reminiscences concerning famous people he met ( Tak sme sa poznali, 1966) and several books and pamphlets of political writing (e.g. Slovdci a komunizmus, 1957; co po komunizme?, 1952; Tisov odkaz, 1953; etc.). It is indeed a life rich in achievements and, what is more, one can say without fear of contradiction that - as in the past so in the future - Dr. J. Pauco will certainly enrich it further with many valuable additions in every sphere of his many-sided activity. We, his friends and colleagues, greet him warmly at this momentous milestone of his life and ask the Almighty to grant him health and strength not only to continue in his work but also to reap a justly deserved reward for his efforts. Ad multos annos!  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A Biographical Valediction Description An account of the resource Francis Vnuk Slovakia, Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974 pp. 203-209 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Vnuk, František, 1926- Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 SNK https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/5c84ba193349ca8be719af99811dfa73.pdf 026bfe83c00414990c13fcfa434d188c PDF Text Text 210 SLOVAKIA CURRENT ISSUES RESOLUTIONS ADOPTED AT CONFERENCE OF THE SLOVAK LEAGUE OF AMERICA IN NEW YORK CITY, MAY 19, 1973 Your Holiness: In the name of more than 350,000 American-Slovaks, the greater majority Catholic, and supporting the Slovak League of America and its cultural and civic programs, we extend cordial greetings. We appreciate your efforts and dedication to obtain equal rights for all Catholics and to continue the ecumenical co-operation with all Christians and believers throughout the whole world. We also present to you a petition asking that you give particular attention to the land of our forefathers-Slovakia -cradle in 833 of Christianity in Central Europe and ever devotedly loyal to the Holy See. Notwithstanding this historic fact, Slovakia, oppressed by the atheistic Soviet regime in civil affairs, lacks, in the spiritual domain, its own province, does not have a single archbishop and for so long a time, no Slovak has achieved cardinalhood. Of course, Slovak Catholics share their sufferings with their Lutheran and Greek Catholic brethren. We respectfully suggest that Slovakia be accorded similar recognition as Bohemia, Moravia, Slovenia, Croatia and many other countries in Africa and Asia. We are confident that among dedicated and oppressed Slovak clergy can be found an archbishop to lead a Slovak ;irovince as in days gone by. Such a magnanimous gesture would invigorate all Slovaks at home as well as here in America. We believe that your Holiness by such a decision will strengthen us and thus fortify our fidelity to the Vatican and reverence to the throne of St. Peter. Very respectfully and sincerely, Edward J. Behuncik, President Dr. Joseph Pauco, Secretary Dear Mr. President: The Slovak League of America on the occasion of its 1973 Conference here in New York extends cordial greetings. We hope you will continue to enjoy good health and achieve even greater success in your efforts on behalf of all citizens of whatever origin. We unequivocally endorse your stand in Vietnam and welcome your policy in Europe and Asia. As you are well aware, our origins are in Central Europe, in �SLOVAKIA 211 Slovakia, which has a more than 1100 year Christian history and which for many centuries, excepting a brief period, has lived in subjugation. Now, Slovakia is in its fifth year of Soviet occupation and deprivation by the communists of all human, spiritual and political rights. So, today, we again respectfully request that you, individually as our leader, as well as your entire administration, continue to remember Slovakia and the other oppressed nations behind the Iron Curtain. All thes•e subjugated peoples seek and des·erve statehood and democratic freedom such as we in the United States are so fortunate to enjoy. In your discussions with the leaders of the totalitarian world, we ask that you give high priority to this humane cause. W!! are confident that if permitted free elections, our brethren in Slovakia would officially confirm their dedication and devotion to the United States of America as the stalwart guardian of human freedoms . Most Sincerely, Edward J. Behuncik, President Dr. Joseph Pauco, Secretary DECLARATION ADOPTED AT THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF THE SLOVAK WORLD CONGRESS HELD IN CHICAGO ON JUNE 30TH 1973 The representatives of Slovaks abroad gathered at the General Assembly of the Slovak World Congress, held in Chicago on June 28-30th, 1973, adopted the following Declaration: (1) We consider ourselves an integral part of the Slovak people. We are conscious of our co-responsibility for their destiny and for their contribution to the overall culture of humanity. (2) We claim for the Slovak nation, on the basis of its national individuality, recognition for an equal status with other sovereign nations of the world. (3) We deny any Great Power the right to interfere with the destiny of the Slovak people and to integrate Slovakia in other states or zones of influence which are opposed to the will of the Slovak people and their national interests. We consider such actions, condemned as they are by all civilized people of the world, to be a violation of the Charter of the United Nations. (4) We demand the departure of all occupation forces from Central Europe in order that, after more than a quarter �212 SLOVAKIA of a century since the end of the War, the nations of that area can finally govern themselves. (5) As representatives of a nation conscious of its responsibility towards others, we consider the principles of democracy and humanism the basis for peace and co-operation among the peoples of the world. (6) On these principles alone, life in freedom and a free culture can develop in Slovakia according to the traditions of the Slovak people and in harmony with the progress of the world. PHILIP A. HROBAK YEAR January 10, 1974 marked the tenth anniversary of the death of Philip A. Hrobak, and on May 1, 1974 we will mark the seventieth anniversary of his birth. These special dates impel us to honor his memory in a special way. He was one of the most deserving of our cultural and civic workers from among the many American-born Slovaks and one who dedicated himself to the Slovak cause since early manhoJd. Philip A. Hrobak, as a newspaperman, writer, histocian, linguist, fraternalist and organizer rose to heights in American Slovak life. His contributions to the Slovak cause in both English and Slovak are most noteworthy and memorable in Slovak history. Therefore, the Slovak League of America deems it a special honor to be able to lend itself to the legacy of Philip A. Hrobak. Not only did he honorably serve as a long time editor of JEDNOTA, as the founder and editor of "Slovak Newsletters," "Jednota Annual Furdek" and "Slo·v akia", but also as a distinguished President and member of the Executive Committee of the Slovak League of America-all this is his eternal monument. Bowing before his genius, we turn to our Slovak people and we seek recognition in 1974 of the unfinished dreams of Philip A. Hrobak and so-licit continued help in proving that we i>..re all worthy followers of this g,r eat son of our people. For the Slovak League of America, the year 1974 will be the time of increased activity, as he idealized and set by his example. In tribute to his linguistic talents, we can have the opportunity to help build a strong scholarship fund for the League, because the main purpose of this fund is to preserve and enhance, as he desired, the Slovak conscience in America. Surely, there cannot be any American Slovak who would not make his or her contribution to our scholarship fund in memory of Philip .A. Hirobak. The Slovak League of America also feels compelled to follow the �SLOVAKIA 213 footsteps of Philip A. Hrobak in other fields. In the firat place, we must preserve and continue with the annual "Slovakia", we must daily and fairly continue to inform the American public of the ideals and accomplishments of the American Slovaks, and we must continue our cl-forts to renew the rightful place of the Slovak nation as an independent unit in the family of nations. These were the goals of Philip A. Hrobak, and our Slovak League has so proceeded in the last ten years since we with heavy hearts bid a sad farewell to our never-forgotten leader. With prayer, with labor, and with sacrifices we thus honor this meritocious Slovak son. May the memory of Philip A. Hrobak be perpetual. Edward J. Behuncik, President Dr. Joseph Pauco, Secretary As the others see it represented. What to me is more worse, is the attempt to sublimate the Slovaks into the Czech people. That's why we hear about a 'Czechoslovak nation'. It does not exists! Czecho-Slovakia is a political entity of two nations - the Czechs and the Slovaks. I never think of myself as Czech. I am Slovak and nothing else."- Rev. John Zornan, President of the Slovak Zion Synod, "What kind of man is Alex Del- National News, Pittsburgh, Pa., vecchio? (Playing for Detroit Red August 1, 1973. Wings.) He's middle aged, 41. A guy who you can't get in an "Despite the courage and per• argument with. His salt-and-pepper severance the Slovaks and other gray hair is impeccably coiffured peoples of Eastern Europe have around round Eastern European displayed time and again in their face (his late mother was a Slovak; relentless search for internal liberhis father Italian.)" - Bob Naylor, ties and external sovereignty, they Detroit Free Press, December 9, cannot achieve their goals without 1973. outside help. It is our duty, and only in keeping with our own "The idea of 'Slovak Heritage' is to extend our support. The ideals, quite intriguing to me. It implies world will not know genuine that we have one. Looking at hisevery country enjoys tory books, however, you might peace until freedom and can exercise the right have doubts. Even when discussing to self-determination. Central Europe, the Slovaks as a "The history of Slovakia is one nation are often forgotten or mis- "Call a Slovak Czechoslovak and you plant a burr under his skin. To a Slovak, named for a geograph• ic region divided by the wars and politics, that frequent error is more than just misnomer; it conveys a complete historical misunderstanding of who he is." - Sue Morse, The Herald Statesman, Yonkers, N. Y., November 30, 1973. �214 SLOVAKIA of turmoil, frustration, and heroic struggle. Your continued devotion to the cause of a free and independent Slovakia - despite hundreds of years of oppression - is an inspiration to those of us who cherish freedom as you do. These are the characteristics that help us, in maintaining a better and stronger America. "The existence of the World Congress is an important step in achieving your long delayed place among the family of the free naRobert P. Hanrahan, tions." Member of Congress. U.S. Senator Adlai E. Stevenson. "I am sure all of the American Slovaks sincerely wish to acknowledge the plight of their brethren under Communist oppression. The Slovak people strongly pursue the course that someday freedom will reign in all corners of the world. People of America need to be remainded of the severe repressing of Communist-held nations of the world endure." - U.S. Senator Hugh Scott. "Slovaks of Cleveland brought many Christmas customs from the old country, notably the custom of caroling. Among the most cherished Slovak folk songs are those sung at Christmas time. These carols are sung not only in churches, but also in the homes of the faithful, no matter how many generations they have lived here." - Sun Herald, Cleveland, 0., December 20, 1973. "We must re-dedicate ourselves to cause of all captives of Communism. Recognizing that the world cannot enjoy peace until all peoples are free from yoke of Communism. Please continue your dedication to the traditions, cultural life, religious beliefs, and desire for independence on behalf of Slo"There is a strong feeling of vak people everywhere."- Edward awareness among some ethnic J. Derwinski, Member of Congress. members of the younger generation. "I do want you to know I share There are also strong indications your commitment to the Slovak that the melting pot concept can people and to strengthening the no longer be maintained and that ties with their sons and daughters America is beginning to recognize throughout the world. I know we and appreciate the diversity of its will not falter in our efforts to ethnic populations in terms of a insure that no people need face re- new cultural pluralism."- Dr. Goy, pression and indignity as a result a member of City College's library of their yearning to be free." - faculty, New York, N. Y. �SLOVAKIA 215 -------------- WHO'S WHO Among American Slovaks JOSEPH C. K RAJ SA It was a mark of social maturity when the Chamber of Commerce of the Greater Harrisburg Area decided to have "Slovak power" for its presidency. Such is progress that it is hardly news anymore when a second-generation American of ethnic background and working-class origins becomes the leader of the town's top capitalists. Pardon us, Karl Marx. Joseph Charles Krajsa is the 60th president of the Harrisburg Chamber. He is so ethnic that more than half the Chamber's members can't pronounce his name correctly: It is "Crysa," and Anglicized it would mean "nicer." Well beyond his own physical size - 6-foot-1 and 240 pounds Krajsa is a big man. He was manager of the Allentown Finance Co. for 14 years, which is owned by his older brother, John. He has the equivalent of two college degrees and has a speaking knowledge of seven languages. He was an outstanding football, baseball and basketball coach for 11 years. And, lastly, he served as auditor and vice president of the First Catholic Slovak Union, and is now the editor of its bilingual weekly, Jednota, and manager of the Jednota home, farm and printery. Very much a Slovak as a warm convivial person, Krajsa also is a Rotarian, Elk, Legionaire and democrat. He once was a topflight golfer who won country-club trophies. "I find more businessmen in this Chamber, for example, wanting to be more human, wanting to share their good fortune," he said. "The single-minded emphasis on economics has diminished. A person must be involved politically, socially and religiously, as well as economically, to be well-rounded, and more and more businessmen understand that." Krajsa, 56, grew up in Allentown. His father was a wire-worker from Skalica in Slovakia and emigrated to America in 1906. Old Joe Krajsa married a girl living here, Agnes Baranek, a native of Horna Krupa, Slovakia. He built his own home and started a corner grocery. Everybody knew and loved the Krajsas. "Put it on the book," or "na knizku," they said as Father Krajsa had a credit book, so the neighborhood could have its groceries. One of the articles in Krajsa's published Furdek 1974 is entitled "Slovaks Are Lovers." The author asserts, "Slovak mothers can equally match the 'Good Jewish Mother' of book fame." A Slovak mother will say to her daughter, "Ja som t'a nevychovala, aby si behala za muzami," or "I didn'-t raise you to go chasing after men." Many Slovaks came to America between 1880 and 1920, with most of them settling here between 1900 and 1910. Thousands settled in Pennsylvania, and the men became the muscle of this commonwealth's steel, coal and railroading indus- �216 SLOVAKIA tries. Of Slovak descent are Astronaut Eugene A. Cernan, Penn State's great lineman, Mark Markovich; Will Hartack, Chuck Bednarik, Johnny Bucha and George Blanda. Stan Musial is half-Polish and half-Slovak. Blanda's mother is president of the Jednota lodge in Youngwood. There were 277 scattered Slovak fraternal organizations and widoworphan funds when in 1890 the Rev. Stephen Furdek, of Cleveland, organized the national union called Jednota (the word means union, or united). Nineteen years later the Middletown property of the aristocrat Simon Cameron Young was purchased for $38,000. What originally was 298 acres is now 255 acres, but worth well over one million dollars. The old orphanage, now phased out, cared for 4,000 children in its history. The newspaper Krajsa edits and writes for has a circulation of 40,000. Jednota also publishes 15 book titles annually. It is building a million dollar printery. Krajsa was elected editor for a three-year term in 1964, and he keeps being re-elected. He arrived in Middletown when Olmsted Air Force Base was closing, so immediately he plunged into civic activity. It got him involved in Chamber of Commerce work, and he did so well that the Chamber named him president last October. Krajsa had a typical Americanimmigrant family upbringing. He did well in his studies. He captained Allentown Central Catholic High School's basketball team, was center on the football team and pitched for the baseball team. He went on to East Stroudsburg State College, where he was a stellar athlete, and then was a Navy chief petty officer in World War II. After the war, he married Romanza Fairman, from Kansas City, and settled in Allentown. He put in 11 years at Central Catholic High lurning in several state championship teams and ending up as athletic director. Meanwhile, he was in the finance business, too. The Krajsas have four children: Joe, in insurance, Mike, administrative assistant in the Agriculture Department; Maryagnes, assistant to the Dauphin County Democratic chairman, and George, an athlete at Middletown High. Krajsa's desire for the Chamber of Commerce is a Slovak's wish for more unity, more strength of purpose and more aggressiveness for the community. "We can get unity and not take a thing away from anybody," he said looking toward the West Shore. He believes that the county line should be easier to cross than the ethnic line over which his presidency already has triumphed. Paul B. Beers, Associated Editor The Evening News Harrisburg, Pa. THE SLOVAK LEAGUE OF AMERICA heartily commends all efforts of our governmental and other organs to ferret out and unmask all Communists and fellow travellers, as well as all persons and organizations who wittingly or unwittingly give aid and comfort to the conspiracy of Communism promoted by the Soviet Union. �SLOVAKIA - 217 Book Reviews Books on Slovakia and Slovaks Reviewed by Prof. J. M. Kirschbaum writes about the Czech l.'esistance during the last years of the War. Three contributions deal with the Slovak problem. Hans Kaiser writes about integration of Slovakia into national socialist war economy; In this carefully edited volume, Ladislav Lipscher examines the in12 German scholars and specialists fluence of the Third Reich on the in Czecho-Slovak affairs analyze the policy of the Slovak government eventful year of 1945 in Czecho- with regard to the Jewish problem, Slovakia. Some of the contributors and Jorg K. Hoensch gives a generare known as experts in the prob- al survey of the situation in Slovalems of Eastern Europe. Others kia in 1945. specialized in the German-Czech The remaining contributions deal relations or in the Slovak problem. with the transfer of the Sudeten Since until recently the German Germans and its consequences (Pescholars avoided publishing the re- ter Burian); with rebuilding of the sults of their research on Czecho- Communist Party of Czecho-SlovaSlovakia, their views will be of lda in 1945 (Heinrich Kuhn); with interest for schoiars in the West. the constitutional problems in The volume gives a survey of Czecho-Slovakia in 1945 (Helmut international, national and socio- Slapnicka); and with the integraeconomic problems in Czecho-Slova- tion of the Sudeten German expelkia in 1945, but two contributions, lees in Germany. The book provides abundant inone by Ferdinand Seibt, and the other by Karl Bosl, outline the formation on each topic and referhistorical background of boundary ences to sources used indicate that problems and basic information on German scholars weve dealing with the division of Germany by the their subjects with great effort to present an objective picture of Allies. Further contributions deal with Czecho-Slovakia in 1945. Their Czecho-Slovakia itself during the views and conclusions will, thereWar and her l'estoration in 1945. fore, be at variance with some Peter Kruger gives a survey of the Western specialists in East Central views of the Allies on Czecho-Slo- ; Europe, including the emigre Czech vakia from the Atlantic Charter to j historians. Czecho-Slovakia has the Potsdam Conference; Martin K. been presented in the West during Bachstein outlines the policy of I the past decades with evident relithe social democratic exiles from ance on Czech sources and favoring Czecho-Slovakia and Detlef Brandes I the Czechs. Especially Slovakia was Karl Bosl: Das Jahr 1945 in der Tschechoslowakei, Vortrag,e der wissenschaftlichen Tagung des Collegium Carolinum, R. Oldenbourg, Mlinchen-Wien, 1971, 316 p. �218 SLOVAKIA treated with bias, mostly as a "postscriptum" to Czech history, and the cruel and often inhuman treatment of minorities or political adversaries was overlooked. German scholars endeavored to be factual and objective and since some of them were born or raised in Czecho-Slovakia, their knowledge of the prob!ems discussed in their contribution cannot be doubted. Nevertheless, they present a German view, because nobody can separate himself fr.om his own background and personal or national experience. · And the manner in which Prague solved the Sudeten German problem in 1945 was bound to create deep resentiment and animosity, which is not easy to overcome. Slovakia is treated in the book with more understanding and impa.rtiality than is the usual case in Western historiography; there is nevertheless certain bias in all three contributors "with regard to the Slovak republic, including the article ·by Jorg Hoensch. Hoensch published two well researched books on Slovakia in the past but, in many instances, adopted the Czech or the Slovak Marxist view of the wartime Slovakia. This also occurred in his present contribution which is well researched and refers also to Slovak emigre political literature. Nevertheless, some conclusions were made by Hoensch on assumptions and not on facts. For instance, his view that "the majority of the Slovak leading strata and, even more, the large masses of the population believed during the war that their social ,i nterest and political rights would be better preserved in the restored Czechoslovakia" and that the Slovak Republic "could not give proof -of its viability (Lebensfiihigkeit)" is a part of Czech and Communist propaganda which was recen_tly contradicted and abandoned even by Slovak Marxist historians (see books by L. Liptak and S. Falt'an). Likewise is disputable his statement that the "Slovak population accepted with equal passivity the introduction of the peoples democracy and the declaration of the Slovak Republic." The enthusiastic manifestations in Slovakia in 1939 can hardly be compared with the fear from rape, confiscation, deportation and hiding in cellars which ·could be witness in Slovakia ' during the first months of the restoration of Czecho-Slovakia. Also treated in the volume are two important problems for Slovakia during the war years: the integration of Slovakia into the German war economy and the policy of the Slovak government with regard to the Jewish problem. Hans Kaiser deals with the first topic and gives a well researched survey of the impact of Germany on Slovak economy, and of the pressures used by Berlin on the Slovak government. Kaiser's contribution is the first one in the West to deal expertly · with the subject. So far, only the Marxist historians or economists published studies on the economic situation in Slovakia during th e War and their approach was a priori hostile. The views of the members of the Slovak government and Slovak economists who did not side with the regime imposed upon Slovakia in 1945, are buried in the archives of the "people's courts" and only in part were published by Slovak emigre politicians and writers. The picture of Slovak :war economy presented by Kaiser cannot, therefore, be without flaws. It is, in any case, a useful basis for further research and full presentation of the economic development of Slovakia during the Second , World War. �SLOVAKIA · 219 The third contributio n dealing I Horst Glass!: Die slowakische Geschichtswis senschaft nach 1945 with Slovakia touches on the prob(Slovak Historiogra phy After !em which harmed Slovaks and 1945), Otto Harrassowi tz, Wies their reputation in the world, but baden, 1971, 166 pages, Register. the11e were only a few attempts to put the policy of the Slovak governThe author and the publisher of ment towa!'ds Jews into a proper this book deserve recognition for perspective. making available to Western scholars and students of history an Lipscher's contributio n analyzes objective survey of Slovak historithe influence of the Third Reich on ography after 1945. Except for that policy on the basis of G€rman short summaries in one or two archives and partly also on the foreign languages, writings of Slohave been published Slovak sources. In comparison vak historians 1945 exclusively in Slovak since with many articles published on and, as such, they have remained this subject in the West, Lipscher's inaccessible to most of foreign hiscontributio n is marked by an effort torians. Glassl's book provides at to present the policy of the Slovak least those Western historians who impartial governmen t more objectively and read German with an phy and historiogra Slovak at look with considerab le restraint from during blaming only the Slovak govern- its remarkable developme nt decades. two past the ment in harsh terms, as has been the case until now. Lipscher does The book is the result of a thornot make any reference to sources ough research in Slovakia itself. of Slovak emigre historians and The author compiled considerab le political writers who dealt with the knowledge of writings on Slovak subject and he recognized that the history by both the old traditionalproblem would require further ist and the recent Marxist historistudy. This indicates that he enIn his attempt to give an obans. deJvored to approach the problem pictul'e he points to the jective wi th impartiality and, as a result, and ideological interrestrictions his contributio n may be a beginwhich Slovak histounder ference ning of dealing with the tragedy or remain silent write to had rians of Jews in Slovakia with more "It lasted 1956. until 1948 after understand ing of the circumstan ces "before Glassl, says years," several and pressures under which the developthe that possible was it Slovaks could not save more Jewment of Slovak historiogra phy and ish citizens than they did. research could come up with noA complete review of this volume ticeable results. Under the pressure would, of course, require to deal of the circumstan ces in those years with all the other contributio ns (Slovak) histo1ians had to take into which give a survey of many prob- considerati on the political goals lems in the Czech part of Czecho- and requiremen ts. The Communist Slovakia, and analyze the relations Party which took over power in between Czechs and G€rmans in- Czecho-Slovakia required complete cluding the expulsion, often under re-writing of the whole historiinhuman circumstan ces, of the Su- ography acco11ding to Marxist crideten Germans. teria ... many historians were fired �220 SLOVAKIA from their positions, and some of works on Slovakia. The author made undoubtedly a very thorough th,em were even sent to jails." On the other hand, the author research into the writings and publications of Slovak historians and underlines that there was a remarkable development of Slovak produced a standard work on a historiography since the War either high academic level. in the number of books published or in the number of institutes and people involved in research. Unlike Marxist or some Western historians, Glass! also states that "during the period of the Slovak Republic (]939-1945) , there was a fruitful development in the field of historical research even though the war was not the right time for a successful build-up of this discipline." He considers it as wrong and unjust of the Marxist historians to belittle the results of this period in research into the history of Slovakia. Glass! also refers to the writings of Slovak scholars in Western countries but for some reason he became acquainted only with the works published by Prof. M. Lacko and with one book and one essay by this reviewer. Writings of other Slovak historians, especially those pertaining to the period of the 18th and 19th centuries, escaped the author, which is regrettable, because they shed a different light on Slovak national awakening from that of Marxist historiography. The book stops at the year 1918 and leaves out the past 60 years during which Slovakia, as well as Slovak historiography, experienced an unexpected development. The explanation for this is given by the author in the Preface by one sentence: "For understandable political reasons, the inclusion in this survey of the writings dealing exclusive,l y with the period 1918-1960 was abandoned." Even in the present form the book is a very valuable scholarly addition to the foreign language MORE ABOUT BOOKS Slov akia in the 19th and 20th Centuries, Edited by Prof. Joseph M. Kirschbaum ; Preface by S. B. Roman, published by the Slovak World Congress, Toronto, Ont. , 1973, 368 p., bibl., $12.50. The Slovak World Congress published for the General Meeting held in Chicago on June 28th-July 1st, 1973, another English book on Slovakia which deserves special attention. While the first publication by the Congress outlined the historical and cultural background of Slovakia, this new voluminous work will give the readers an insight into the political and literary developments in Slovakia in the 19th and 20th centuries. In his Preface to the book, the President of the Slovak World Congress, Stephen B. Roman, explains that the Slovak World Congress "undertook to publish this book with the desire to contribute to the search for historical truth about Slovaks and thereby to help better understanding and co-operation among the nations of Central Europe. It is our firm belief that peoples of that vital area can regain their political freedom and build their future only in close co-oper ation and only if each recognizes the equal rights to independence that each has." One cannot but agree with such aim and the contents of the book confirm that it was also the intention of the editor and contributors. The book is composed of contributions by 20 authors, four of �221 SLOVAKIA whom are of non-Slovak origin, and it is divided into four parts. The first part deals with Slovak national philosophy and the subject is treated by two known Slovak professors, Charles Murin from the University of Montreal, and Stefan Polakovic, former professor at the University of Bratislava. The second part deals with Slovak politics and culture in the 19th and 20th centuries and contains contributions by Prof. J. A. Mikus, Msgr. J. Rekem, Dr. Stefan Osusky, Prof. F . Vnuk, Dr. F. f>urcansky, Prof. E. Loebl, Prof. Stefan Glejdura, Dr. lmrich Kruzliak and Rev. Mikulas Sprinc. Part three deals with the relations of Slovakia with her neighbors and among the contributors are mostly authors of non-Slovak origin. On Slovakia under the Habsburg rule, an interesting survey was written by a members of the Jlabsburg dynasty, Archduke Robert of Austria while Slovak-Hungarian relations are treated by Prof. George Perenyi-Lukacs with comments by Dr. Arved Grebert and Prof. J . M. Kirschbaum. Prof. Thaddeus Gromada contributed an excellent essay on Slovak-Polish relations and Slovak-Russian relations are analyzed and evaluated by Prof. Stefan Glejdura and Miroslav Licko. Prof. Kurt Glaser, author of the book, Czecho-Slovakia - A Critical History, closed this chapter with a scholarly treatise on "National States Versus Federalism in Central European Future," commented upon by Prof J. A. Mikus and Prof. J. M. Kirschbaum. In the last part, the book deals with Slovaks abroad and their attitude towards Slovakia. It contains two essays, one by Dr. Joseph Pauro and another by Dr. F . Braxator. An extensive Select Bibliography on Slovakia completes the contents of this standard work. We cannot but welcome this new English book on Slovakia and Slovaks abroad. It fills an important gap which existed for a long time in presenting Slovakia's political and cultural development in the 19th and 20th centuries to the Western world in an objective manner. For the first time 20 experts are expressing their opinions on various subjects pertaining to Slovakia. They belong not only to two generations, as the editor of the book observed, but "also represent two schools of thought and, therefore, the book presents a confrontation of views on the Slovak p:i.st and present." In form and contents, the book is a scholarly work. The editor, Prof. J . M. Kirschbaum, took his task seriously and enhanced the volume by an extensive bibliography in several languages. He also paid tribute to American Slovaks by stating that "at the end of the First World War, Slovakia was freed from Hungarian rule above all by the efforts of Slovaks who settled in the United States and by Slovak legionaries fighting on the side of the victorious powers. This gave American Slovaks and all Slovaks abroad not only recognition and a new sense of patriotism but also a consciousness of their mission to speak on behalf of the Slovak people when they are silenced." It would be desirable that this volume be followed by a book on Slovak culture, especially arts and literature of the past two hundred years. A conference on these topics, at the next general meeting of the Congress could help to achieve this goal. Joseph P a u co �222 SLOVAKIA TWO PUBLICATIONS BY l\'lATICA SLOVENSKA Matica slovenska was degraded by the Communist regime and went through several periods of regimentation and persecution of her leading representatives and cultural workers. Independent of political pressure and refusing to serve political parties or ideologies, Matica slovenska was, before 1945, a cultural institution which belonged to the nation and represented the highest aspirations of all Slovaks. The Communist Party made Matica slovenska a subservient tool of the regimes imposed upon S'lovakia since 1945. In spite of this nefarious situation, Matica slovenska succeeded in developing Slovak culture at least in some sectors. Among these sectors, literary history and philology deserve our consideration. vakia from literary to musical. This was a neglected sector in the past mainly due to the lack of experts and, therefore, we have to welcome this publication. Of special interest for elucidating some periods of Slovak history is, however, the essay by Jozef Kuzmik : Book Culture Among the Slova/c Slavs in the Years 863-1000. The period of Great Moravia became a favored subject for Slovak intellectuals during the past two decades. In Kuzmik's contribution we find some interesting information about the territorial extent of the ancestors of today's Slovaks, as well as about their book culture which were in the past hardly known or were insufficiently explored. Unfortunately, the publication has only a Russian and German summary and, therefore, it is accessible to a very limited number For several years, Matica has of scholars in the Anglo-Saxon published a series of publications world where there are still many dealing with Slovak literary life misconceptions about the Slovak entitled:Letopis pamiitnika sloven- past. A new confusion was created s/cej literatury and Literarny ar- even recently by scholars of Magchiv. We have revi,ewed some issues yar background who tried to deny in the past in Slovakia, underlying the cultural heritage of the Great their significance for Slovak litera- Moravian period to Slovaks. Li t erarny archiv 8/ 71 is a valuture. We have now received Litercirny archiv 8/ 71, edited by Michal able source for literary history on Elias, and Letopis 19 72 , edited by several Slovak poets and writers Juraj Chovan-Rehak, and some not only of the 19th century but comments would perhaps be ap- also of the 20th century. The publication deals mostly with archive propriate. Letopis 1972 contains a number of materials, unknown manuscripts, or contributions dealing with various correspondence among leading Slosubjects from book culture (kniz- vak literary figures and cultural na kultura) among Slovak Slavs in workers. Even though the Commuthe years 863-1000 to several in- nist regime tried to regiment Sloteresting contributions on the de- vak literary history and endeavorvelopment of museums in Slovakia ed to impose Marxist criteria, Sloand the idiomatic vocabulary in vak intellectuals display more or the writing of Martin Kukucin. The less equal interest in the literary main part of the book is dedicated life of poets and writers who were to the history and development of I neglected in the past because of various types of museums in Slo- their religion or ideological orien- �SLOVAKIA 223 Literature, government, law, education, etc. Even though hardly complete, the Bibliography shows that Canadian Slavists were not idle during the twenty post-war years. In spite of the fact that Slavic studies had to start in Canada from scratch, the Bibliography contains many titles of books, essays, studies and articles, which have given Canadian students a new picture of the history, culture and civilization of the Slavic peoples. From the Slovak point of view, we have many reasons to welcome this Bibliography. Similar American or European bibliographies either overlooked books, publicaJ.M. Kirschbaum tions and essays on Slovak history, Daniel Dorotich (ed.) : A Bibliogra- Language and literature by Slovak phy of Canadian Slavists 1951- authors, or made selection of writ1971 , University of Saskatchewan ings which presented Slovakia and Publications, Saskatoon, Sask., Slovak culture in the light of ad1972. verse propaganda and Czech linAfter the Second World War, a guistic and literary theses. The misnumber of Canadian universities conceptions about the Slovak people added to their usual curricular and their culture were cultivated courses on Slavic languages, litera- especially by the older generations ture and civilization. At some uni- of Slavists who studied at the Universities special Centres or Depart- versity of Prague and use as their ments of Slavic Studies were organ- source of information books pubized, while at other universities lished by Czech scholars before Slavic languages, literature and and during the Second World War. The new generation of Slavists history were taught within Departm ents of Modern Languages and at American and Canadian univerLiteratures and in History Depart- sities gradually detached itself from the old school. Using source ments. In Canada, professors of Slavic materials published in today's Slostudies were soon organized in the vakia and other socialist countries Ca nadian Association of Slavists ' as well as in Western countries' which held every year an annual they have no more any doubt that meeting within the framework of Slovaks are a distinct nation and Canadian Learned Societies. The their language and literature have present Bibliography gives an in- developed independently of the sight into the writings and pub- Czechs or other Slavs. The Bibliography compiled and lications of the members of the edited by Prof. Dorotich reflects Association. Prof. Dorotich, in compiling and this new trend in Slavic studies editing the Bibliography, followed with regard to Slovakia. By inlhe •usual division of subject mat- eluding over 50 titles (books, monoters _into general history, languages, graphs, essays, articles) published talion and those who were closer to the socialist outlook. As a result, Literarny archiv contains interesting information on Bernolak, Stur, Vajansky and Radlinsky, as well as on Janko Kral', Roy, Hamuljak and others. It is regrettable that also in this publication the summary is only in Russian and German. For Slovak literary history, both publications are nevertheless of importance and unveil to a great degree some periods of Slovak cultural development which were intentionally neglected before 1938 as well as during the Stalinist period. �224 SLOVAKIA by Prof. J . M. Kirschbaum in five languages, the Bibliography presents a new picture of Slovak history, culture, language and literature. Not only the main works on Slovakia in English are recorded, but also one book published in Slovak, monographs and essays in French, English, German and Spanish. In fact, the Bibliography is more complete in this respect that the Slovak Bibliography Abroad compiled by Prof. M. Lacko and published by the Slovak Institute (Rome, 1967). Since the Bibliography will go into the hands of many Slavists and into university libraries, we welcome this publication as a very useful guide for students and professors of Slavic studies. Joseph Pauco Joseph Pauco: Slovenski priekopnici v Amerike (Slovak Pioneers in America), The First Catholic Slovak Union, Cleveland, Ohio, 1972, English Introduction by J. C. Krajsa, Ill., 360 pages. Slovaks in the United States played an important role in the history of the Slovak people, but a complete story of their endeavors on behalf of Slovakia, their struggle for preserving national consciousness and cultural heritage has not yet been published. Due to political circumstances in Slovakia, historians either were not allowed or had no possibility to carry out research in order to compile a standard work which would present Slovaks in the United States in an objective light. It was only during the Second World War that two volumes: Dejiny Slovakov v Amerike (History of Slovaks in America) by Konstantin Culen were published in Slovakia. Since that time, only Slovak exiled intellectuals, including Culen, carried out a research and published monographs on the life and achievements of the large Slovak ethnic group in the United States. Historians in Slovakia were either not allowed by ,t he Communist regime or for ideological reasons avoided recording their struggle for survival and the many contributions of American Slovaks not only to their own national life but also to the fight for freedom and independence of the Slovak people. After Prof. F . Hrusovsky and K. Culen, Dr. Joseph Pauco deserves main credit for systematic research into the past and present of American Slovaks. For the past 20 years he published monographs on individual Slovak leaders and organizations of which the voluminous history of the First Catholic Slovak union deserves particular mention. In the present book he deals with 55 outstanding Slovak leaders who did the pioneering organizational, cultural and religious work among American Slovaks. The importance of this book should be, however, measured not only according to its literary value, but also against the fact that there are no organized archives and many printed documents are perishing. In spite of this, Dr. Pauco gathered many valuable facts about the individual leaders among whom there are clergymen of both denominations - Catholic and Lutheran - outstanding organizers of Slovak fraternal and cultural life, men and women of great dedication to the cause of preservation of Slovak cultural heritage. The author approached his subjects with great abjectivity and painted their profiles in a fluent, uncomplicated style to make the book readab1e to the general public and, at the same time, by many references to printed sources, useful to historians and researchers. �SLOVAKIA Some of the chapters are shorter and contain only the most important data. Others present a full life story and evaluation of the activities and of the role the individual leaders played in the Slovak organizational, religious and cultural life in America. The reason for the uneven treatment of some pioneers was given by the author in the introduction to the book. As he says he was sometimes unable to gather, even the most neces~ary information, because there was no organization and no individuals in the past who would have preserved old newpapers, almanacs, minutes of meetings, or other archive materials. Since the Second World War the Slovak Institute in Cleveland and the recently organized Jankola Library have made an effort to gather and preserve archive materials pertaining to the Slovak ethnic group in the United States. In these circumstances, Pauco's present work, as well as his book on the First Catholic Slovak Union and numerous monographs, deserve special recognition. The book has, however, also its own value due to its composition, contents and style. Dr. Pauco produced a standard work comparable with writings of this kind on any other ethnic groups in America. The book also has a useful introduction by Joseph C. Krajsa, but it lack an English summary which would have given to the younger generations of American Slovaks and researchers at least the basic information on Slovak pioneers in America. Unless the author and the publisher intend to publish this work in English, it would be a useful thing to attach to the second edition an extensive English summary. J. M. Ki rs c h b au m 225 Joseph L. Dieska: "Faith and Reason" in the Life and Philosophy of Jacques Maritain, An Offprint from Most, Vol. XIX, No. 3-4, Cleveland, Ohio, 1973. Shortly before the death of the famous French philosopher, Jacques Maritain, Slovaks paid his tribute on the occasion of his 90th birthday in a commemorative study by Prof. Joseph L. Dieska under the title The Religious and Philo sophical Profile of Jacques Maritain. The scholarly essay was pub- lished in Slovak but the author prepared also an English version under the above title. Prof. Dieska was one of the known adherents of Maritain's philosophy already in Slovakia, and pursued his interests in the great Catholic philosopher's concepts also as Professor of Philosophy at the University of Dayton, Ohio, where he has taught for the past several years. The present essay is one of his numerous articles on the subjects. The Slovak and English texts contain a well written and well documented insight and analysis of Maritain's religious and philosophical profile. Dieska approached Maritain's philosophy from the position of "Faith and Reason" and explains the role of reason as well as the mystery of faith in Maritain's philosophy which became a part of the Catholic doctrine and influenced the thinking of several generations in Europe and elsewhere. His theories of creative evolution and his ability to find basic reality through intuition ,e xalted the spirit of man in many parts of the world. Known as neo-Thomism Maritain's philosophy anchors in the works and philosophical concepts of St. Thomas Aquinas. As Dieska explains, Maritain became adherent to the philosophy of St. Thomas as a result of his own independent reflections and �226 SLOVAKIA studies of various philosophers and ing tribute to Maritain also on because of the comparison he made behalf of Slovak intellectuals who between them. He found the truth are silenced in their native counhe was searching for in the an- try where Maritain's philosophy had a strong influence before Marxswers of St. Thomas. However, if it is true that Mari- ism was imposed as the only philotain followed the logic and argu- sophical concept tolerated by the mentation of St. Thomas, he put regime. J. M. Ki rs c h b au m both, in the view of Prof. Dieska, in a " new, modern, and contemporary setting. His language was ad- Encydopedic Directory of Ethnic Newspapers and P eriodicals in justed to the philosophical expresthe United States. By Lubomyr sions used today. His arguments R. Wynar. 260 pp. Libraries Unare aimed at and against modern limited, Inc., Littleton, Colorado, and recent objectors and critics. 1972. $12.50. And above all, when he speaks of For those interested in ethnic the necessity of taking faith and supernatural, revealed truths into studies a valuable tool has recentconsiderations while solving the ly been published to aid in learning political, social, ethical and estheti- 1 about the complex mosaic that is cal difficulties and 'crises' of our ' the United States of America. time, Maritain must transcend Tho- Whereas in the past the student mas and go much farther not, of of ethnic Americana had to wade course, in essential immutable, and through Ulrich's directories, or universally valid principles but in through state manuals, or specialtheir applications to the new, dif- ized histories, facility in locating Icrent and more complex situations data about 903 ethnic publications and issues. In these new approach- can now be had by utilizing Luboes lie the tremendous responsibility myr R. Wynar's Encyclopedic Diand significance of Maritain's Tho- rectory of Ethnic Newspapers and mistic solutions, proposals and Periodicals in the United States. often even sharp and merciless Included in this directory are escriticisms of the 'evils of time'"- scntials about 53 ethnic presses, ranging from the Albanian Press, concludes Dieska. As St. Thomas had found in Assyrian Press, Italian Press, JaAristotle a philosophical basis for panese Pr,ess, Slovak Press, Ukrainreconciling man's reason and ian Press, etc. , to some not poChristian faith, so Maritain, in half pular enough presses such as the a lifetime of philosophical study, Cossack, Cax,patho-Ruthenian, Flembrought a rejuvenated Thomism ish, Swiss, and Welsh. In cases such as Croatian, Sloveinto a modern age of scepticism and science. After the Second nian, and Serbian, there is a generWorld War, Maritain's vision and al heading as Yugoslav, which in philosophy helped lend strength effect increases the number of also to the whole Christian demo- presses substantially beyond the cratic movement which stood as a figure of 53. Data cited for pub1.Julwark against Communism and lications are: title translations, year founded, complete address to the Catholic Church. The author and the editor of (including ZIP), name of editor, Most deserve recognition for pub- language(s) , sponsor, circulation, Jishing both versions and for pay- frequency of publication, and sub- �SLOVAKIA scription rate. In additions commentaries aid in explaining the scope of publications., e.g., the following for "The Handbook Ilbo'' (The Korea Times): "This publication, the only Korean daily in the United States, carries international, national, and local news of interest of the Korean community. Jllustrated. " Professor Wynar of Kent State University, both a librarian and an ethnic specialist, includes a very interesting Appendix of Statistical Analysis for each ethnic group, summarizing the number of publications, weekly circulation totals, monthly circulation totals, totals for native language publications, bi-lingual totals, and English language totals. An index to the publications completes the book. An interesting addendum to the book would have been an analysis of ethnic publications in each of the fifty states. This directory truly is the first comprehensive annotated guide to the current ethnic press in the United States and with its clear type and excellent alphabetical format clearly rates an A. Paul F e n c h a k Panorama: A H i storical Review of the Czechs and Slovaks i n the United States of America. Pub- lished by the Czechoslovak National Council of America, Cicero, Ill., U.S.A. Cicero-Berwyn Press, 1970, pp. 328, index. It is quite evident that there exists today in America a need for authorative works on the histories of the various ethnic groups which have contributed to the development of America. Objective, factual and concise histories of the various groups is essential. This volume of the dual histories of the Czech 227 and Slovak immigrations to America, unfortunately from a viewpoint of abjective Slovak history, seems to lack sufficient factual data to be accepted as a history of the Slovak immigration to America. From the standpoint of the history of the Czech immigration it is factu al, unbiased history but even then much is amiss particularly in the area of the religious development of the Czech community in the United States. Two basic criticisms can be found in the basic format of the work. The single most important error in the work is the fact that the various writers of Slovak topics are weak in objective reporting, so necessary in a historical work of this kind . Unfortunately the writers, who are of the " Czechoslovak" philosophical persuasion, would wa nt the reader to actually believe that only those Slovak organizations which support that philosophy have contributed to the development of the Slovak American community. In fact it must be remembered that over eighty per cent of the organized Slovak American community does not support the '· Czechoslovak" philosophy but ra ther a distinct Slovak philosophy within the family of nations. The authors seem to infer that the staunch Catholic mass of Slovak immigrants contributed little if anything at all to the development of the Slovak community in Am erica. It appears that such notables as Father Stephen Furdek, founder of the First Catholic Slovak Union, the co-founder of the First Catholic Slovak Ladies. Association and the founder of the Slovak League of America played a very minor role in the development of the Slovak community. Other prominent leaders such as Father Matthew Jankola, Joseph Rusek, �228 SLOVAKIA Anna Hurban and Philip Hrobak are not even mentioned. The second most important ingredient which is lacking in this work is organization. Various bits and pieces are scattered throughout the work on both the Czech and Slovak development in America and from an academic journalistic point of view it is quite primitive in its presentation. Too many writers cover certain geographical areas of the Slovak immigration but much is ignored and almost always repetitious. Too often the writers are offering opinionated biased reporting which is not acc-eptable by the vast majority of the Slovak community today. There exists a certain disorganization present in the work and most often it effects an objective Slovak history. In one area in particular the work is both factually deficient and openly opinionated, that is the area of the Slovak organization" in the United States. Such organizations as "Catholic Slovak Unity, Catholic Slovak Women's Unity. Unity of Catholic Sokols" are not acceptable as Slovak organizations, as such do not exist. Again faulty research is evidenced in the presentation of Slovak organizations. One area lists "all" the Czech and Slovak organizations in America and the largest and most important Slovak societies are not listed. Subjective reporting would lead one to believe that indeed the Slovak Gymnastic Union Sokol is the most importa nt and influential organization of Americans of Slovak descent. However factual research will reveal to the alert writer that in fact the above named organization has a membership of less than 24,000 while the First Catholic Slovak Union, the First Catholic Slovak Ladies Association, the Slovak Catholic Sokol, the Pennsyl- vania Slovak Catholic Union, the Ladies Pennsylvania Slovak Catholic Union and the First Slovak Wreath of the Free Eagle have a combined membership of over 300,000. The informed reader will at once note that Sokol U.S.A., as it is commonly associated and pubblicised in the America press is of the "Czechoslovak" philosophical persuasion while the other Catholic Slovak organizations representing the overwhelming majority of organized Americans of Slovak descent are not of the appendage philosophy but rather support a distinct Slovak path completely free of Czech domination. Another noteworthy fact is that the Sokol U.S.A. is the only Slovak organization of any magnitude which is a member of the Czechoslovak National Council of America. Included in the work is a Who's Who among Americans of Czech and Slovak ancestry. Again only those Slovaks who support the idea of a "Czechoslovak" culture, language and heritage are included. Not only are the above mentioned Slovaks notably absent but such luminary as Bishop Andrew G. Grutka, D.D., the Roman Catholic Bishop of Gary, Indiana and countless others who have contributed to the growth and development of the Slovak American Community. In the final analysis the work offers little insight into the history and development of the Slovaks in America. The history of the Czechs in America is acceptable but no t commendable since again the underlining theme is to discredit any theistic organizational development. The work in general is primitive in the Slovak sense and therefore can not be accepted as a factual history of the Slovaks in America. This work is a prime example of Czech and "Czechoslovak" chauvin- �SLOVAKIA 229 ism in the interpretation of Slovak suring Czech hegemony in CzechoSlovakia, regardless of the fact history. Daniel F. Tanzone that the Communist movement is discredited by their policy. In some Eugen Steiner: The Slovak Dilem- ways Czech Communists resemble ma, Cambridge, at the University to Czech non-Communists or antiPress, 1973, 229 pages. Series Communists who used and still are International Studies, Published using democracy, socialism, liberalfor the Centre for International ism or Catholicism for imposing or Studies, London School of Eco- maintaining Czech hegemony over nomics and Political Sciences. others, especially Slovaks. The situation in Czecho-Slovakia between inthe in writes author the As troduction his aim was "to trace 1918-1938 attests to it sufficiently. the Communist attitude to national- The policy of Prague Governments ism, and to define the effects of from 1918 to this day proved that this attitude as far as the Slovaks Czechs are not capable to fulfill the arc concerned." Or in other words mission which the victorious Powhe "deals in microcosm with a ers entrusted to them in 1918 or major problem which lies at the again in 1945. Czecho-Slovalda did heart of the Soviet Union's policies, not become a barrier against German expansion or a bridge between internal and external." (p. 3) and West. Czech governments East Dr. Steiner uses the case of Slovakia to show how Communism forced into opposition against the fa iled to solve nationality problems. European block which created Not only in the Soviet Union was Czecho-Slovakia, not only the mithis problem hidden behind slogans norities but also Slovaks. Czech on the equality of nations, while politicians did not honor any agreethe Russians are the rulers, but ment, promise or pledge given to also in restored and by Communists Slovaks. They practiced such a policy regoverned Czecho-Slovakia. Steiner's book leaves no doubt that the Marx- gardless of the danger for the Leninist thesis on the problems of existence of the state or the misnationalities did not bring a satis- sion Czecho-Slovakia was to fulfill factory solution to the relations according to its friends and creabetween the Czechs and Slovaks; tors. After occupying Slovakia with on the contrary, since 1945 when the help of French and Italian Czecho-Slovakia was restored (a- military units in 1918, and with the gainst the will of majority of Slo- help of the Soviet armies in 1945, vaks) the Czech rule was imposed they disregarded their promises on Slovaks step by step, brutally and the rights of Slovaks to selfand without regard to promises and government. About the period of agreements. Up to 1948, the Czech 1918-1938 there is in Western lanCommunists found accomplices in guages comparatively large literanon-Communists. After 1948, they ture dealing with this subject. The imposed their rule on Slovaks with book by Dr. Steiner gives to Westthe help of a handful of collabora- ern readers sufficient information tors from Slovakia, mostly of non- and documentary evidence for the Slovak origin (Bacilek, Bil'ak, Mos- period of 1945-1968. Dr. Steiner writes in the introkovic, Daubner, Siroky and others). Czech Communists are using Com- duction to his book that he has munism as an instrument for as- "chosen exile as a Jew, as a Com- �230 SLOVAK.IA On the cover of Steiner's book munist and as a Slovak." He wrote his book from this point of view, there are reproductions of pictures which makes his work more inter- from demonstrations of Slovak esting and more valuable. It is a youth in Bratislava against the testimony of a "Jew, Communist Soviet occupation in August 1968. and Slovak" about the political On the posters we can read: "Slodevelopments in Slovakia in this vaks stand firm, they won't pass! Occupa nts go home!" These slogans century. His background and ideological o- express the feelings of Slovaks in rientation explain to a great degree Slovakia as well as abroad not only not only his favorable attitude to- against the So·,iet occupants, but wards regimes in 1918-1938 (though any occupants, including the Czechs. Czech Statistics can easily prove This conclusion can be found, if the opposite) but his negative stand carefully read, also in Dr. Steiner's towards the Slovak republic of book: The Slovak Dilemma. Dr. A. Gr eb er t, 1939-1945 as well. We understand Geneva, Switzerland that the anti-communist and antijewish measures of the Slovak Government could not meet with Slovak Studies, Historica 7 and 8, Vol. X and XI, Slovak Institute, his approval. It is, however, hard Rome-Cleveland, Editor Prof. M. to understand his attitude towards Lacko, S. J . Dr. Benes and his Government-inBoth volumes of Slovak Studies exile. Even such adherents of "Czechoslovakism" as were Dr. M. deal with history of Slovakia and Hodfu and Dr. S. Osusky disagreed except for the contribution by Dr. and at the end fought against Be- S. Nahalka, with the events of our nes and his anti-Slovak policy which century. Since the Marxist historihe later (after 1945) also practiced ans not only avoid certain subjects in co-operation with Czech Commu- but also write with prejudice and nists and non-Communists. Unfor- strictly from the Marxist point of tunately, Dr. Steiner deals with view, these volumes perform specific this rather superficially and un- role in historiography on Slovakia. convincingly. The post-war develop- In addition, their value is enhanced ments in Czecho-Slovakia prove by the fact that they are published that the Slovak-Czech antagonism in foreign language and two of the is not a matter of temporary politi - contributors were educated abroad. Students of modern Slovak hiscal situation but a fundamental and lasting feature of Slovak-Czech tory will welcome especially the relations. It is impossible to solve Ph.D. thesis by Sister M. E. Lubek, this problem within the "Czecho- "An Inquiry into the United States Slovak" framework. The successive _ Czechoslovak Relations between a_bolition, ~~er 1969, _of C~nstitu- I 1918-1948." There were many myths t10nal prov1S1ons dealing with the published on this subjects, but to federalization of Czecho-Slovakia, my knowledge, no scholarly work. mentioned in Dr. Steiner's book, Some years ago Prof. M. Mamatey prove convincingly the validity of shed some light on the period of the First World War, later years the above conclusions. In spite of some shortcomings, Dr. remained, however, unresearched. Steiner's book is a valuable contri- Yet, this is an interesting topic, bution to the historiography on since the United States played an important role in the emergence Eastern Europe. �231 SLOVAKIA of Czecho-Slovakia in 1918 and in her re-emergence in 1945. Needless to say that the treatise by M. E. Lubek does not cover all the aspects of the inter-state relations, remaining mostly in the field of politics and diplomacy. The study is nevertheless of the importance and will be useful for further research. For foreign historians dealing with Slovakia of special interest will also be the contributions by Prof. M. S. :l'.>urica, who researched Italian Military Documents in order to shed a new light on the tragic death of M. R. Stefanik, one of the founders of Czecho-Slovakia, and German biography of President Dr. J. Tiso by F. H. Schneider. We commented on the value of Prof. Durica's study when it was first published in Italian language (Slovalcia, Vol. XXIII, 1973) , and cannot but welcome the English version. Schneider's essay on the life and historical role of Dr. J . Tiso in Slovak politics is of importance for more than one reason. The adversaries of Slovak aspirations for independence - Communists and non-Communists - succeeded in presenting Dr. Tiso and his policies in Western countries in a distorted light. Even though, Dr. Tiso mostly suffered for his forced cooperation with Germany, there was a long silence about him and Slovakia among German historians. Schneider's contribution does not exhaust the subject and shows gaps, but it was high time to draw a little differe nt picture of President Tiso in ♦ ♦ German language than it was done by Prague and Slovak Communists. Unfortunately, Schneider overlooked some books and articles which contain substantial information on Dr. Tiso's life and politics, such as Prof. Murin's articles, one of Dr. Polakovic's books, many articles in Sl.ovakia and other sources. Dr. S. Nahalka's istructive article on "Holy Scripture among Slovaks" is a valuable contribution to the religious and cultural history of Slovaks. Religious history of Slovakia is one of the completely neglected fields in today's historiography in Slovakia, even though Slova ks survived as a nation mostly due to the fact that clergy (Catholic and Protestant) took over the cultural leadership and national struggle. Professor Lacko in his contributions presents the synthesis of the studies on Great-Moravian and Cyrillo-Methodian period and a survey of events which led to the reestablishment of the Greek-Catholic Church in Slovakia. The latter study would deserve to be completed by documents and names of people who in Slovakia and abroad helped the re-establishment. Both contributions are timely and instructive. Prof. Lacko deserves recognition also for his efforts to continue publishing the Slovak Studies. Slovak cultural activities abroad would be much poorer without this series. J. M. Ki rs c h b au m ♦ Life Membership in the Slovak League of America is $100.00 - join us! Write to: Slovak League of America, 313 Ridge Avenue, Middletown, Pa. 17057. �SLOVAKlA 232 Our Contributor s theologian, author, Cambridge, Ontario Stephen Sencik, S.J. - Anthony X. Sutherland, Ph.D ., Columbus, Ohio Sr. Martina Tybor, SS.C.M. - author, Director, Slovak Institute, Cleveland, 0 . Andrew Pier, O.S.B. Joseph C. Krajsa - teacher, author, Danville, Pa. Editor, Jednota, Middletown, Pa. industrialist, Toronto, Ontario Stephen B. Roman - attorney-at-law, Stratford, Conn. Edward J. Behuncik - Joseph M. Kirschbaum, LL.D., Ph.D . Jozef Pauco, Ph.D. - historian, author, Toronto, Ont. author, historian, Middletown, Pa. Michael O'Pake, Esq. - State Senator, Reading, Pa. Daniel F. Tanzone, M.A. - teacher, Yonkers, N. Y. Susan Pojer, B.A., Yonkers, N. Y. professor, author, consultant for Rockefeller Foundation, New York, N. Y. Michael Novak, Ph.D. Paul Fenchak - teacher, Baltimore, Md. Steven I. Miller, Ph.D. - assistant professor, Loyola University, Chicago, Illinois Junior history major, Susquehanna University, Selinsgrove, Pa. William Wagner Francis Vnuk - historian; professor, Institute of Technology, Adelaide, Australia Dr. Arved Grebert - former Slovak diplomat, now in Switzerland Jane Noonan, Marlene Bartos, Stephen J. Knoblock - America Scholarship Winners Slovak League of �OFFICERS OF THE SLOVAK LEAGUE OF AMERICA Honorary President : EDWARD J. BEHUNCIK President 2385 Main Street Stratford, Conn. 06497 Stephen J. Tkach , DR. JOSEPH PAUCO Secretary 313 Ridge Avenue Middletown, Pa. 17057 Vice Presidents: Milan V. Blazek, Stephen Suhajcik, Mary Piroch ' Executive Committee : Edward J. Behuncik, John A. Holy, Paul C. Kazimer, Tibor Kovalovsky, Joseph R. Kristotik, Dr. Joseph Pauco, John A. Sabol SLOVAK FRATERNAL ORGANIZATIONS (Affiliated with the Slovak League of America) THE FIRST CATHOLIC SLOVAK UNION Cleveland, Ohio - Membership: 104,500 ·-:i THE FIRST CATHOLIC SLOVAK LADIES ASSOCIATION Cleveland, Ohio .;_ Membership: 96,000 THE SLOVAK CATHOLIC SOKOL Passaic, N. J. - Membership: 53,000 PENNSYLVANIA SLOVAK CATHOLIC UNION Wilkes-Barre, Pa: - Membership: 18,000 LADIES PENNSYLVANIA SLOVAK CATHOLIC UNION Wilkes-Barre, Pa. - Membership: 16,500 SLOVAK NEWSPAPER'S JOURNALISTS' ASSOCI.A.TION (Affiliated with the Slovak League of America) SLOVAK NEWSPAPERS (Affiliated with the Slovak League of Americ,a) BRATSTVO Wilkes-Barre, Pa. SLOVAK V AMERIKE Middletown, Pa. JEDNOTA Middletown, Pa. ZENSKA JEDNOTA Cleveland, Ohio KATOLICKY SOKOL Passaic, N. J. ZORNICK_A Wilkes-Barre, Pa. SLOVAKIA $4.00 per annum in the U.S.A. - $5.00 elsewhere PRINTED IN THE U.S.A. JEDNOTA PRESS Middletown, Pennsylvania 17057 � 210 SLOVAKIA CURRENT ISSUES RESOLUTIONS ADOPTED AT CONFERENCE OF THE SLOVAK LEAGUE OF AMERICA IN NEW YORK CITY, MAY 19, 1973 Your Holiness: In the name of more than 350,000 American-Slovaks, the greater majority Catholic, and supporting the Slovak League of America and its cultural and civic programs, we extend cordial greetings. We appreciate your efforts and dedication to obtain equal rights for all Catholics and to continue the ecumenical co-operation with all Christians and believers throughout the whole world. We also present to you a petition asking that you give particular attention to the land of our forefathers-Slovakia -cradle in 833 of Christianity in Central Europe and ever devotedly loyal to the Holy See. Notwithstanding this historic fact, Slovakia, oppressed by the atheistic Soviet regime in civil affairs, lacks, in the spiritual domain, its own province, does not have a single archbishop and for so long a time, no Slovak has achieved cardinalhood. Of course, Slovak Catholics share their sufferings with their Lutheran and Greek Catholic brethren. We respectfully suggest that Slovakia be accorded similar recognition as Bohemia, Moravia, Slovenia, Croatia and many other countries in Africa and Asia. We are confident that among dedicated and oppressed Slovak clergy can be found an archbishop to lead a Slovak ;irovince as in days gone by. Such a magnanimous gesture would invigorate all Slovaks at home as well as here in America. We believe that your Holiness by such a decision will strengthen us and thus fortify our fidelity to the Vatican and reverence to the throne of St. Peter. Very respectfully and sincerely, Edward J. Behuncik, President Dr. Joseph Pauco, Secretary Dear Mr. President: The Slovak League of America on the occasion of its 1973 Conference here in New York extends cordial greetings. We hope you will continue to enjoy good health and achieve even greater success in your efforts on behalf of all citizens of whatever origin. We unequivocally endorse your stand in Vietnam and welcome your policy in Europe and Asia. As you are well aware, our origins are in Central Europe, in �SLOVAKIA 211 Slovakia, which has a more than 1100 year Christian history and which for many centuries, excepting a brief period, has lived in subjugation. Now, Slovakia is in its fifth year of Soviet occupation and deprivation by the communists of all human, spiritual and political rights. So, today, we again respectfully request that you, individually as our leader, as well as your entire administration, continue to remember Slovakia and the other oppressed nations behind the Iron Curtain. All thes•e subjugated peoples seek and des·erve statehood and democratic freedom such as we in the United States are so fortunate to enjoy. In your discussions with the leaders of the totalitarian world, we ask that you give high priority to this humane cause. W!! are confident that if permitted free elections, our brethren in Slovakia would officially confirm their dedication and devotion to the United States of America as the stalwart guardian of human freedoms . Most Sincerely, Edward J. Behuncik, President Dr. Joseph Pauco, Secretary DECLARATION ADOPTED AT THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF THE SLOVAK WORLD CONGRESS HELD IN CHICAGO ON JUNE 30TH 1973 The representatives of Slovaks abroad gathered at the General Assembly of the Slovak World Congress, held in Chicago on June 28-30th, 1973, adopted the following Declaration: (1) We consider ourselves an integral part of the Slovak people. We are conscious of our co-responsibility for their destiny and for their contribution to the overall culture of humanity. (2) We claim for the Slovak nation, on the basis of its national individuality, recognition for an equal status with other sovereign nations of the world. (3) We deny any Great Power the right to interfere with the destiny of the Slovak people and to integrate Slovakia in other states or zones of influence which are opposed to the will of the Slovak people and their national interests. We consider such actions, condemned as they are by all civilized people of the world, to be a violation of the Charter of the United Nations. (4) We demand the departure of all occupation forces from Central Europe in order that, after more than a quarter �212 SLOVAKIA of a century since the end of the War, the nations of that area can finally govern themselves. (5) As representatives of a nation conscious of its responsibility towards others, we consider the principles of democracy and humanism the basis for peace and co-operation among the peoples of the world. (6) On these principles alone, life in freedom and a free culture can develop in Slovakia according to the traditions of the Slovak people and in harmony with the progress of the world. PHILIP A. HROBAK YEAR January 10, 1974 marked the tenth anniversary of the death of Philip A. Hrobak, and on May 1, 1974 we will mark the seventieth anniversary of his birth. These special dates impel us to honor his memory in a special way. He was one of the most deserving of our cultural and civic workers from among the many American-born Slovaks and one who dedicated himself to the Slovak cause since early manhoJd. Philip A. Hrobak, as a newspaperman, writer, histocian, linguist, fraternalist and organizer rose to heights in American Slovak life. His contributions to the Slovak cause in both English and Slovak are most noteworthy and memorable in Slovak history. Therefore, the Slovak League of America deems it a special honor to be able to lend itself to the legacy of Philip A. Hrobak. Not only did he honorably serve as a long time editor of JEDNOTA, as the founder and editor of "Slovak Newsletters," "Jednota Annual Furdek" and "Slo·v akia", but also as a distinguished President and member of the Executive Committee of the Slovak League of America-all this is his eternal monument. Bowing before his genius, we turn to our Slovak people and we seek recognition in 1974 of the unfinished dreams of Philip A. Hrobak and so-licit continued help in proving that we i>..re all worthy followers of this g,r eat son of our people. For the Slovak League of America, the year 1974 will be the time of increased activity, as he idealized and set by his example. In tribute to his linguistic talents, we can have the opportunity to help build a strong scholarship fund for the League, because the main purpose of this fund is to preserve and enhance, as he desired, the Slovak conscience in America. Surely, there cannot be any American Slovak who would not make his or her contribution to our scholarship fund in memory of Philip .A. Hirobak. The Slovak League of America also feels compelled to follow the �SLOVAKIA 213 footsteps of Philip A. Hrobak in other fields. In the firat place, we must preserve and continue with the annual "Slovakia", we must daily and fairly continue to inform the American public of the ideals and accomplishments of the American Slovaks, and we must continue our cl-forts to renew the rightful place of the Slovak nation as an independent unit in the family of nations. These were the goals of Philip A. Hrobak, and our Slovak League has so proceeded in the last ten years since we with heavy hearts bid a sad farewell to our never-forgotten leader. With prayer, with labor, and with sacrifices we thus honor this meritocious Slovak son. May the memory of Philip A. Hrobak be perpetual. Edward J. Behuncik, President Dr. Joseph Pauco, Secretary As the others see it represented. What to me is more worse, is the attempt to sublimate the Slovaks into the Czech people. That's why we hear about a 'Czechoslovak nation'. It does not exists! Czecho-Slovakia is a political entity of two nations - the Czechs and the Slovaks. I never think of myself as Czech. I am Slovak and nothing else."- Rev. John Zornan, President of the Slovak Zion Synod, "What kind of man is Alex Del- National News, Pittsburgh, Pa., vecchio? (Playing for Detroit Red August 1, 1973. Wings.) He's middle aged, 41. A guy who you can't get in an "Despite the courage and per• argument with. His salt-and-pepper severance the Slovaks and other gray hair is impeccably coiffured peoples of Eastern Europe have around round Eastern European displayed time and again in their face (his late mother was a Slovak; relentless search for internal liberhis father Italian.)" - Bob Naylor, ties and external sovereignty, they Detroit Free Press, December 9, cannot achieve their goals without 1973. outside help. It is our duty, and only in keeping with our own "The idea of 'Slovak Heritage' is to extend our support. The ideals, quite intriguing to me. It implies world will not know genuine that we have one. Looking at hisevery country enjoys tory books, however, you might peace until freedom and can exercise the right have doubts. Even when discussing to self-determination. Central Europe, the Slovaks as a "The history of Slovakia is one nation are often forgotten or mis- "Call a Slovak Czechoslovak and you plant a burr under his skin. To a Slovak, named for a geograph• ic region divided by the wars and politics, that frequent error is more than just misnomer; it conveys a complete historical misunderstanding of who he is." - Sue Morse, The Herald Statesman, Yonkers, N. Y., November 30, 1973. �214 SLOVAKIA of turmoil, frustration, and heroic struggle. Your continued devotion to the cause of a free and independent Slovakia - despite hundreds of years of oppression - is an inspiration to those of us who cherish freedom as you do. These are the characteristics that help us, in maintaining a better and stronger America. "The existence of the World Congress is an important step in achieving your long delayed place among the family of the free naRobert P. Hanrahan, tions." Member of Congress. U.S. Senator Adlai E. Stevenson. "I am sure all of the American Slovaks sincerely wish to acknowledge the plight of their brethren under Communist oppression. The Slovak people strongly pursue the course that someday freedom will reign in all corners of the world. People of America need to be remainded of the severe repressing of Communist-held nations of the world endure." - U.S. Senator Hugh Scott. "Slovaks of Cleveland brought many Christmas customs from the old country, notably the custom of caroling. Among the most cherished Slovak folk songs are those sung at Christmas time. These carols are sung not only in churches, but also in the homes of the faithful, no matter how many generations they have lived here." - Sun Herald, Cleveland, 0., December 20, 1973. "We must re-dedicate ourselves to cause of all captives of Communism. Recognizing that the world cannot enjoy peace until all peoples are free from yoke of Communism. Please continue your dedication to the traditions, cultural life, religious beliefs, and desire for independence on behalf of Slo"There is a strong feeling of vak people everywhere."- Edward awareness among some ethnic J. Derwinski, Member of Congress. members of the younger generation. "I do want you to know I share There are also strong indications your commitment to the Slovak that the melting pot concept can people and to strengthening the no longer be maintained and that ties with their sons and daughters America is beginning to recognize throughout the world. I know we and appreciate the diversity of its will not falter in our efforts to ethnic populations in terms of a insure that no people need face re- new cultural pluralism."- Dr. Goy, pression and indignity as a result a member of City College's library of their yearning to be free." - faculty, New York, N. Y. �SLOVAKIA 215 -------------- WHO'S WHO Among American Slovaks JOSEPH C. K RAJ SA It was a mark of social maturity when the Chamber of Commerce of the Greater Harrisburg Area decided to have "Slovak power" for its presidency. Such is progress that it is hardly news anymore when a second-generation American of ethnic background and working-class origins becomes the leader of the town's top capitalists. Pardon us, Karl Marx. Joseph Charles Krajsa is the 60th president of the Harrisburg Chamber. He is so ethnic that more than half the Chamber's members can't pronounce his name correctly: It is "Crysa," and Anglicized it would mean "nicer." Well beyond his own physical size - 6-foot-1 and 240 pounds Krajsa is a big man. He was manager of the Allentown Finance Co. for 14 years, which is owned by his older brother, John. He has the equivalent of two college degrees and has a speaking knowledge of seven languages. He was an outstanding football, baseball and basketball coach for 11 years. And, lastly, he served as auditor and vice president of the First Catholic Slovak Union, and is now the editor of its bilingual weekly, Jednota, and manager of the Jednota home, farm and printery. Very much a Slovak as a warm convivial person, Krajsa also is a Rotarian, Elk, Legionaire and democrat. He once was a topflight golfer who won country-club trophies. "I find more businessmen in this Chamber, for example, wanting to be more human, wanting to share their good fortune," he said. "The single-minded emphasis on economics has diminished. A person must be involved politically, socially and religiously, as well as economically, to be well-rounded, and more and more businessmen understand that." Krajsa, 56, grew up in Allentown. His father was a wire-worker from Skalica in Slovakia and emigrated to America in 1906. Old Joe Krajsa married a girl living here, Agnes Baranek, a native of Horna Krupa, Slovakia. He built his own home and started a corner grocery. Everybody knew and loved the Krajsas. "Put it on the book," or "na knizku," they said as Father Krajsa had a credit book, so the neighborhood could have its groceries. One of the articles in Krajsa's published Furdek 1974 is entitled "Slovaks Are Lovers." The author asserts, "Slovak mothers can equally match the 'Good Jewish Mother' of book fame." A Slovak mother will say to her daughter, "Ja som t'a nevychovala, aby si behala za muzami," or "I didn'-t raise you to go chasing after men." Many Slovaks came to America between 1880 and 1920, with most of them settling here between 1900 and 1910. Thousands settled in Pennsylvania, and the men became the muscle of this commonwealth's steel, coal and railroading indus- �216 SLOVAKIA tries. Of Slovak descent are Astronaut Eugene A. Cernan, Penn State's great lineman, Mark Markovich; Will Hartack, Chuck Bednarik, Johnny Bucha and George Blanda. Stan Musial is half-Polish and half-Slovak. Blanda's mother is president of the Jednota lodge in Youngwood. There were 277 scattered Slovak fraternal organizations and widoworphan funds when in 1890 the Rev. Stephen Furdek, of Cleveland, organized the national union called Jednota (the word means union, or united). Nineteen years later the Middletown property of the aristocrat Simon Cameron Young was purchased for $38,000. What originally was 298 acres is now 255 acres, but worth well over one million dollars. The old orphanage, now phased out, cared for 4,000 children in its history. The newspaper Krajsa edits and writes for has a circulation of 40,000. Jednota also publishes 15 book titles annually. It is building a million dollar printery. Krajsa was elected editor for a three-year term in 1964, and he keeps being re-elected. He arrived in Middletown when Olmsted Air Force Base was closing, so immediately he plunged into civic activity. It got him involved in Chamber of Commerce work, and he did so well that the Chamber named him president last October. Krajsa had a typical Americanimmigrant family upbringing. He did well in his studies. He captained Allentown Central Catholic High School's basketball team, was center on the football team and pitched for the baseball team. He went on to East Stroudsburg State College, where he was a stellar athlete, and then was a Navy chief petty officer in World War II. After the war, he married Romanza Fairman, from Kansas City, and settled in Allentown. He put in 11 years at Central Catholic High lurning in several state championship teams and ending up as athletic director. Meanwhile, he was in the finance business, too. The Krajsas have four children: Joe, in insurance, Mike, administrative assistant in the Agriculture Department; Maryagnes, assistant to the Dauphin County Democratic chairman, and George, an athlete at Middletown High. Krajsa's desire for the Chamber of Commerce is a Slovak's wish for more unity, more strength of purpose and more aggressiveness for the community. "We can get unity and not take a thing away from anybody," he said looking toward the West Shore. He believes that the county line should be easier to cross than the ethnic line over which his presidency already has triumphed. Paul B. Beers, Associated Editor The Evening News Harrisburg, Pa. THE SLOVAK LEAGUE OF AMERICA heartily commends all efforts of our governmental and other organs to ferret out and unmask all Communists and fellow travellers, as well as all persons and organizations who wittingly or unwittingly give aid and comfort to the conspiracy of Communism promoted by the Soviet Union. �SLOVAKIA - 217 Book Reviews Books on Slovakia and Slovaks Reviewed by Prof. J. M. Kirschbaum writes about the Czech l.'esistance during the last years of the War. Three contributions deal with the Slovak problem. Hans Kaiser writes about integration of Slovakia into national socialist war economy; In this carefully edited volume, Ladislav Lipscher examines the in12 German scholars and specialists fluence of the Third Reich on the in Czecho-Slovak affairs analyze the policy of the Slovak government eventful year of 1945 in Czecho- with regard to the Jewish problem, Slovakia. Some of the contributors and Jorg K. Hoensch gives a generare known as experts in the prob- al survey of the situation in Slovalems of Eastern Europe. Others kia in 1945. specialized in the German-Czech The remaining contributions deal relations or in the Slovak problem. with the transfer of the Sudeten Since until recently the German Germans and its consequences (Pescholars avoided publishing the re- ter Burian); with rebuilding of the sults of their research on Czecho- Communist Party of Czecho-SlovaSlovakia, their views will be of lda in 1945 (Heinrich Kuhn); with interest for schoiars in the West. the constitutional problems in The volume gives a survey of Czecho-Slovakia in 1945 (Helmut international, national and socio- Slapnicka); and with the integraeconomic problems in Czecho-Slova- tion of the Sudeten German expelkia in 1945, but two contributions, lees in Germany. The book provides abundant inone by Ferdinand Seibt, and the other by Karl Bosl, outline the formation on each topic and referhistorical background of boundary ences to sources used indicate that problems and basic information on German scholars weve dealing with the division of Germany by the their subjects with great effort to present an objective picture of Allies. Further contributions deal with Czecho-Slovakia in 1945. Their Czecho-Slovakia itself during the views and conclusions will, thereWar and her l'estoration in 1945. fore, be at variance with some Peter Kruger gives a survey of the Western specialists in East Central views of the Allies on Czecho-Slo- ; Europe, including the emigre Czech vakia from the Atlantic Charter to j historians. Czecho-Slovakia has the Potsdam Conference; Martin K. been presented in the West during Bachstein outlines the policy of I the past decades with evident relithe social democratic exiles from ance on Czech sources and favoring Czecho-Slovakia and Detlef Brandes I the Czechs. Especially Slovakia was Karl Bosl: Das Jahr 1945 in der Tschechoslowakei, Vortrag,e der wissenschaftlichen Tagung des Collegium Carolinum, R. Oldenbourg, Mlinchen-Wien, 1971, 316 p. �218 SLOVAKIA treated with bias, mostly as a "postscriptum" to Czech history, and the cruel and often inhuman treatment of minorities or political adversaries was overlooked. German scholars endeavored to be factual and objective and since some of them were born or raised in Czecho-Slovakia, their knowledge of the prob!ems discussed in their contribution cannot be doubted. Nevertheless, they present a German view, because nobody can separate himself fr.om his own background and personal or national experience. · And the manner in which Prague solved the Sudeten German problem in 1945 was bound to create deep resentiment and animosity, which is not easy to overcome. Slovakia is treated in the book with more understanding and impa.rtiality than is the usual case in Western historiography; there is nevertheless certain bias in all three contributors "with regard to the Slovak republic, including the article ·by Jorg Hoensch. Hoensch published two well researched books on Slovakia in the past but, in many instances, adopted the Czech or the Slovak Marxist view of the wartime Slovakia. This also occurred in his present contribution which is well researched and refers also to Slovak emigre political literature. Nevertheless, some conclusions were made by Hoensch on assumptions and not on facts. For instance, his view that "the majority of the Slovak leading strata and, even more, the large masses of the population believed during the war that their social ,i nterest and political rights would be better preserved in the restored Czechoslovakia" and that the Slovak Republic "could not give proof -of its viability (Lebensfiihigkeit)" is a part of Czech and Communist propaganda which was recen_tly contradicted and abandoned even by Slovak Marxist historians (see books by L. Liptak and S. Falt'an). Likewise is disputable his statement that the "Slovak population accepted with equal passivity the introduction of the peoples democracy and the declaration of the Slovak Republic." The enthusiastic manifestations in Slovakia in 1939 can hardly be compared with the fear from rape, confiscation, deportation and hiding in cellars which ·could be witness in Slovakia ' during the first months of the restoration of Czecho-Slovakia. Also treated in the volume are two important problems for Slovakia during the war years: the integration of Slovakia into the German war economy and the policy of the Slovak government with regard to the Jewish problem. Hans Kaiser deals with the first topic and gives a well researched survey of the impact of Germany on Slovak economy, and of the pressures used by Berlin on the Slovak government. Kaiser's contribution is the first one in the West to deal expertly · with the subject. So far, only the Marxist historians or economists published studies on the economic situation in Slovakia during th e War and their approach was a priori hostile. The views of the members of the Slovak government and Slovak economists who did not side with the regime imposed upon Slovakia in 1945, are buried in the archives of the "people's courts" and only in part were published by Slovak emigre politicians and writers. The picture of Slovak :war economy presented by Kaiser cannot, therefore, be without flaws. It is, in any case, a useful basis for further research and full presentation of the economic development of Slovakia during the Second , World War. �SLOVAKIA · 219 The third contributio n dealing I Horst Glass!: Die slowakische Geschichtswis senschaft nach 1945 with Slovakia touches on the prob(Slovak Historiogra phy After !em which harmed Slovaks and 1945), Otto Harrassowi tz, Wies their reputation in the world, but baden, 1971, 166 pages, Register. the11e were only a few attempts to put the policy of the Slovak governThe author and the publisher of ment towa!'ds Jews into a proper this book deserve recognition for perspective. making available to Western scholars and students of history an Lipscher's contributio n analyzes objective survey of Slovak historithe influence of the Third Reich on ography after 1945. Except for that policy on the basis of G€rman short summaries in one or two archives and partly also on the foreign languages, writings of Slohave been published Slovak sources. In comparison vak historians 1945 exclusively in Slovak since with many articles published on and, as such, they have remained this subject in the West, Lipscher's inaccessible to most of foreign hiscontributio n is marked by an effort torians. Glassl's book provides at to present the policy of the Slovak least those Western historians who impartial governmen t more objectively and read German with an phy and historiogra Slovak at look with considerab le restraint from during blaming only the Slovak govern- its remarkable developme nt decades. two past the ment in harsh terms, as has been the case until now. Lipscher does The book is the result of a thornot make any reference to sources ough research in Slovakia itself. of Slovak emigre historians and The author compiled considerab le political writers who dealt with the knowledge of writings on Slovak subject and he recognized that the history by both the old traditionalproblem would require further ist and the recent Marxist historistudy. This indicates that he enIn his attempt to give an obans. deJvored to approach the problem pictul'e he points to the jective wi th impartiality and, as a result, and ideological interrestrictions his contributio n may be a beginwhich Slovak histounder ference ning of dealing with the tragedy or remain silent write to had rians of Jews in Slovakia with more "It lasted 1956. until 1948 after understand ing of the circumstan ces "before Glassl, says years," several and pressures under which the developthe that possible was it Slovaks could not save more Jewment of Slovak historiogra phy and ish citizens than they did. research could come up with noA complete review of this volume ticeable results. Under the pressure would, of course, require to deal of the circumstan ces in those years with all the other contributio ns (Slovak) histo1ians had to take into which give a survey of many prob- considerati on the political goals lems in the Czech part of Czecho- and requiremen ts. The Communist Slovakia, and analyze the relations Party which took over power in between Czechs and G€rmans in- Czecho-Slovakia required complete cluding the expulsion, often under re-writing of the whole historiinhuman circumstan ces, of the Su- ography acco11ding to Marxist crideten Germans. teria ... many historians were fired �220 SLOVAKIA from their positions, and some of works on Slovakia. The author made undoubtedly a very thorough th,em were even sent to jails." On the other hand, the author research into the writings and publications of Slovak historians and underlines that there was a remarkable development of Slovak produced a standard work on a historiography since the War either high academic level. in the number of books published or in the number of institutes and people involved in research. Unlike Marxist or some Western historians, Glass! also states that "during the period of the Slovak Republic (]939-1945) , there was a fruitful development in the field of historical research even though the war was not the right time for a successful build-up of this discipline." He considers it as wrong and unjust of the Marxist historians to belittle the results of this period in research into the history of Slovakia. Glass! also refers to the writings of Slovak scholars in Western countries but for some reason he became acquainted only with the works published by Prof. M. Lacko and with one book and one essay by this reviewer. Writings of other Slovak historians, especially those pertaining to the period of the 18th and 19th centuries, escaped the author, which is regrettable, because they shed a different light on Slovak national awakening from that of Marxist historiography. The book stops at the year 1918 and leaves out the past 60 years during which Slovakia, as well as Slovak historiography, experienced an unexpected development. The explanation for this is given by the author in the Preface by one sentence: "For understandable political reasons, the inclusion in this survey of the writings dealing exclusive,l y with the period 1918-1960 was abandoned." Even in the present form the book is a very valuable scholarly addition to the foreign language MORE ABOUT BOOKS Slov akia in the 19th and 20th Centuries, Edited by Prof. Joseph M. Kirschbaum ; Preface by S. B. Roman, published by the Slovak World Congress, Toronto, Ont. , 1973, 368 p., bibl., $12.50. The Slovak World Congress published for the General Meeting held in Chicago on June 28th-July 1st, 1973, another English book on Slovakia which deserves special attention. While the first publication by the Congress outlined the historical and cultural background of Slovakia, this new voluminous work will give the readers an insight into the political and literary developments in Slovakia in the 19th and 20th centuries. In his Preface to the book, the President of the Slovak World Congress, Stephen B. Roman, explains that the Slovak World Congress "undertook to publish this book with the desire to contribute to the search for historical truth about Slovaks and thereby to help better understanding and co-operation among the nations of Central Europe. It is our firm belief that peoples of that vital area can regain their political freedom and build their future only in close co-oper ation and only if each recognizes the equal rights to independence that each has." One cannot but agree with such aim and the contents of the book confirm that it was also the intention of the editor and contributors. The book is composed of contributions by 20 authors, four of �221 SLOVAKIA whom are of non-Slovak origin, and it is divided into four parts. The first part deals with Slovak national philosophy and the subject is treated by two known Slovak professors, Charles Murin from the University of Montreal, and Stefan Polakovic, former professor at the University of Bratislava. The second part deals with Slovak politics and culture in the 19th and 20th centuries and contains contributions by Prof. J. A. Mikus, Msgr. J. Rekem, Dr. Stefan Osusky, Prof. F . Vnuk, Dr. F. f>urcansky, Prof. E. Loebl, Prof. Stefan Glejdura, Dr. lmrich Kruzliak and Rev. Mikulas Sprinc. Part three deals with the relations of Slovakia with her neighbors and among the contributors are mostly authors of non-Slovak origin. On Slovakia under the Habsburg rule, an interesting survey was written by a members of the Jlabsburg dynasty, Archduke Robert of Austria while Slovak-Hungarian relations are treated by Prof. George Perenyi-Lukacs with comments by Dr. Arved Grebert and Prof. J . M. Kirschbaum. Prof. Thaddeus Gromada contributed an excellent essay on Slovak-Polish relations and Slovak-Russian relations are analyzed and evaluated by Prof. Stefan Glejdura and Miroslav Licko. Prof. Kurt Glaser, author of the book, Czecho-Slovakia - A Critical History, closed this chapter with a scholarly treatise on "National States Versus Federalism in Central European Future," commented upon by Prof J. A. Mikus and Prof. J. M. Kirschbaum. In the last part, the book deals with Slovaks abroad and their attitude towards Slovakia. It contains two essays, one by Dr. Joseph Pauro and another by Dr. F . Braxator. An extensive Select Bibliography on Slovakia completes the contents of this standard work. We cannot but welcome this new English book on Slovakia and Slovaks abroad. It fills an important gap which existed for a long time in presenting Slovakia's political and cultural development in the 19th and 20th centuries to the Western world in an objective manner. For the first time 20 experts are expressing their opinions on various subjects pertaining to Slovakia. They belong not only to two generations, as the editor of the book observed, but "also represent two schools of thought and, therefore, the book presents a confrontation of views on the Slovak p:i.st and present." In form and contents, the book is a scholarly work. The editor, Prof. J . M. Kirschbaum, took his task seriously and enhanced the volume by an extensive bibliography in several languages. He also paid tribute to American Slovaks by stating that "at the end of the First World War, Slovakia was freed from Hungarian rule above all by the efforts of Slovaks who settled in the United States and by Slovak legionaries fighting on the side of the victorious powers. This gave American Slovaks and all Slovaks abroad not only recognition and a new sense of patriotism but also a consciousness of their mission to speak on behalf of the Slovak people when they are silenced." It would be desirable that this volume be followed by a book on Slovak culture, especially arts and literature of the past two hundred years. A conference on these topics, at the next general meeting of the Congress could help to achieve this goal. Joseph P a u co �222 SLOVAKIA TWO PUBLICATIONS BY l\'lATICA SLOVENSKA Matica slovenska was degraded by the Communist regime and went through several periods of regimentation and persecution of her leading representatives and cultural workers. Independent of political pressure and refusing to serve political parties or ideologies, Matica slovenska was, before 1945, a cultural institution which belonged to the nation and represented the highest aspirations of all Slovaks. The Communist Party made Matica slovenska a subservient tool of the regimes imposed upon S'lovakia since 1945. In spite of this nefarious situation, Matica slovenska succeeded in developing Slovak culture at least in some sectors. Among these sectors, literary history and philology deserve our consideration. vakia from literary to musical. This was a neglected sector in the past mainly due to the lack of experts and, therefore, we have to welcome this publication. Of special interest for elucidating some periods of Slovak history is, however, the essay by Jozef Kuzmik : Book Culture Among the Slova/c Slavs in the Years 863-1000. The period of Great Moravia became a favored subject for Slovak intellectuals during the past two decades. In Kuzmik's contribution we find some interesting information about the territorial extent of the ancestors of today's Slovaks, as well as about their book culture which were in the past hardly known or were insufficiently explored. Unfortunately, the publication has only a Russian and German summary and, therefore, it is accessible to a very limited number For several years, Matica has of scholars in the Anglo-Saxon published a series of publications world where there are still many dealing with Slovak literary life misconceptions about the Slovak entitled:Letopis pamiitnika sloven- past. A new confusion was created s/cej literatury and Literarny ar- even recently by scholars of Magchiv. We have revi,ewed some issues yar background who tried to deny in the past in Slovakia, underlying the cultural heritage of the Great their significance for Slovak litera- Moravian period to Slovaks. Li t erarny archiv 8/ 71 is a valuture. We have now received Litercirny archiv 8/ 71, edited by Michal able source for literary history on Elias, and Letopis 19 72 , edited by several Slovak poets and writers Juraj Chovan-Rehak, and some not only of the 19th century but comments would perhaps be ap- also of the 20th century. The publication deals mostly with archive propriate. Letopis 1972 contains a number of materials, unknown manuscripts, or contributions dealing with various correspondence among leading Slosubjects from book culture (kniz- vak literary figures and cultural na kultura) among Slovak Slavs in workers. Even though the Commuthe years 863-1000 to several in- nist regime tried to regiment Sloteresting contributions on the de- vak literary history and endeavorvelopment of museums in Slovakia ed to impose Marxist criteria, Sloand the idiomatic vocabulary in vak intellectuals display more or the writing of Martin Kukucin. The less equal interest in the literary main part of the book is dedicated life of poets and writers who were to the history and development of I neglected in the past because of various types of museums in Slo- their religion or ideological orien- �SLOVAKIA 223 Literature, government, law, education, etc. Even though hardly complete, the Bibliography shows that Canadian Slavists were not idle during the twenty post-war years. In spite of the fact that Slavic studies had to start in Canada from scratch, the Bibliography contains many titles of books, essays, studies and articles, which have given Canadian students a new picture of the history, culture and civilization of the Slavic peoples. From the Slovak point of view, we have many reasons to welcome this Bibliography. Similar American or European bibliographies either overlooked books, publicaJ.M. Kirschbaum tions and essays on Slovak history, Daniel Dorotich (ed.) : A Bibliogra- Language and literature by Slovak phy of Canadian Slavists 1951- authors, or made selection of writ1971 , University of Saskatchewan ings which presented Slovakia and Publications, Saskatoon, Sask., Slovak culture in the light of ad1972. verse propaganda and Czech linAfter the Second World War, a guistic and literary theses. The misnumber of Canadian universities conceptions about the Slovak people added to their usual curricular and their culture were cultivated courses on Slavic languages, litera- especially by the older generations ture and civilization. At some uni- of Slavists who studied at the Universities special Centres or Depart- versity of Prague and use as their ments of Slavic Studies were organ- source of information books pubized, while at other universities lished by Czech scholars before Slavic languages, literature and and during the Second World War. The new generation of Slavists history were taught within Departm ents of Modern Languages and at American and Canadian univerLiteratures and in History Depart- sities gradually detached itself from the old school. Using source ments. In Canada, professors of Slavic materials published in today's Slostudies were soon organized in the vakia and other socialist countries Ca nadian Association of Slavists ' as well as in Western countries' which held every year an annual they have no more any doubt that meeting within the framework of Slovaks are a distinct nation and Canadian Learned Societies. The their language and literature have present Bibliography gives an in- developed independently of the sight into the writings and pub- Czechs or other Slavs. The Bibliography compiled and lications of the members of the edited by Prof. Dorotich reflects Association. Prof. Dorotich, in compiling and this new trend in Slavic studies editing the Bibliography, followed with regard to Slovakia. By inlhe •usual division of subject mat- eluding over 50 titles (books, monoters _into general history, languages, graphs, essays, articles) published talion and those who were closer to the socialist outlook. As a result, Literarny archiv contains interesting information on Bernolak, Stur, Vajansky and Radlinsky, as well as on Janko Kral', Roy, Hamuljak and others. It is regrettable that also in this publication the summary is only in Russian and German. For Slovak literary history, both publications are nevertheless of importance and unveil to a great degree some periods of Slovak cultural development which were intentionally neglected before 1938 as well as during the Stalinist period. �224 SLOVAKIA by Prof. J . M. Kirschbaum in five languages, the Bibliography presents a new picture of Slovak history, culture, language and literature. Not only the main works on Slovakia in English are recorded, but also one book published in Slovak, monographs and essays in French, English, German and Spanish. In fact, the Bibliography is more complete in this respect that the Slovak Bibliography Abroad compiled by Prof. M. Lacko and published by the Slovak Institute (Rome, 1967). Since the Bibliography will go into the hands of many Slavists and into university libraries, we welcome this publication as a very useful guide for students and professors of Slavic studies. Joseph Pauco Joseph Pauco: Slovenski priekopnici v Amerike (Slovak Pioneers in America), The First Catholic Slovak Union, Cleveland, Ohio, 1972, English Introduction by J. C. Krajsa, Ill., 360 pages. Slovaks in the United States played an important role in the history of the Slovak people, but a complete story of their endeavors on behalf of Slovakia, their struggle for preserving national consciousness and cultural heritage has not yet been published. Due to political circumstances in Slovakia, historians either were not allowed or had no possibility to carry out research in order to compile a standard work which would present Slovaks in the United States in an objective light. It was only during the Second World War that two volumes: Dejiny Slovakov v Amerike (History of Slovaks in America) by Konstantin Culen were published in Slovakia. Since that time, only Slovak exiled intellectuals, including Culen, carried out a research and published monographs on the life and achievements of the large Slovak ethnic group in the United States. Historians in Slovakia were either not allowed by ,t he Communist regime or for ideological reasons avoided recording their struggle for survival and the many contributions of American Slovaks not only to their own national life but also to the fight for freedom and independence of the Slovak people. After Prof. F . Hrusovsky and K. Culen, Dr. Joseph Pauco deserves main credit for systematic research into the past and present of American Slovaks. For the past 20 years he published monographs on individual Slovak leaders and organizations of which the voluminous history of the First Catholic Slovak union deserves particular mention. In the present book he deals with 55 outstanding Slovak leaders who did the pioneering organizational, cultural and religious work among American Slovaks. The importance of this book should be, however, measured not only according to its literary value, but also against the fact that there are no organized archives and many printed documents are perishing. In spite of this, Dr. Pauco gathered many valuable facts about the individual leaders among whom there are clergymen of both denominations - Catholic and Lutheran - outstanding organizers of Slovak fraternal and cultural life, men and women of great dedication to the cause of preservation of Slovak cultural heritage. The author approached his subjects with great abjectivity and painted their profiles in a fluent, uncomplicated style to make the book readab1e to the general public and, at the same time, by many references to printed sources, useful to historians and researchers. �SLOVAKIA Some of the chapters are shorter and contain only the most important data. Others present a full life story and evaluation of the activities and of the role the individual leaders played in the Slovak organizational, religious and cultural life in America. The reason for the uneven treatment of some pioneers was given by the author in the introduction to the book. As he says he was sometimes unable to gather, even the most neces~ary information, because there was no organization and no individuals in the past who would have preserved old newpapers, almanacs, minutes of meetings, or other archive materials. Since the Second World War the Slovak Institute in Cleveland and the recently organized Jankola Library have made an effort to gather and preserve archive materials pertaining to the Slovak ethnic group in the United States. In these circumstances, Pauco's present work, as well as his book on the First Catholic Slovak Union and numerous monographs, deserve special recognition. The book has, however, also its own value due to its composition, contents and style. Dr. Pauco produced a standard work comparable with writings of this kind on any other ethnic groups in America. The book also has a useful introduction by Joseph C. Krajsa, but it lack an English summary which would have given to the younger generations of American Slovaks and researchers at least the basic information on Slovak pioneers in America. Unless the author and the publisher intend to publish this work in English, it would be a useful thing to attach to the second edition an extensive English summary. J. M. Ki rs c h b au m 225 Joseph L. Dieska: "Faith and Reason" in the Life and Philosophy of Jacques Maritain, An Offprint from Most, Vol. XIX, No. 3-4, Cleveland, Ohio, 1973. Shortly before the death of the famous French philosopher, Jacques Maritain, Slovaks paid his tribute on the occasion of his 90th birthday in a commemorative study by Prof. Joseph L. Dieska under the title The Religious and Philo sophical Profile of Jacques Maritain. The scholarly essay was pub- lished in Slovak but the author prepared also an English version under the above title. Prof. Dieska was one of the known adherents of Maritain's philosophy already in Slovakia, and pursued his interests in the great Catholic philosopher's concepts also as Professor of Philosophy at the University of Dayton, Ohio, where he has taught for the past several years. The present essay is one of his numerous articles on the subjects. The Slovak and English texts contain a well written and well documented insight and analysis of Maritain's religious and philosophical profile. Dieska approached Maritain's philosophy from the position of "Faith and Reason" and explains the role of reason as well as the mystery of faith in Maritain's philosophy which became a part of the Catholic doctrine and influenced the thinking of several generations in Europe and elsewhere. His theories of creative evolution and his ability to find basic reality through intuition ,e xalted the spirit of man in many parts of the world. Known as neo-Thomism Maritain's philosophy anchors in the works and philosophical concepts of St. Thomas Aquinas. As Dieska explains, Maritain became adherent to the philosophy of St. Thomas as a result of his own independent reflections and �226 SLOVAKIA studies of various philosophers and ing tribute to Maritain also on because of the comparison he made behalf of Slovak intellectuals who between them. He found the truth are silenced in their native counhe was searching for in the an- try where Maritain's philosophy had a strong influence before Marxswers of St. Thomas. However, if it is true that Mari- ism was imposed as the only philotain followed the logic and argu- sophical concept tolerated by the mentation of St. Thomas, he put regime. J. M. Ki rs c h b au m both, in the view of Prof. Dieska, in a " new, modern, and contemporary setting. His language was ad- Encydopedic Directory of Ethnic Newspapers and P eriodicals in justed to the philosophical expresthe United States. By Lubomyr sions used today. His arguments R. Wynar. 260 pp. Libraries Unare aimed at and against modern limited, Inc., Littleton, Colorado, and recent objectors and critics. 1972. $12.50. And above all, when he speaks of For those interested in ethnic the necessity of taking faith and supernatural, revealed truths into studies a valuable tool has recentconsiderations while solving the ly been published to aid in learning political, social, ethical and estheti- 1 about the complex mosaic that is cal difficulties and 'crises' of our ' the United States of America. time, Maritain must transcend Tho- Whereas in the past the student mas and go much farther not, of of ethnic Americana had to wade course, in essential immutable, and through Ulrich's directories, or universally valid principles but in through state manuals, or specialtheir applications to the new, dif- ized histories, facility in locating Icrent and more complex situations data about 903 ethnic publications and issues. In these new approach- can now be had by utilizing Luboes lie the tremendous responsibility myr R. Wynar's Encyclopedic Diand significance of Maritain's Tho- rectory of Ethnic Newspapers and mistic solutions, proposals and Periodicals in the United States. often even sharp and merciless Included in this directory are escriticisms of the 'evils of time'"- scntials about 53 ethnic presses, ranging from the Albanian Press, concludes Dieska. As St. Thomas had found in Assyrian Press, Italian Press, JaAristotle a philosophical basis for panese Pr,ess, Slovak Press, Ukrainreconciling man's reason and ian Press, etc. , to some not poChristian faith, so Maritain, in half pular enough presses such as the a lifetime of philosophical study, Cossack, Cax,patho-Ruthenian, Flembrought a rejuvenated Thomism ish, Swiss, and Welsh. In cases such as Croatian, Sloveinto a modern age of scepticism and science. After the Second nian, and Serbian, there is a generWorld War, Maritain's vision and al heading as Yugoslav, which in philosophy helped lend strength effect increases the number of also to the whole Christian demo- presses substantially beyond the cratic movement which stood as a figure of 53. Data cited for pub1.Julwark against Communism and lications are: title translations, year founded, complete address to the Catholic Church. The author and the editor of (including ZIP), name of editor, Most deserve recognition for pub- language(s) , sponsor, circulation, Jishing both versions and for pay- frequency of publication, and sub- �SLOVAKIA scription rate. In additions commentaries aid in explaining the scope of publications., e.g., the following for "The Handbook Ilbo'' (The Korea Times): "This publication, the only Korean daily in the United States, carries international, national, and local news of interest of the Korean community. Jllustrated. " Professor Wynar of Kent State University, both a librarian and an ethnic specialist, includes a very interesting Appendix of Statistical Analysis for each ethnic group, summarizing the number of publications, weekly circulation totals, monthly circulation totals, totals for native language publications, bi-lingual totals, and English language totals. An index to the publications completes the book. An interesting addendum to the book would have been an analysis of ethnic publications in each of the fifty states. This directory truly is the first comprehensive annotated guide to the current ethnic press in the United States and with its clear type and excellent alphabetical format clearly rates an A. Paul F e n c h a k Panorama: A H i storical Review of the Czechs and Slovaks i n the United States of America. Pub- lished by the Czechoslovak National Council of America, Cicero, Ill., U.S.A. Cicero-Berwyn Press, 1970, pp. 328, index. It is quite evident that there exists today in America a need for authorative works on the histories of the various ethnic groups which have contributed to the development of America. Objective, factual and concise histories of the various groups is essential. This volume of the dual histories of the Czech 227 and Slovak immigrations to America, unfortunately from a viewpoint of abjective Slovak history, seems to lack sufficient factual data to be accepted as a history of the Slovak immigration to America. From the standpoint of the history of the Czech immigration it is factu al, unbiased history but even then much is amiss particularly in the area of the religious development of the Czech community in the United States. Two basic criticisms can be found in the basic format of the work. The single most important error in the work is the fact that the various writers of Slovak topics are weak in objective reporting, so necessary in a historical work of this kind . Unfortunately the writers, who are of the " Czechoslovak" philosophical persuasion, would wa nt the reader to actually believe that only those Slovak organizations which support that philosophy have contributed to the development of the Slovak American community. In fact it must be remembered that over eighty per cent of the organized Slovak American community does not support the '· Czechoslovak" philosophy but ra ther a distinct Slovak philosophy within the family of nations. The authors seem to infer that the staunch Catholic mass of Slovak immigrants contributed little if anything at all to the development of the Slovak community in Am erica. It appears that such notables as Father Stephen Furdek, founder of the First Catholic Slovak Union, the co-founder of the First Catholic Slovak Ladies. Association and the founder of the Slovak League of America played a very minor role in the development of the Slovak community. Other prominent leaders such as Father Matthew Jankola, Joseph Rusek, �228 SLOVAKIA Anna Hurban and Philip Hrobak are not even mentioned. The second most important ingredient which is lacking in this work is organization. Various bits and pieces are scattered throughout the work on both the Czech and Slovak development in America and from an academic journalistic point of view it is quite primitive in its presentation. Too many writers cover certain geographical areas of the Slovak immigration but much is ignored and almost always repetitious. Too often the writers are offering opinionated biased reporting which is not acc-eptable by the vast majority of the Slovak community today. There exists a certain disorganization present in the work and most often it effects an objective Slovak history. In one area in particular the work is both factually deficient and openly opinionated, that is the area of the Slovak organization" in the United States. Such organizations as "Catholic Slovak Unity, Catholic Slovak Women's Unity. Unity of Catholic Sokols" are not acceptable as Slovak organizations, as such do not exist. Again faulty research is evidenced in the presentation of Slovak organizations. One area lists "all" the Czech and Slovak organizations in America and the largest and most important Slovak societies are not listed. Subjective reporting would lead one to believe that indeed the Slovak Gymnastic Union Sokol is the most importa nt and influential organization of Americans of Slovak descent. However factual research will reveal to the alert writer that in fact the above named organization has a membership of less than 24,000 while the First Catholic Slovak Union, the First Catholic Slovak Ladies Association, the Slovak Catholic Sokol, the Pennsyl- vania Slovak Catholic Union, the Ladies Pennsylvania Slovak Catholic Union and the First Slovak Wreath of the Free Eagle have a combined membership of over 300,000. The informed reader will at once note that Sokol U.S.A., as it is commonly associated and pubblicised in the America press is of the "Czechoslovak" philosophical persuasion while the other Catholic Slovak organizations representing the overwhelming majority of organized Americans of Slovak descent are not of the appendage philosophy but rather support a distinct Slovak path completely free of Czech domination. Another noteworthy fact is that the Sokol U.S.A. is the only Slovak organization of any magnitude which is a member of the Czechoslovak National Council of America. Included in the work is a Who's Who among Americans of Czech and Slovak ancestry. Again only those Slovaks who support the idea of a "Czechoslovak" culture, language and heritage are included. Not only are the above mentioned Slovaks notably absent but such luminary as Bishop Andrew G. Grutka, D.D., the Roman Catholic Bishop of Gary, Indiana and countless others who have contributed to the growth and development of the Slovak American Community. In the final analysis the work offers little insight into the history and development of the Slovaks in America. The history of the Czechs in America is acceptable but no t commendable since again the underlining theme is to discredit any theistic organizational development. The work in general is primitive in the Slovak sense and therefore can not be accepted as a factual history of the Slovaks in America. This work is a prime example of Czech and "Czechoslovak" chauvin- �SLOVAKIA 229 ism in the interpretation of Slovak suring Czech hegemony in CzechoSlovakia, regardless of the fact history. Daniel F. Tanzone that the Communist movement is discredited by their policy. In some Eugen Steiner: The Slovak Dilem- ways Czech Communists resemble ma, Cambridge, at the University to Czech non-Communists or antiPress, 1973, 229 pages. Series Communists who used and still are International Studies, Published using democracy, socialism, liberalfor the Centre for International ism or Catholicism for imposing or Studies, London School of Eco- maintaining Czech hegemony over nomics and Political Sciences. others, especially Slovaks. The situation in Czecho-Slovakia between inthe in writes author the As troduction his aim was "to trace 1918-1938 attests to it sufficiently. the Communist attitude to national- The policy of Prague Governments ism, and to define the effects of from 1918 to this day proved that this attitude as far as the Slovaks Czechs are not capable to fulfill the arc concerned." Or in other words mission which the victorious Powhe "deals in microcosm with a ers entrusted to them in 1918 or major problem which lies at the again in 1945. Czecho-Slovalda did heart of the Soviet Union's policies, not become a barrier against German expansion or a bridge between internal and external." (p. 3) and West. Czech governments East Dr. Steiner uses the case of Slovakia to show how Communism forced into opposition against the fa iled to solve nationality problems. European block which created Not only in the Soviet Union was Czecho-Slovakia, not only the mithis problem hidden behind slogans norities but also Slovaks. Czech on the equality of nations, while politicians did not honor any agreethe Russians are the rulers, but ment, promise or pledge given to also in restored and by Communists Slovaks. They practiced such a policy regoverned Czecho-Slovakia. Steiner's book leaves no doubt that the Marx- gardless of the danger for the Leninist thesis on the problems of existence of the state or the misnationalities did not bring a satis- sion Czecho-Slovakia was to fulfill factory solution to the relations according to its friends and creabetween the Czechs and Slovaks; tors. After occupying Slovakia with on the contrary, since 1945 when the help of French and Italian Czecho-Slovakia was restored (a- military units in 1918, and with the gainst the will of majority of Slo- help of the Soviet armies in 1945, vaks) the Czech rule was imposed they disregarded their promises on Slovaks step by step, brutally and the rights of Slovaks to selfand without regard to promises and government. About the period of agreements. Up to 1948, the Czech 1918-1938 there is in Western lanCommunists found accomplices in guages comparatively large literanon-Communists. After 1948, they ture dealing with this subject. The imposed their rule on Slovaks with book by Dr. Steiner gives to Westthe help of a handful of collabora- ern readers sufficient information tors from Slovakia, mostly of non- and documentary evidence for the Slovak origin (Bacilek, Bil'ak, Mos- period of 1945-1968. Dr. Steiner writes in the introkovic, Daubner, Siroky and others). Czech Communists are using Com- duction to his book that he has munism as an instrument for as- "chosen exile as a Jew, as a Com- �230 SLOVAK.IA On the cover of Steiner's book munist and as a Slovak." He wrote his book from this point of view, there are reproductions of pictures which makes his work more inter- from demonstrations of Slovak esting and more valuable. It is a youth in Bratislava against the testimony of a "Jew, Communist Soviet occupation in August 1968. and Slovak" about the political On the posters we can read: "Slodevelopments in Slovakia in this vaks stand firm, they won't pass! Occupa nts go home!" These slogans century. His background and ideological o- express the feelings of Slovaks in rientation explain to a great degree Slovakia as well as abroad not only not only his favorable attitude to- against the So·,iet occupants, but wards regimes in 1918-1938 (though any occupants, including the Czechs. Czech Statistics can easily prove This conclusion can be found, if the opposite) but his negative stand carefully read, also in Dr. Steiner's towards the Slovak republic of book: The Slovak Dilemma. Dr. A. Gr eb er t, 1939-1945 as well. We understand Geneva, Switzerland that the anti-communist and antijewish measures of the Slovak Government could not meet with Slovak Studies, Historica 7 and 8, Vol. X and XI, Slovak Institute, his approval. It is, however, hard Rome-Cleveland, Editor Prof. M. to understand his attitude towards Lacko, S. J . Dr. Benes and his Government-inBoth volumes of Slovak Studies exile. Even such adherents of "Czechoslovakism" as were Dr. M. deal with history of Slovakia and Hodfu and Dr. S. Osusky disagreed except for the contribution by Dr. and at the end fought against Be- S. Nahalka, with the events of our nes and his anti-Slovak policy which century. Since the Marxist historihe later (after 1945) also practiced ans not only avoid certain subjects in co-operation with Czech Commu- but also write with prejudice and nists and non-Communists. Unfor- strictly from the Marxist point of tunately, Dr. Steiner deals with view, these volumes perform specific this rather superficially and un- role in historiography on Slovakia. convincingly. The post-war develop- In addition, their value is enhanced ments in Czecho-Slovakia prove by the fact that they are published that the Slovak-Czech antagonism in foreign language and two of the is not a matter of temporary politi - contributors were educated abroad. Students of modern Slovak hiscal situation but a fundamental and lasting feature of Slovak-Czech tory will welcome especially the relations. It is impossible to solve Ph.D. thesis by Sister M. E. Lubek, this problem within the "Czecho- "An Inquiry into the United States Slovak" framework. The successive _ Czechoslovak Relations between a_bolition, ~~er 1969, _of C~nstitu- I 1918-1948." There were many myths t10nal prov1S1ons dealing with the published on this subjects, but to federalization of Czecho-Slovakia, my knowledge, no scholarly work. mentioned in Dr. Steiner's book, Some years ago Prof. M. Mamatey prove convincingly the validity of shed some light on the period of the First World War, later years the above conclusions. In spite of some shortcomings, Dr. remained, however, unresearched. Steiner's book is a valuable contri- Yet, this is an interesting topic, bution to the historiography on since the United States played an important role in the emergence Eastern Europe. �231 SLOVAKIA of Czecho-Slovakia in 1918 and in her re-emergence in 1945. Needless to say that the treatise by M. E. Lubek does not cover all the aspects of the inter-state relations, remaining mostly in the field of politics and diplomacy. The study is nevertheless of the importance and will be useful for further research. For foreign historians dealing with Slovakia of special interest will also be the contributions by Prof. M. S. :l'.>urica, who researched Italian Military Documents in order to shed a new light on the tragic death of M. R. Stefanik, one of the founders of Czecho-Slovakia, and German biography of President Dr. J. Tiso by F. H. Schneider. We commented on the value of Prof. Durica's study when it was first published in Italian language (Slovalcia, Vol. XXIII, 1973) , and cannot but welcome the English version. Schneider's essay on the life and historical role of Dr. J . Tiso in Slovak politics is of importance for more than one reason. The adversaries of Slovak aspirations for independence - Communists and non-Communists - succeeded in presenting Dr. Tiso and his policies in Western countries in a distorted light. Even though, Dr. Tiso mostly suffered for his forced cooperation with Germany, there was a long silence about him and Slovakia among German historians. Schneider's contribution does not exhaust the subject and shows gaps, but it was high time to draw a little differe nt picture of President Tiso in ♦ ♦ German language than it was done by Prague and Slovak Communists. Unfortunately, Schneider overlooked some books and articles which contain substantial information on Dr. Tiso's life and politics, such as Prof. Murin's articles, one of Dr. Polakovic's books, many articles in Sl.ovakia and other sources. Dr. S. Nahalka's istructive article on "Holy Scripture among Slovaks" is a valuable contribution to the religious and cultural history of Slovaks. Religious history of Slovakia is one of the completely neglected fields in today's historiography in Slovakia, even though Slova ks survived as a nation mostly due to the fact that clergy (Catholic and Protestant) took over the cultural leadership and national struggle. Professor Lacko in his contributions presents the synthesis of the studies on Great-Moravian and Cyrillo-Methodian period and a survey of events which led to the reestablishment of the Greek-Catholic Church in Slovakia. The latter study would deserve to be completed by documents and names of people who in Slovakia and abroad helped the re-establishment. Both contributions are timely and instructive. Prof. Lacko deserves recognition also for his efforts to continue publishing the Slovak Studies. Slovak cultural activities abroad would be much poorer without this series. J. M. Ki rs c h b au m ♦ Life Membership in the Slovak League of America is $100.00 - join us! Write to: Slovak League of America, 313 Ridge Avenue, Middletown, Pa. 17057. �SLOVAKlA 232 Our Contributor s theologian, author, Cambridge, Ontario Stephen Sencik, S.J. - Anthony X. Sutherland, Ph.D ., Columbus, Ohio Sr. Martina Tybor, SS.C.M. - author, Director, Slovak Institute, Cleveland, 0 . Andrew Pier, O.S.B. Joseph C. Krajsa - teacher, author, Danville, Pa. Editor, Jednota, Middletown, Pa. industrialist, Toronto, Ontario Stephen B. Roman - attorney-at-law, Stratford, Conn. Edward J. Behuncik - Joseph M. Kirschbaum, LL.D., Ph.D . Jozef Pauco, Ph.D. - historian, author, Toronto, Ont. author, historian, Middletown, Pa. Michael O'Pake, Esq. - State Senator, Reading, Pa. Daniel F. Tanzone, M.A. - teacher, Yonkers, N. Y. Susan Pojer, B.A., Yonkers, N. Y. professor, author, consultant for Rockefeller Foundation, New York, N. Y. Michael Novak, Ph.D. Paul Fenchak - teacher, Baltimore, Md. Steven I. Miller, Ph.D. - assistant professor, Loyola University, Chicago, Illinois Junior history major, Susquehanna University, Selinsgrove, Pa. William Wagner Francis Vnuk - historian; professor, Institute of Technology, Adelaide, Australia Dr. Arved Grebert - former Slovak diplomat, now in Switzerland Jane Noonan, Marlene Bartos, Stephen J. Knoblock - America Scholarship Winners Slovak League of �OFFICERS OF THE SLOVAK LEAGUE OF AMERICA Honorary President : EDWARD J. BEHUNCIK President 2385 Main Street Stratford, Conn. 06497 Stephen J. Tkach , DR. JOSEPH PAUCO Secretary 313 Ridge Avenue Middletown, Pa. 17057 Vice Presidents: Milan V. Blazek, Stephen Suhajcik, Mary Piroch ' Executive Committee : Edward J. Behuncik, John A. Holy, Paul C. Kazimer, Tibor Kovalovsky, Joseph R. Kristotik, Dr. Joseph Pauco, John A. Sabol SLOVAK FRATERNAL ORGANIZATIONS (Affiliated with the Slovak League of America) THE FIRST CATHOLIC SLOVAK UNION Cleveland, Ohio - Membership: 104,500 ·-:i THE FIRST CATHOLIC SLOVAK LADIES ASSOCIATION Cleveland, Ohio .;_ Membership: 96,000 THE SLOVAK CATHOLIC SOKOL Passaic, N. J. - Membership: 53,000 PENNSYLVANIA SLOVAK CATHOLIC UNION Wilkes-Barre, Pa: - Membership: 18,000 LADIES PENNSYLVANIA SLOVAK CATHOLIC UNION Wilkes-Barre, Pa. - Membership: 16,500 SLOVAK NEWSPAPER'S JOURNALISTS' ASSOCI.A.TION (Affiliated with the Slovak League of America) SLOVAK NEWSPAPERS (Affiliated with the Slovak League of Americ,a) BRATSTVO Wilkes-Barre, Pa. SLOVAK V AMERIKE Middletown, Pa. JEDNOTA Middletown, Pa. ZENSKA JEDNOTA Cleveland, Ohio KATOLICKY SOKOL Passaic, N. J. ZORNICK_A Wilkes-Barre, Pa. SLOVAKIA $4.00 per annum in the U.S.A. - $5.00 elsewhere PRINTED IN THE U.S.A. JEDNOTA PRESS Middletown, Pennsylvania 17057 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1974, Vol. 24 Description An account of the resource Vol. 24 (No. 47), 1974. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document 210 SLOVAKIA CURRENT ISSUES RESOLUTIONS ADOPTED AT CONFERENCE OF THE SLOVAK LEAGUE OF AMERICA IN NEW YORK CITY, MAY 19, 1973 Your Holiness: In the name of more than 350,000 American-Slovaks, the greater majority Catholic, and supporting the Slovak League of America and its cultural and civic programs, we extend cordial greetings. We appreciate your efforts and dedication to obtain equal rights for all Catholics and to continue the ecumenical co-operation with all Christians and believers throughout the whole world. We also present to you a petition asking that you give particular attention to the land of our forefathers-Slovakia -cradle in 833 of Christianity in Central Europe and ever devotedly loyal to the Holy See. Notwithstanding this historic fact, Slovakia, oppressed by the atheistic Soviet regime in civil affairs, lacks, in the spiritual domain, its own province, does not have a single archbishop and for so long a time, no Slovak has achieved cardinalhood. Of course, Slovak Catholics share their sufferings with their Lutheran and Greek Catholic brethren. We respectfully suggest that Slovakia be accorded similar recognition as Bohemia, Moravia, Slovenia, Croatia and many other countries in Africa and Asia. We are confident that among dedicated and oppressed Slovak clergy can be found an archbishop to lead a Slovak ;irovince as in days gone by. Such a magnanimous gesture would invigorate all Slovaks at home as well as here in America. We believe that your Holiness by such a decision will strengthen us and thus fortify our fidelity to the Vatican and reverence to the throne of St. Peter. Very respectfully and sincerely, Edward J. Behuncik, President Dr. Joseph Pauco, Secretary Dear Mr. President: The Slovak League of America on the occasion of its 1973 Conference here in New York extends cordial greetings. We hope you will continue to enjoy good health and achieve even greater success in your efforts on behalf of all citizens of whatever origin. We unequivocally endorse your stand in Vietnam and welcome your policy in Europe and Asia. As you are well aware, our origins are in Central Europe, in SLOVAKIA 211 Slovakia, which has a more than 1100 year Christian history and which for many centuries, excepting a brief period, has lived in subjugation. Now, Slovakia is in its fifth year of Soviet occupation and deprivation by the communists of all human, spiritual and political rights. So, today, we again respectfully request that you, individually as our leader, as well as your entire administration, continue to remember Slovakia and the other oppressed nations behind the Iron Curtain. All thes•e subjugated peoples seek and des·erve statehood and democratic freedom such as we in the United States are so fortunate to enjoy. In your discussions with the leaders of the totalitarian world, we ask that you give high priority to this humane cause. W!! are confident that if permitted free elections, our brethren in Slovakia would officially confirm their dedication and devotion to the United States of America as the stalwart guardian of human freedoms . Most Sincerely, Edward J. Behuncik, President Dr. Joseph Pauco, Secretary DECLARATION ADOPTED AT THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF THE SLOVAK WORLD CONGRESS HELD IN CHICAGO ON JUNE 30TH 1973 The representatives of Slovaks abroad gathered at the General Assembly of the Slovak World Congress, held in Chicago on June 28-30th, 1973, adopted the following Declaration: (1) We consider ourselves an integral part of the Slovak people. We are conscious of our co-responsibility for their destiny and for their contribution to the overall culture of humanity. (2) We claim for the Slovak nation, on the basis of its national individuality, recognition for an equal status with other sovereign nations of the world. (3) We deny any Great Power the right to interfere with the destiny of the Slovak people and to integrate Slovakia in other states or zones of influence which are opposed to the will of the Slovak people and their national interests. We consider such actions, condemned as they are by all civilized people of the world, to be a violation of the Charter of the United Nations. (4) We demand the departure of all occupation forces from Central Europe in order that, after more than a quarter 212 SLOVAKIA of a century since the end of the War, the nations of that area can finally govern themselves. (5) As representatives of a nation conscious of its responsibility towards others, we consider the principles of democracy and humanism the basis for peace and co-operation among the peoples of the world. (6) On these principles alone, life in freedom and a free culture can develop in Slovakia according to the traditions of the Slovak people and in harmony with the progress of the world. PHILIP A. HROBAK YEAR January 10, 1974 marked the tenth anniversary of the death of Philip A. Hrobak, and on May 1, 1974 we will mark the seventieth anniversary of his birth. These special dates impel us to honor his memory in a special way. He was one of the most deserving of our cultural and civic workers from among the many American-born Slovaks and one who dedicated himself to the Slovak cause since early manhoJd. Philip A. Hrobak, as a newspaperman, writer, histocian, linguist, fraternalist and organizer rose to heights in American Slovak life. His contributions to the Slovak cause in both English and Slovak are most noteworthy and memorable in Slovak history. Therefore, the Slovak League of America deems it a special honor to be able to lend itself to the legacy of Philip A. Hrobak. Not only did he honorably serve as a long time editor of JEDNOTA, as the founder and editor of "Slovak Newsletters," "Jednota Annual Furdek" and "Slo·v akia", but also as a distinguished President and member of the Executive Committee of the Slovak League of America-all this is his eternal monument. Bowing before his genius, we turn to our Slovak people and we seek recognition in 1974 of the unfinished dreams of Philip A. Hrobak and so-licit continued help in proving that we i>..re all worthy followers of this g,r eat son of our people. For the Slovak League of America, the year 1974 will be the time of increased activity, as he idealized and set by his example. In tribute to his linguistic talents, we can have the opportunity to help build a strong scholarship fund for the League, because the main purpose of this fund is to preserve and enhance, as he desired, the Slovak conscience in America. Surely, there cannot be any American Slovak who would not make his or her contribution to our scholarship fund in memory of Philip .A. Hirobak. The Slovak League of America also feels compelled to follow the SLOVAKIA 213 footsteps of Philip A. Hrobak in other fields. In the firat place, we must preserve and continue with the annual "Slovakia", we must daily and fairly continue to inform the American public of the ideals and accomplishments of the American Slovaks, and we must continue our cl-forts to renew the rightful place of the Slovak nation as an independent unit in the family of nations. These were the goals of Philip A. Hrobak, and our Slovak League has so proceeded in the last ten years since we with heavy hearts bid a sad farewell to our never-forgotten leader. With prayer, with labor, and with sacrifices we thus honor this meritocious Slovak son. May the memory of Philip A. Hrobak be perpetual. Edward J. Behuncik, President Dr. Joseph Pauco, Secretary As the others see it represented. What to me is more worse, is the attempt to sublimate the Slovaks into the Czech people. That's why we hear about a 'Czechoslovak nation'. It does not exists! Czecho-Slovakia is a political entity of two nations - the Czechs and the Slovaks. I never think of myself as Czech. I am Slovak and nothing else."- Rev. John Zornan, President of the Slovak Zion Synod, "What kind of man is Alex Del- National News, Pittsburgh, Pa., vecchio? (Playing for Detroit Red August 1, 1973. Wings.) He's middle aged, 41. A guy who you can't get in an "Despite the courage and per• argument with. His salt-and-pepper severance the Slovaks and other gray hair is impeccably coiffured peoples of Eastern Europe have around round Eastern European displayed time and again in their face (his late mother was a Slovak; relentless search for internal liberhis father Italian.)" - Bob Naylor, ties and external sovereignty, they Detroit Free Press, December 9, cannot achieve their goals without 1973. outside help. It is our duty, and only in keeping with our own "The idea of 'Slovak Heritage' is to extend our support. The ideals, quite intriguing to me. It implies world will not know genuine that we have one. Looking at hisevery country enjoys tory books, however, you might peace until freedom and can exercise the right have doubts. Even when discussing to self-determination. Central Europe, the Slovaks as a "The history of Slovakia is one nation are often forgotten or mis- "Call a Slovak Czechoslovak and you plant a burr under his skin. To a Slovak, named for a geograph• ic region divided by the wars and politics, that frequent error is more than just misnomer; it conveys a complete historical misunderstanding of who he is." - Sue Morse, The Herald Statesman, Yonkers, N. Y., November 30, 1973. 214 SLOVAKIA of turmoil, frustration, and heroic struggle. Your continued devotion to the cause of a free and independent Slovakia - despite hundreds of years of oppression - is an inspiration to those of us who cherish freedom as you do. These are the characteristics that help us, in maintaining a better and stronger America. "The existence of the World Congress is an important step in achieving your long delayed place among the family of the free naRobert P. Hanrahan, tions." Member of Congress. U.S. Senator Adlai E. Stevenson. "I am sure all of the American Slovaks sincerely wish to acknowledge the plight of their brethren under Communist oppression. The Slovak people strongly pursue the course that someday freedom will reign in all corners of the world. People of America need to be remainded of the severe repressing of Communist-held nations of the world endure." - U.S. Senator Hugh Scott. "Slovaks of Cleveland brought many Christmas customs from the old country, notably the custom of caroling. Among the most cherished Slovak folk songs are those sung at Christmas time. These carols are sung not only in churches, but also in the homes of the faithful, no matter how many generations they have lived here." - Sun Herald, Cleveland, 0., December 20, 1973. "We must re-dedicate ourselves to cause of all captives of Communism. Recognizing that the world cannot enjoy peace until all peoples are free from yoke of Communism. Please continue your dedication to the traditions, cultural life, religious beliefs, and desire for independence on behalf of Slo"There is a strong feeling of vak people everywhere."- Edward awareness among some ethnic J. Derwinski, Member of Congress. members of the younger generation. "I do want you to know I share There are also strong indications your commitment to the Slovak that the melting pot concept can people and to strengthening the no longer be maintained and that ties with their sons and daughters America is beginning to recognize throughout the world. I know we and appreciate the diversity of its will not falter in our efforts to ethnic populations in terms of a insure that no people need face re- new cultural pluralism."- Dr. Goy, pression and indignity as a result a member of City College's library of their yearning to be free." - faculty, New York, N. Y. SLOVAKIA 215 -------------- WHO'S WHO Among American Slovaks JOSEPH C. K RAJ SA It was a mark of social maturity when the Chamber of Commerce of the Greater Harrisburg Area decided to have "Slovak power" for its presidency. Such is progress that it is hardly news anymore when a second-generation American of ethnic background and working-class origins becomes the leader of the town's top capitalists. Pardon us, Karl Marx. Joseph Charles Krajsa is the 60th president of the Harrisburg Chamber. He is so ethnic that more than half the Chamber's members can't pronounce his name correctly: It is "Crysa," and Anglicized it would mean "nicer." Well beyond his own physical size - 6-foot-1 and 240 pounds Krajsa is a big man. He was manager of the Allentown Finance Co. for 14 years, which is owned by his older brother, John. He has the equivalent of two college degrees and has a speaking knowledge of seven languages. He was an outstanding football, baseball and basketball coach for 11 years. And, lastly, he served as auditor and vice president of the First Catholic Slovak Union, and is now the editor of its bilingual weekly, Jednota, and manager of the Jednota home, farm and printery. Very much a Slovak as a warm convivial person, Krajsa also is a Rotarian, Elk, Legionaire and democrat. He once was a topflight golfer who won country-club trophies. "I find more businessmen in this Chamber, for example, wanting to be more human, wanting to share their good fortune," he said. "The single-minded emphasis on economics has diminished. A person must be involved politically, socially and religiously, as well as economically, to be well-rounded, and more and more businessmen understand that." Krajsa, 56, grew up in Allentown. His father was a wire-worker from Skalica in Slovakia and emigrated to America in 1906. Old Joe Krajsa married a girl living here, Agnes Baranek, a native of Horna Krupa, Slovakia. He built his own home and started a corner grocery. Everybody knew and loved the Krajsas. "Put it on the book," or "na knizku," they said as Father Krajsa had a credit book, so the neighborhood could have its groceries. One of the articles in Krajsa's published Furdek 1974 is entitled "Slovaks Are Lovers." The author asserts, "Slovak mothers can equally match the 'Good Jewish Mother' of book fame." A Slovak mother will say to her daughter, "Ja som t'a nevychovala, aby si behala za muzami," or "I didn'-t raise you to go chasing after men." Many Slovaks came to America between 1880 and 1920, with most of them settling here between 1900 and 1910. Thousands settled in Pennsylvania, and the men became the muscle of this commonwealth's steel, coal and railroading indus- 216 SLOVAKIA tries. Of Slovak descent are Astronaut Eugene A. Cernan, Penn State's great lineman, Mark Markovich; Will Hartack, Chuck Bednarik, Johnny Bucha and George Blanda. Stan Musial is half-Polish and half-Slovak. Blanda's mother is president of the Jednota lodge in Youngwood. There were 277 scattered Slovak fraternal organizations and widoworphan funds when in 1890 the Rev. Stephen Furdek, of Cleveland, organized the national union called Jednota (the word means union, or united). Nineteen years later the Middletown property of the aristocrat Simon Cameron Young was purchased for $38,000. What originally was 298 acres is now 255 acres, but worth well over one million dollars. The old orphanage, now phased out, cared for 4,000 children in its history. The newspaper Krajsa edits and writes for has a circulation of 40,000. Jednota also publishes 15 book titles annually. It is building a million dollar printery. Krajsa was elected editor for a three-year term in 1964, and he keeps being re-elected. He arrived in Middletown when Olmsted Air Force Base was closing, so immediately he plunged into civic activity. It got him involved in Chamber of Commerce work, and he did so well that the Chamber named him president last October. Krajsa had a typical Americanimmigrant family upbringing. He did well in his studies. He captained Allentown Central Catholic High School's basketball team, was center on the football team and pitched for the baseball team. He went on to East Stroudsburg State College, where he was a stellar athlete, and then was a Navy chief petty officer in World War II. After the war, he married Romanza Fairman, from Kansas City, and settled in Allentown. He put in 11 years at Central Catholic High lurning in several state championship teams and ending up as athletic director. Meanwhile, he was in the finance business, too. The Krajsas have four children: Joe, in insurance, Mike, administrative assistant in the Agriculture Department; Maryagnes, assistant to the Dauphin County Democratic chairman, and George, an athlete at Middletown High. Krajsa's desire for the Chamber of Commerce is a Slovak's wish for more unity, more strength of purpose and more aggressiveness for the community. "We can get unity and not take a thing away from anybody," he said looking toward the West Shore. He believes that the county line should be easier to cross than the ethnic line over which his presidency already has triumphed. Paul B. Beers, Associated Editor The Evening News Harrisburg, Pa. THE SLOVAK LEAGUE OF AMERICA heartily commends all efforts of our governmental and other organs to ferret out and unmask all Communists and fellow travellers, as well as all persons and organizations who wittingly or unwittingly give aid and comfort to the conspiracy of Communism promoted by the Soviet Union. SLOVAKIA - 217 Book Reviews Books on Slovakia and Slovaks Reviewed by Prof. J. M. Kirschbaum writes about the Czech l.'esistance during the last years of the War. Three contributions deal with the Slovak problem. Hans Kaiser writes about integration of Slovakia into national socialist war economy; In this carefully edited volume, Ladislav Lipscher examines the in12 German scholars and specialists fluence of the Third Reich on the in Czecho-Slovak affairs analyze the policy of the Slovak government eventful year of 1945 in Czecho- with regard to the Jewish problem, Slovakia. Some of the contributors and Jorg K. Hoensch gives a generare known as experts in the prob- al survey of the situation in Slovalems of Eastern Europe. Others kia in 1945. specialized in the German-Czech The remaining contributions deal relations or in the Slovak problem. with the transfer of the Sudeten Since until recently the German Germans and its consequences (Pescholars avoided publishing the re- ter Burian); with rebuilding of the sults of their research on Czecho- Communist Party of Czecho-SlovaSlovakia, their views will be of lda in 1945 (Heinrich Kuhn); with interest for schoiars in the West. the constitutional problems in The volume gives a survey of Czecho-Slovakia in 1945 (Helmut international, national and socio- Slapnicka); and with the integraeconomic problems in Czecho-Slova- tion of the Sudeten German expelkia in 1945, but two contributions, lees in Germany. The book provides abundant inone by Ferdinand Seibt, and the other by Karl Bosl, outline the formation on each topic and referhistorical background of boundary ences to sources used indicate that problems and basic information on German scholars weve dealing with the division of Germany by the their subjects with great effort to present an objective picture of Allies. Further contributions deal with Czecho-Slovakia in 1945. Their Czecho-Slovakia itself during the views and conclusions will, thereWar and her l'estoration in 1945. fore, be at variance with some Peter Kruger gives a survey of the Western specialists in East Central views of the Allies on Czecho-Slo- ; Europe, including the emigre Czech vakia from the Atlantic Charter to j historians. Czecho-Slovakia has the Potsdam Conference; Martin K. been presented in the West during Bachstein outlines the policy of I the past decades with evident relithe social democratic exiles from ance on Czech sources and favoring Czecho-Slovakia and Detlef Brandes I the Czechs. Especially Slovakia was Karl Bosl: Das Jahr 1945 in der Tschechoslowakei, Vortrag,e der wissenschaftlichen Tagung des Collegium Carolinum, R. Oldenbourg, Mlinchen-Wien, 1971, 316 p. 218 SLOVAKIA treated with bias, mostly as a "postscriptum" to Czech history, and the cruel and often inhuman treatment of minorities or political adversaries was overlooked. German scholars endeavored to be factual and objective and since some of them were born or raised in Czecho-Slovakia, their knowledge of the prob!ems discussed in their contribution cannot be doubted. Nevertheless, they present a German view, because nobody can separate himself fr.om his own background and personal or national experience. · And the manner in which Prague solved the Sudeten German problem in 1945 was bound to create deep resentiment and animosity, which is not easy to overcome. Slovakia is treated in the book with more understanding and impa.rtiality than is the usual case in Western historiography; there is nevertheless certain bias in all three contributors "with regard to the Slovak republic, including the article ·by Jorg Hoensch. Hoensch published two well researched books on Slovakia in the past but, in many instances, adopted the Czech or the Slovak Marxist view of the wartime Slovakia. This also occurred in his present contribution which is well researched and refers also to Slovak emigre political literature. Nevertheless, some conclusions were made by Hoensch on assumptions and not on facts. For instance, his view that "the majority of the Slovak leading strata and, even more, the large masses of the population believed during the war that their social ,i nterest and political rights would be better preserved in the restored Czechoslovakia" and that the Slovak Republic "could not give proof -of its viability (Lebensfiihigkeit)" is a part of Czech and Communist propaganda which was recen_tly contradicted and abandoned even by Slovak Marxist historians (see books by L. Liptak and S. Falt'an). Likewise is disputable his statement that the "Slovak population accepted with equal passivity the introduction of the peoples democracy and the declaration of the Slovak Republic." The enthusiastic manifestations in Slovakia in 1939 can hardly be compared with the fear from rape, confiscation, deportation and hiding in cellars which ·could be witness in Slovakia ' during the first months of the restoration of Czecho-Slovakia. Also treated in the volume are two important problems for Slovakia during the war years: the integration of Slovakia into the German war economy and the policy of the Slovak government with regard to the Jewish problem. Hans Kaiser deals with the first topic and gives a well researched survey of the impact of Germany on Slovak economy, and of the pressures used by Berlin on the Slovak government. Kaiser's contribution is the first one in the West to deal expertly · with the subject. So far, only the Marxist historians or economists published studies on the economic situation in Slovakia during th e War and their approach was a priori hostile. The views of the members of the Slovak government and Slovak economists who did not side with the regime imposed upon Slovakia in 1945, are buried in the archives of the "people's courts" and only in part were published by Slovak emigre politicians and writers. The picture of Slovak :war economy presented by Kaiser cannot, therefore, be without flaws. It is, in any case, a useful basis for further research and full presentation of the economic development of Slovakia during the Second , World War. SLOVAKIA · 219 The third contributio n dealing I Horst Glass!: Die slowakische Geschichtswis senschaft nach 1945 with Slovakia touches on the prob(Slovak Historiogra phy After !em which harmed Slovaks and 1945), Otto Harrassowi tz, Wies their reputation in the world, but baden, 1971, 166 pages, Register. the11e were only a few attempts to put the policy of the Slovak governThe author and the publisher of ment towa!'ds Jews into a proper this book deserve recognition for perspective. making available to Western scholars and students of history an Lipscher's contributio n analyzes objective survey of Slovak historithe influence of the Third Reich on ography after 1945. Except for that policy on the basis of G€rman short summaries in one or two archives and partly also on the foreign languages, writings of Slohave been published Slovak sources. In comparison vak historians 1945 exclusively in Slovak since with many articles published on and, as such, they have remained this subject in the West, Lipscher's inaccessible to most of foreign hiscontributio n is marked by an effort torians. Glassl's book provides at to present the policy of the Slovak least those Western historians who impartial governmen t more objectively and read German with an phy and historiogra Slovak at look with considerab le restraint from during blaming only the Slovak govern- its remarkable developme nt decades. two past the ment in harsh terms, as has been the case until now. Lipscher does The book is the result of a thornot make any reference to sources ough research in Slovakia itself. of Slovak emigre historians and The author compiled considerab le political writers who dealt with the knowledge of writings on Slovak subject and he recognized that the history by both the old traditionalproblem would require further ist and the recent Marxist historistudy. This indicates that he enIn his attempt to give an obans. deJvored to approach the problem pictul'e he points to the jective wi th impartiality and, as a result, and ideological interrestrictions his contributio n may be a beginwhich Slovak histounder ference ning of dealing with the tragedy or remain silent write to had rians of Jews in Slovakia with more "It lasted 1956. until 1948 after understand ing of the circumstan ces "before Glassl, says years," several and pressures under which the developthe that possible was it Slovaks could not save more Jewment of Slovak historiogra phy and ish citizens than they did. research could come up with noA complete review of this volume ticeable results. Under the pressure would, of course, require to deal of the circumstan ces in those years with all the other contributio ns (Slovak) histo1ians had to take into which give a survey of many prob- considerati on the political goals lems in the Czech part of Czecho- and requiremen ts. The Communist Slovakia, and analyze the relations Party which took over power in between Czechs and G€rmans in- Czecho-Slovakia required complete cluding the expulsion, often under re-writing of the whole historiinhuman circumstan ces, of the Su- ography acco11ding to Marxist crideten Germans. teria ... many historians were fired 220 SLOVAKIA from their positions, and some of works on Slovakia. The author made undoubtedly a very thorough th,em were even sent to jails." On the other hand, the author research into the writings and publications of Slovak historians and underlines that there was a remarkable development of Slovak produced a standard work on a historiography since the War either high academic level. in the number of books published or in the number of institutes and people involved in research. Unlike Marxist or some Western historians, Glass! also states that "during the period of the Slovak Republic (]939-1945) , there was a fruitful development in the field of historical research even though the war was not the right time for a successful build-up of this discipline." He considers it as wrong and unjust of the Marxist historians to belittle the results of this period in research into the history of Slovakia. Glass! also refers to the writings of Slovak scholars in Western countries but for some reason he became acquainted only with the works published by Prof. M. Lacko and with one book and one essay by this reviewer. Writings of other Slovak historians, especially those pertaining to the period of the 18th and 19th centuries, escaped the author, which is regrettable, because they shed a different light on Slovak national awakening from that of Marxist historiography. The book stops at the year 1918 and leaves out the past 60 years during which Slovakia, as well as Slovak historiography, experienced an unexpected development. The explanation for this is given by the author in the Preface by one sentence: "For understandable political reasons, the inclusion in this survey of the writings dealing exclusive,l y with the period 1918-1960 was abandoned." Even in the present form the book is a very valuable scholarly addition to the foreign language MORE ABOUT BOOKS Slov akia in the 19th and 20th Centuries, Edited by Prof. Joseph M. Kirschbaum ; Preface by S. B. Roman, published by the Slovak World Congress, Toronto, Ont. , 1973, 368 p., bibl., $12.50. The Slovak World Congress published for the General Meeting held in Chicago on June 28th-July 1st, 1973, another English book on Slovakia which deserves special attention. While the first publication by the Congress outlined the historical and cultural background of Slovakia, this new voluminous work will give the readers an insight into the political and literary developments in Slovakia in the 19th and 20th centuries. In his Preface to the book, the President of the Slovak World Congress, Stephen B. Roman, explains that the Slovak World Congress "undertook to publish this book with the desire to contribute to the search for historical truth about Slovaks and thereby to help better understanding and co-operation among the nations of Central Europe. It is our firm belief that peoples of that vital area can regain their political freedom and build their future only in close co-oper ation and only if each recognizes the equal rights to independence that each has." One cannot but agree with such aim and the contents of the book confirm that it was also the intention of the editor and contributors. The book is composed of contributions by 20 authors, four of 221 SLOVAKIA whom are of non-Slovak origin, and it is divided into four parts. The first part deals with Slovak national philosophy and the subject is treated by two known Slovak professors, Charles Murin from the University of Montreal, and Stefan Polakovic, former professor at the University of Bratislava. The second part deals with Slovak politics and culture in the 19th and 20th centuries and contains contributions by Prof. J. A. Mikus, Msgr. J. Rekem, Dr. Stefan Osusky, Prof. F . Vnuk, Dr. F. f>urcansky, Prof. E. Loebl, Prof. Stefan Glejdura, Dr. lmrich Kruzliak and Rev. Mikulas Sprinc. Part three deals with the relations of Slovakia with her neighbors and among the contributors are mostly authors of non-Slovak origin. On Slovakia under the Habsburg rule, an interesting survey was written by a members of the Jlabsburg dynasty, Archduke Robert of Austria while Slovak-Hungarian relations are treated by Prof. George Perenyi-Lukacs with comments by Dr. Arved Grebert and Prof. J . M. Kirschbaum. Prof. Thaddeus Gromada contributed an excellent essay on Slovak-Polish relations and Slovak-Russian relations are analyzed and evaluated by Prof. Stefan Glejdura and Miroslav Licko. Prof. Kurt Glaser, author of the book, Czecho-Slovakia - A Critical History, closed this chapter with a scholarly treatise on "National States Versus Federalism in Central European Future," commented upon by Prof J. A. Mikus and Prof. J. M. Kirschbaum. In the last part, the book deals with Slovaks abroad and their attitude towards Slovakia. It contains two essays, one by Dr. Joseph Pauro and another by Dr. F . Braxator. An extensive Select Bibliography on Slovakia completes the contents of this standard work. We cannot but welcome this new English book on Slovakia and Slovaks abroad. It fills an important gap which existed for a long time in presenting Slovakia's political and cultural development in the 19th and 20th centuries to the Western world in an objective manner. For the first time 20 experts are expressing their opinions on various subjects pertaining to Slovakia. They belong not only to two generations, as the editor of the book observed, but "also represent two schools of thought and, therefore, the book presents a confrontation of views on the Slovak p:i.st and present." In form and contents, the book is a scholarly work. The editor, Prof. J . M. Kirschbaum, took his task seriously and enhanced the volume by an extensive bibliography in several languages. He also paid tribute to American Slovaks by stating that "at the end of the First World War, Slovakia was freed from Hungarian rule above all by the efforts of Slovaks who settled in the United States and by Slovak legionaries fighting on the side of the victorious powers. This gave American Slovaks and all Slovaks abroad not only recognition and a new sense of patriotism but also a consciousness of their mission to speak on behalf of the Slovak people when they are silenced." It would be desirable that this volume be followed by a book on Slovak culture, especially arts and literature of the past two hundred years. A conference on these topics, at the next general meeting of the Congress could help to achieve this goal. Joseph P a u co 222 SLOVAKIA TWO PUBLICATIONS BY l\'lATICA SLOVENSKA Matica slovenska was degraded by the Communist regime and went through several periods of regimentation and persecution of her leading representatives and cultural workers. Independent of political pressure and refusing to serve political parties or ideologies, Matica slovenska was, before 1945, a cultural institution which belonged to the nation and represented the highest aspirations of all Slovaks. The Communist Party made Matica slovenska a subservient tool of the regimes imposed upon S'lovakia since 1945. In spite of this nefarious situation, Matica slovenska succeeded in developing Slovak culture at least in some sectors. Among these sectors, literary history and philology deserve our consideration. vakia from literary to musical. This was a neglected sector in the past mainly due to the lack of experts and, therefore, we have to welcome this publication. Of special interest for elucidating some periods of Slovak history is, however, the essay by Jozef Kuzmik : Book Culture Among the Slova/c Slavs in the Years 863-1000. The period of Great Moravia became a favored subject for Slovak intellectuals during the past two decades. In Kuzmik's contribution we find some interesting information about the territorial extent of the ancestors of today's Slovaks, as well as about their book culture which were in the past hardly known or were insufficiently explored. Unfortunately, the publication has only a Russian and German summary and, therefore, it is accessible to a very limited number For several years, Matica has of scholars in the Anglo-Saxon published a series of publications world where there are still many dealing with Slovak literary life misconceptions about the Slovak entitled:Letopis pamiitnika sloven- past. A new confusion was created s/cej literatury and Literarny ar- even recently by scholars of Magchiv. We have revi,ewed some issues yar background who tried to deny in the past in Slovakia, underlying the cultural heritage of the Great their significance for Slovak litera- Moravian period to Slovaks. Li t erarny archiv 8/ 71 is a valuture. We have now received Litercirny archiv 8/ 71, edited by Michal able source for literary history on Elias, and Letopis 19 72 , edited by several Slovak poets and writers Juraj Chovan-Rehak, and some not only of the 19th century but comments would perhaps be ap- also of the 20th century. The publication deals mostly with archive propriate. Letopis 1972 contains a number of materials, unknown manuscripts, or contributions dealing with various correspondence among leading Slosubjects from book culture (kniz- vak literary figures and cultural na kultura) among Slovak Slavs in workers. Even though the Commuthe years 863-1000 to several in- nist regime tried to regiment Sloteresting contributions on the de- vak literary history and endeavorvelopment of museums in Slovakia ed to impose Marxist criteria, Sloand the idiomatic vocabulary in vak intellectuals display more or the writing of Martin Kukucin. The less equal interest in the literary main part of the book is dedicated life of poets and writers who were to the history and development of I neglected in the past because of various types of museums in Slo- their religion or ideological orien- SLOVAKIA 223 Literature, government, law, education, etc. Even though hardly complete, the Bibliography shows that Canadian Slavists were not idle during the twenty post-war years. In spite of the fact that Slavic studies had to start in Canada from scratch, the Bibliography contains many titles of books, essays, studies and articles, which have given Canadian students a new picture of the history, culture and civilization of the Slavic peoples. From the Slovak point of view, we have many reasons to welcome this Bibliography. Similar American or European bibliographies either overlooked books, publicaJ.M. Kirschbaum tions and essays on Slovak history, Daniel Dorotich (ed.) : A Bibliogra- Language and literature by Slovak phy of Canadian Slavists 1951- authors, or made selection of writ1971 , University of Saskatchewan ings which presented Slovakia and Publications, Saskatoon, Sask., Slovak culture in the light of ad1972. verse propaganda and Czech linAfter the Second World War, a guistic and literary theses. The misnumber of Canadian universities conceptions about the Slovak people added to their usual curricular and their culture were cultivated courses on Slavic languages, litera- especially by the older generations ture and civilization. At some uni- of Slavists who studied at the Universities special Centres or Depart- versity of Prague and use as their ments of Slavic Studies were organ- source of information books pubized, while at other universities lished by Czech scholars before Slavic languages, literature and and during the Second World War. The new generation of Slavists history were taught within Departm ents of Modern Languages and at American and Canadian univerLiteratures and in History Depart- sities gradually detached itself from the old school. Using source ments. In Canada, professors of Slavic materials published in today's Slostudies were soon organized in the vakia and other socialist countries Ca nadian Association of Slavists ' as well as in Western countries' which held every year an annual they have no more any doubt that meeting within the framework of Slovaks are a distinct nation and Canadian Learned Societies. The their language and literature have present Bibliography gives an in- developed independently of the sight into the writings and pub- Czechs or other Slavs. The Bibliography compiled and lications of the members of the edited by Prof. Dorotich reflects Association. Prof. Dorotich, in compiling and this new trend in Slavic studies editing the Bibliography, followed with regard to Slovakia. By inlhe •usual division of subject mat- eluding over 50 titles (books, monoters _into general history, languages, graphs, essays, articles) published talion and those who were closer to the socialist outlook. As a result, Literarny archiv contains interesting information on Bernolak, Stur, Vajansky and Radlinsky, as well as on Janko Kral', Roy, Hamuljak and others. It is regrettable that also in this publication the summary is only in Russian and German. For Slovak literary history, both publications are nevertheless of importance and unveil to a great degree some periods of Slovak cultural development which were intentionally neglected before 1938 as well as during the Stalinist period. 224 SLOVAKIA by Prof. J . M. Kirschbaum in five languages, the Bibliography presents a new picture of Slovak history, culture, language and literature. Not only the main works on Slovakia in English are recorded, but also one book published in Slovak, monographs and essays in French, English, German and Spanish. In fact, the Bibliography is more complete in this respect that the Slovak Bibliography Abroad compiled by Prof. M. Lacko and published by the Slovak Institute (Rome, 1967). Since the Bibliography will go into the hands of many Slavists and into university libraries, we welcome this publication as a very useful guide for students and professors of Slavic studies. Joseph Pauco Joseph Pauco: Slovenski priekopnici v Amerike (Slovak Pioneers in America), The First Catholic Slovak Union, Cleveland, Ohio, 1972, English Introduction by J. C. Krajsa, Ill., 360 pages. Slovaks in the United States played an important role in the history of the Slovak people, but a complete story of their endeavors on behalf of Slovakia, their struggle for preserving national consciousness and cultural heritage has not yet been published. Due to political circumstances in Slovakia, historians either were not allowed or had no possibility to carry out research in order to compile a standard work which would present Slovaks in the United States in an objective light. It was only during the Second World War that two volumes: Dejiny Slovakov v Amerike (History of Slovaks in America) by Konstantin Culen were published in Slovakia. Since that time, only Slovak exiled intellectuals, including Culen, carried out a research and published monographs on the life and achievements of the large Slovak ethnic group in the United States. Historians in Slovakia were either not allowed by ,t he Communist regime or for ideological reasons avoided recording their struggle for survival and the many contributions of American Slovaks not only to their own national life but also to the fight for freedom and independence of the Slovak people. After Prof. F . Hrusovsky and K. Culen, Dr. Joseph Pauco deserves main credit for systematic research into the past and present of American Slovaks. For the past 20 years he published monographs on individual Slovak leaders and organizations of which the voluminous history of the First Catholic Slovak union deserves particular mention. In the present book he deals with 55 outstanding Slovak leaders who did the pioneering organizational, cultural and religious work among American Slovaks. The importance of this book should be, however, measured not only according to its literary value, but also against the fact that there are no organized archives and many printed documents are perishing. In spite of this, Dr. Pauco gathered many valuable facts about the individual leaders among whom there are clergymen of both denominations - Catholic and Lutheran - outstanding organizers of Slovak fraternal and cultural life, men and women of great dedication to the cause of preservation of Slovak cultural heritage. The author approached his subjects with great abjectivity and painted their profiles in a fluent, uncomplicated style to make the book readab1e to the general public and, at the same time, by many references to printed sources, useful to historians and researchers. SLOVAKIA Some of the chapters are shorter and contain only the most important data. Others present a full life story and evaluation of the activities and of the role the individual leaders played in the Slovak organizational, religious and cultural life in America. The reason for the uneven treatment of some pioneers was given by the author in the introduction to the book. As he says he was sometimes unable to gather, even the most neces~ary information, because there was no organization and no individuals in the past who would have preserved old newpapers, almanacs, minutes of meetings, or other archive materials. Since the Second World War the Slovak Institute in Cleveland and the recently organized Jankola Library have made an effort to gather and preserve archive materials pertaining to the Slovak ethnic group in the United States. In these circumstances, Pauco's present work, as well as his book on the First Catholic Slovak Union and numerous monographs, deserve special recognition. The book has, however, also its own value due to its composition, contents and style. Dr. Pauco produced a standard work comparable with writings of this kind on any other ethnic groups in America. The book also has a useful introduction by Joseph C. Krajsa, but it lack an English summary which would have given to the younger generations of American Slovaks and researchers at least the basic information on Slovak pioneers in America. Unless the author and the publisher intend to publish this work in English, it would be a useful thing to attach to the second edition an extensive English summary. J. M. Ki rs c h b au m 225 Joseph L. Dieska: "Faith and Reason" in the Life and Philosophy of Jacques Maritain, An Offprint from Most, Vol. XIX, No. 3-4, Cleveland, Ohio, 1973. Shortly before the death of the famous French philosopher, Jacques Maritain, Slovaks paid his tribute on the occasion of his 90th birthday in a commemorative study by Prof. Joseph L. Dieska under the title The Religious and Philo sophical Profile of Jacques Maritain. The scholarly essay was pub- lished in Slovak but the author prepared also an English version under the above title. Prof. Dieska was one of the known adherents of Maritain's philosophy already in Slovakia, and pursued his interests in the great Catholic philosopher's concepts also as Professor of Philosophy at the University of Dayton, Ohio, where he has taught for the past several years. The present essay is one of his numerous articles on the subjects. The Slovak and English texts contain a well written and well documented insight and analysis of Maritain's religious and philosophical profile. Dieska approached Maritain's philosophy from the position of "Faith and Reason" and explains the role of reason as well as the mystery of faith in Maritain's philosophy which became a part of the Catholic doctrine and influenced the thinking of several generations in Europe and elsewhere. His theories of creative evolution and his ability to find basic reality through intuition ,e xalted the spirit of man in many parts of the world. Known as neo-Thomism Maritain's philosophy anchors in the works and philosophical concepts of St. Thomas Aquinas. As Dieska explains, Maritain became adherent to the philosophy of St. Thomas as a result of his own independent reflections and 226 SLOVAKIA studies of various philosophers and ing tribute to Maritain also on because of the comparison he made behalf of Slovak intellectuals who between them. He found the truth are silenced in their native counhe was searching for in the an- try where Maritain's philosophy had a strong influence before Marxswers of St. Thomas. However, if it is true that Mari- ism was imposed as the only philotain followed the logic and argu- sophical concept tolerated by the mentation of St. Thomas, he put regime. J. M. Ki rs c h b au m both, in the view of Prof. Dieska, in a " new, modern, and contemporary setting. His language was ad- Encydopedic Directory of Ethnic Newspapers and P eriodicals in justed to the philosophical expresthe United States. By Lubomyr sions used today. His arguments R. Wynar. 260 pp. Libraries Unare aimed at and against modern limited, Inc., Littleton, Colorado, and recent objectors and critics. 1972. $12.50. And above all, when he speaks of For those interested in ethnic the necessity of taking faith and supernatural, revealed truths into studies a valuable tool has recentconsiderations while solving the ly been published to aid in learning political, social, ethical and estheti- 1 about the complex mosaic that is cal difficulties and 'crises' of our ' the United States of America. time, Maritain must transcend Tho- Whereas in the past the student mas and go much farther not, of of ethnic Americana had to wade course, in essential immutable, and through Ulrich's directories, or universally valid principles but in through state manuals, or specialtheir applications to the new, dif- ized histories, facility in locating Icrent and more complex situations data about 903 ethnic publications and issues. In these new approach- can now be had by utilizing Luboes lie the tremendous responsibility myr R. Wynar's Encyclopedic Diand significance of Maritain's Tho- rectory of Ethnic Newspapers and mistic solutions, proposals and Periodicals in the United States. often even sharp and merciless Included in this directory are escriticisms of the 'evils of time'"- scntials about 53 ethnic presses, ranging from the Albanian Press, concludes Dieska. As St. Thomas had found in Assyrian Press, Italian Press, JaAristotle a philosophical basis for panese Pr,ess, Slovak Press, Ukrainreconciling man's reason and ian Press, etc. , to some not poChristian faith, so Maritain, in half pular enough presses such as the a lifetime of philosophical study, Cossack, Cax,patho-Ruthenian, Flembrought a rejuvenated Thomism ish, Swiss, and Welsh. In cases such as Croatian, Sloveinto a modern age of scepticism and science. After the Second nian, and Serbian, there is a generWorld War, Maritain's vision and al heading as Yugoslav, which in philosophy helped lend strength effect increases the number of also to the whole Christian demo- presses substantially beyond the cratic movement which stood as a figure of 53. Data cited for pub1.Julwark against Communism and lications are: title translations, year founded, complete address to the Catholic Church. The author and the editor of (including ZIP), name of editor, Most deserve recognition for pub- language(s) , sponsor, circulation, Jishing both versions and for pay- frequency of publication, and sub- SLOVAKIA scription rate. In additions commentaries aid in explaining the scope of publications., e.g., the following for "The Handbook Ilbo'' (The Korea Times): "This publication, the only Korean daily in the United States, carries international, national, and local news of interest of the Korean community. Jllustrated. " Professor Wynar of Kent State University, both a librarian and an ethnic specialist, includes a very interesting Appendix of Statistical Analysis for each ethnic group, summarizing the number of publications, weekly circulation totals, monthly circulation totals, totals for native language publications, bi-lingual totals, and English language totals. An index to the publications completes the book. An interesting addendum to the book would have been an analysis of ethnic publications in each of the fifty states. This directory truly is the first comprehensive annotated guide to the current ethnic press in the United States and with its clear type and excellent alphabetical format clearly rates an A. Paul F e n c h a k Panorama: A H i storical Review of the Czechs and Slovaks i n the United States of America. Pub- lished by the Czechoslovak National Council of America, Cicero, Ill., U.S.A. Cicero-Berwyn Press, 1970, pp. 328, index. It is quite evident that there exists today in America a need for authorative works on the histories of the various ethnic groups which have contributed to the development of America. Objective, factual and concise histories of the various groups is essential. This volume of the dual histories of the Czech 227 and Slovak immigrations to America, unfortunately from a viewpoint of abjective Slovak history, seems to lack sufficient factual data to be accepted as a history of the Slovak immigration to America. From the standpoint of the history of the Czech immigration it is factu al, unbiased history but even then much is amiss particularly in the area of the religious development of the Czech community in the United States. Two basic criticisms can be found in the basic format of the work. The single most important error in the work is the fact that the various writers of Slovak topics are weak in objective reporting, so necessary in a historical work of this kind . Unfortunately the writers, who are of the " Czechoslovak" philosophical persuasion, would wa nt the reader to actually believe that only those Slovak organizations which support that philosophy have contributed to the development of the Slovak American community. In fact it must be remembered that over eighty per cent of the organized Slovak American community does not support the '· Czechoslovak" philosophy but ra ther a distinct Slovak philosophy within the family of nations. The authors seem to infer that the staunch Catholic mass of Slovak immigrants contributed little if anything at all to the development of the Slovak community in Am erica. It appears that such notables as Father Stephen Furdek, founder of the First Catholic Slovak Union, the co-founder of the First Catholic Slovak Ladies. Association and the founder of the Slovak League of America played a very minor role in the development of the Slovak community. Other prominent leaders such as Father Matthew Jankola, Joseph Rusek, 228 SLOVAKIA Anna Hurban and Philip Hrobak are not even mentioned. The second most important ingredient which is lacking in this work is organization. Various bits and pieces are scattered throughout the work on both the Czech and Slovak development in America and from an academic journalistic point of view it is quite primitive in its presentation. Too many writers cover certain geographical areas of the Slovak immigration but much is ignored and almost always repetitious. Too often the writers are offering opinionated biased reporting which is not acc-eptable by the vast majority of the Slovak community today. There exists a certain disorganization present in the work and most often it effects an objective Slovak history. In one area in particular the work is both factually deficient and openly opinionated, that is the area of the Slovak organization" in the United States. Such organizations as "Catholic Slovak Unity, Catholic Slovak Women's Unity. Unity of Catholic Sokols" are not acceptable as Slovak organizations, as such do not exist. Again faulty research is evidenced in the presentation of Slovak organizations. One area lists "all" the Czech and Slovak organizations in America and the largest and most important Slovak societies are not listed. Subjective reporting would lead one to believe that indeed the Slovak Gymnastic Union Sokol is the most importa nt and influential organization of Americans of Slovak descent. However factual research will reveal to the alert writer that in fact the above named organization has a membership of less than 24,000 while the First Catholic Slovak Union, the First Catholic Slovak Ladies Association, the Slovak Catholic Sokol, the Pennsyl- vania Slovak Catholic Union, the Ladies Pennsylvania Slovak Catholic Union and the First Slovak Wreath of the Free Eagle have a combined membership of over 300,000. The informed reader will at once note that Sokol U.S.A., as it is commonly associated and pubblicised in the America press is of the "Czechoslovak" philosophical persuasion while the other Catholic Slovak organizations representing the overwhelming majority of organized Americans of Slovak descent are not of the appendage philosophy but rather support a distinct Slovak path completely free of Czech domination. Another noteworthy fact is that the Sokol U.S.A. is the only Slovak organization of any magnitude which is a member of the Czechoslovak National Council of America. Included in the work is a Who's Who among Americans of Czech and Slovak ancestry. Again only those Slovaks who support the idea of a "Czechoslovak" culture, language and heritage are included. Not only are the above mentioned Slovaks notably absent but such luminary as Bishop Andrew G. Grutka, D.D., the Roman Catholic Bishop of Gary, Indiana and countless others who have contributed to the growth and development of the Slovak American Community. In the final analysis the work offers little insight into the history and development of the Slovaks in America. The history of the Czechs in America is acceptable but no t commendable since again the underlining theme is to discredit any theistic organizational development. The work in general is primitive in the Slovak sense and therefore can not be accepted as a factual history of the Slovaks in America. This work is a prime example of Czech and "Czechoslovak" chauvin- SLOVAKIA 229 ism in the interpretation of Slovak suring Czech hegemony in CzechoSlovakia, regardless of the fact history. Daniel F. Tanzone that the Communist movement is discredited by their policy. In some Eugen Steiner: The Slovak Dilem- ways Czech Communists resemble ma, Cambridge, at the University to Czech non-Communists or antiPress, 1973, 229 pages. Series Communists who used and still are International Studies, Published using democracy, socialism, liberalfor the Centre for International ism or Catholicism for imposing or Studies, London School of Eco- maintaining Czech hegemony over nomics and Political Sciences. others, especially Slovaks. The situation in Czecho-Slovakia between inthe in writes author the As troduction his aim was "to trace 1918-1938 attests to it sufficiently. the Communist attitude to national- The policy of Prague Governments ism, and to define the effects of from 1918 to this day proved that this attitude as far as the Slovaks Czechs are not capable to fulfill the arc concerned." Or in other words mission which the victorious Powhe "deals in microcosm with a ers entrusted to them in 1918 or major problem which lies at the again in 1945. Czecho-Slovalda did heart of the Soviet Union's policies, not become a barrier against German expansion or a bridge between internal and external." (p. 3) and West. Czech governments East Dr. Steiner uses the case of Slovakia to show how Communism forced into opposition against the fa iled to solve nationality problems. European block which created Not only in the Soviet Union was Czecho-Slovakia, not only the mithis problem hidden behind slogans norities but also Slovaks. Czech on the equality of nations, while politicians did not honor any agreethe Russians are the rulers, but ment, promise or pledge given to also in restored and by Communists Slovaks. They practiced such a policy regoverned Czecho-Slovakia. Steiner's book leaves no doubt that the Marx- gardless of the danger for the Leninist thesis on the problems of existence of the state or the misnationalities did not bring a satis- sion Czecho-Slovakia was to fulfill factory solution to the relations according to its friends and creabetween the Czechs and Slovaks; tors. After occupying Slovakia with on the contrary, since 1945 when the help of French and Italian Czecho-Slovakia was restored (a- military units in 1918, and with the gainst the will of majority of Slo- help of the Soviet armies in 1945, vaks) the Czech rule was imposed they disregarded their promises on Slovaks step by step, brutally and the rights of Slovaks to selfand without regard to promises and government. About the period of agreements. Up to 1948, the Czech 1918-1938 there is in Western lanCommunists found accomplices in guages comparatively large literanon-Communists. After 1948, they ture dealing with this subject. The imposed their rule on Slovaks with book by Dr. Steiner gives to Westthe help of a handful of collabora- ern readers sufficient information tors from Slovakia, mostly of non- and documentary evidence for the Slovak origin (Bacilek, Bil'ak, Mos- period of 1945-1968. Dr. Steiner writes in the introkovic, Daubner, Siroky and others). Czech Communists are using Com- duction to his book that he has munism as an instrument for as- "chosen exile as a Jew, as a Com- 230 SLOVAK.IA On the cover of Steiner's book munist and as a Slovak." He wrote his book from this point of view, there are reproductions of pictures which makes his work more inter- from demonstrations of Slovak esting and more valuable. It is a youth in Bratislava against the testimony of a "Jew, Communist Soviet occupation in August 1968. and Slovak" about the political On the posters we can read: "Slodevelopments in Slovakia in this vaks stand firm, they won't pass! Occupa nts go home!" These slogans century. His background and ideological o- express the feelings of Slovaks in rientation explain to a great degree Slovakia as well as abroad not only not only his favorable attitude to- against the So·,iet occupants, but wards regimes in 1918-1938 (though any occupants, including the Czechs. Czech Statistics can easily prove This conclusion can be found, if the opposite) but his negative stand carefully read, also in Dr. Steiner's towards the Slovak republic of book: The Slovak Dilemma. Dr. A. Gr eb er t, 1939-1945 as well. We understand Geneva, Switzerland that the anti-communist and antijewish measures of the Slovak Government could not meet with Slovak Studies, Historica 7 and 8, Vol. X and XI, Slovak Institute, his approval. It is, however, hard Rome-Cleveland, Editor Prof. M. to understand his attitude towards Lacko, S. J . Dr. Benes and his Government-inBoth volumes of Slovak Studies exile. Even such adherents of "Czechoslovakism" as were Dr. M. deal with history of Slovakia and Hodfu and Dr. S. Osusky disagreed except for the contribution by Dr. and at the end fought against Be- S. Nahalka, with the events of our nes and his anti-Slovak policy which century. Since the Marxist historihe later (after 1945) also practiced ans not only avoid certain subjects in co-operation with Czech Commu- but also write with prejudice and nists and non-Communists. Unfor- strictly from the Marxist point of tunately, Dr. Steiner deals with view, these volumes perform specific this rather superficially and un- role in historiography on Slovakia. convincingly. The post-war develop- In addition, their value is enhanced ments in Czecho-Slovakia prove by the fact that they are published that the Slovak-Czech antagonism in foreign language and two of the is not a matter of temporary politi - contributors were educated abroad. Students of modern Slovak hiscal situation but a fundamental and lasting feature of Slovak-Czech tory will welcome especially the relations. It is impossible to solve Ph.D. thesis by Sister M. E. Lubek, this problem within the "Czecho- "An Inquiry into the United States Slovak" framework. The successive _ Czechoslovak Relations between a_bolition, ~~er 1969, _of C~nstitu- I 1918-1948." There were many myths t10nal prov1S1ons dealing with the published on this subjects, but to federalization of Czecho-Slovakia, my knowledge, no scholarly work. mentioned in Dr. Steiner's book, Some years ago Prof. M. Mamatey prove convincingly the validity of shed some light on the period of the First World War, later years the above conclusions. In spite of some shortcomings, Dr. remained, however, unresearched. Steiner's book is a valuable contri- Yet, this is an interesting topic, bution to the historiography on since the United States played an important role in the emergence Eastern Europe. 231 SLOVAKIA of Czecho-Slovakia in 1918 and in her re-emergence in 1945. Needless to say that the treatise by M. E. Lubek does not cover all the aspects of the inter-state relations, remaining mostly in the field of politics and diplomacy. The study is nevertheless of the importance and will be useful for further research. For foreign historians dealing with Slovakia of special interest will also be the contributions by Prof. M. S. :l'.>urica, who researched Italian Military Documents in order to shed a new light on the tragic death of M. R. Stefanik, one of the founders of Czecho-Slovakia, and German biography of President Dr. J. Tiso by F. H. Schneider. We commented on the value of Prof. Durica's study when it was first published in Italian language (Slovalcia, Vol. XXIII, 1973) , and cannot but welcome the English version. Schneider's essay on the life and historical role of Dr. J . Tiso in Slovak politics is of importance for more than one reason. The adversaries of Slovak aspirations for independence - Communists and non-Communists - succeeded in presenting Dr. Tiso and his policies in Western countries in a distorted light. Even though, Dr. Tiso mostly suffered for his forced cooperation with Germany, there was a long silence about him and Slovakia among German historians. Schneider's contribution does not exhaust the subject and shows gaps, but it was high time to draw a little differe nt picture of President Tiso in ♦ ♦ German language than it was done by Prague and Slovak Communists. Unfortunately, Schneider overlooked some books and articles which contain substantial information on Dr. Tiso's life and politics, such as Prof. Murin's articles, one of Dr. Polakovic's books, many articles in Sl.ovakia and other sources. Dr. S. Nahalka's istructive article on "Holy Scripture among Slovaks" is a valuable contribution to the religious and cultural history of Slovaks. Religious history of Slovakia is one of the completely neglected fields in today's historiography in Slovakia, even though Slova ks survived as a nation mostly due to the fact that clergy (Catholic and Protestant) took over the cultural leadership and national struggle. Professor Lacko in his contributions presents the synthesis of the studies on Great-Moravian and Cyrillo-Methodian period and a survey of events which led to the reestablishment of the Greek-Catholic Church in Slovakia. The latter study would deserve to be completed by documents and names of people who in Slovakia and abroad helped the re-establishment. Both contributions are timely and instructive. Prof. Lacko deserves recognition also for his efforts to continue publishing the Slovak Studies. Slovak cultural activities abroad would be much poorer without this series. J. M. Ki rs c h b au m ♦ Life Membership in the Slovak League of America is $100.00 - join us! Write to: Slovak League of America, 313 Ridge Avenue, Middletown, Pa. 17057. SLOVAKlA 232 Our Contributor s theologian, author, Cambridge, Ontario Stephen Sencik, S.J. - Anthony X. Sutherland, Ph.D ., Columbus, Ohio Sr. Martina Tybor, SS.C.M. - author, Director, Slovak Institute, Cleveland, 0 . Andrew Pier, O.S.B. Joseph C. Krajsa - teacher, author, Danville, Pa. Editor, Jednota, Middletown, Pa. industrialist, Toronto, Ontario Stephen B. Roman - attorney-at-law, Stratford, Conn. Edward J. Behuncik - Joseph M. Kirschbaum, LL.D., Ph.D . Jozef Pauco, Ph.D. - historian, author, Toronto, Ont. author, historian, Middletown, Pa. Michael O'Pake, Esq. - State Senator, Reading, Pa. Daniel F. Tanzone, M.A. - teacher, Yonkers, N. Y. Susan Pojer, B.A., Yonkers, N. Y. professor, author, consultant for Rockefeller Foundation, New York, N. Y. Michael Novak, Ph.D. Paul Fenchak - teacher, Baltimore, Md. Steven I. Miller, Ph.D. - assistant professor, Loyola University, Chicago, Illinois Junior history major, Susquehanna University, Selinsgrove, Pa. William Wagner Francis Vnuk - historian; professor, Institute of Technology, Adelaide, Australia Dr. Arved Grebert - former Slovak diplomat, now in Switzerland Jane Noonan, Marlene Bartos, Stephen J. Knoblock - America Scholarship Winners Slovak League of OFFICERS OF THE SLOVAK LEAGUE OF AMERICA Honorary President : EDWARD J. BEHUNCIK President 2385 Main Street Stratford, Conn. 06497 Stephen J. Tkach , DR. JOSEPH PAUCO Secretary 313 Ridge Avenue Middletown, Pa. 17057 Vice Presidents: Milan V. Blazek, Stephen Suhajcik, Mary Piroch ' Executive Committee : Edward J. Behuncik, John A. Holy, Paul C. Kazimer, Tibor Kovalovsky, Joseph R. Kristotik, Dr. Joseph Pauco, John A. Sabol SLOVAK FRATERNAL ORGANIZATIONS (Affiliated with the Slovak League of America) THE FIRST CATHOLIC SLOVAK UNION Cleveland, Ohio - Membership: 104,500 ·-:i THE FIRST CATHOLIC SLOVAK LADIES ASSOCIATION Cleveland, Ohio .;_ Membership: 96,000 THE SLOVAK CATHOLIC SOKOL Passaic, N. J. - Membership: 53,000 PENNSYLVANIA SLOVAK CATHOLIC UNION Wilkes-Barre, Pa: - Membership: 18,000 LADIES PENNSYLVANIA SLOVAK CATHOLIC UNION Wilkes-Barre, Pa. - Membership: 16,500 SLOVAK NEWSPAPER'S JOURNALISTS' ASSOCI.A.TION (Affiliated with the Slovak League of America) SLOVAK NEWSPAPERS (Affiliated with the Slovak League of Americ,a) BRATSTVO Wilkes-Barre, Pa. SLOVAK V AMERIKE Middletown, Pa. JEDNOTA Middletown, Pa. ZENSKA JEDNOTA Cleveland, Ohio KATOLICKY SOKOL Passaic, N. J. ZORNICK_A Wilkes-Barre, Pa. SLOVAKIA $4.00 per annum in the U.S.A. - $5.00 elsewhere PRINTED IN THE U.S.A. JEDNOTA PRESS Middletown, Pennsylvania 17057  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Back Matter, Slovakia, Vol. 24 (No. 47) Description An account of the resource includes Current Issues; As the Others See It; Who's Who Among American Slovaks; Book Reviews; Our Contributors Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974 https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/51c144843ab1fd6e3714598095f41efa.pdf 8f723c282c925d723462bda5c3268e96 PDF Text Text �SLOVAKIA VOLUME XXIII • 1973 • N0.46 Editor JOSEPH PAUCO, Ph.D. LIBRARY Maranatha Bapti. t .t5ible College W a tert isconsin Published by THE SLOVAK LEAGUE OF AMERICA 313 Ridge Avenue • Middletown, Pennsylvania 17057 �Printed by JEDNCYI'A PRINTEJRY, Middletown, Pennsylvania, U. S. A. � �SLOVAKIA VOLUME XXIII • 1973 • N0.46 Editor JOSEPH PAUCO, Ph.D. LIBRARY Maranatha Bapti. t .t5ible College W a tert isconsin Published by THE SLOVAK LEAGUE OF AMERICA 313 Ridge Avenue • Middletown, Pennsylvania 17057 �Printed by JEDNCYI'A PRINTEJRY, Middletown, Pennsylvania, U. S. A. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1973, Vol. 23 Description An account of the resource Vol. 23 (No. 46), 1973. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1973 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document SLOVAKIA VOLUME XXIII • 1973 • N0.46 Editor JOSEPH PAUCO, Ph.D. LIBRARY Maranatha Bapti. t .t5ible College W a tert isconsin Published by THE SLOVAK LEAGUE OF AMERICA 313 Ridge Avenue • Middletown, Pennsylvania 17057 Printed by JEDNCYI'A PRINTEJRY, Middletown, Pennsylvania, U. S. A.  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Front Matter, Slovakia, Vol. 23 (No. 46) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1973 https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/7f3d57178064ccbd9b8bd1ad0e27fe50.pdf 3b95456ae0ac5fc7ae94b9895f63519f PDF Text Text SLOVAKIA 3 The Slovak Word Abroad Gorazd Z V O ni C ky A man on a motorcycle cried out as he whizzed by a motorist driving a Mercedes Benz rather leisurely: "Do you know something about Lambretta ?" The elderly man at the wheel of the car stepped on the gas to show the cyclist that he, too, had power, power and speed to pass up the Lambretta! Later he slowed down, and soon the motorcycle came into view and before long was passing him again. The young man on the motorcycle waved his hand and cried out as he passed the car a second time; "Say, do you know anything about a Lambretta." The man in the car this time did not resume the chase, thinking it was no use to race with a speed demon. Soon afterwards he came upon the Lambretta and its occupant piled up by the side of the road. As the young man disengaged himself from his motorcycle, the man in the car stopped and yelled out: "See there, you young smart aleck, where did it get you to show off, anyway?" Whereupon the slightly shaken up young motorcyclist retorted: "Who was showing off? I was merely asking you if you know anything about a Lambretta to tell me how to stop it." The same can happen to an inexperienced speaker; he may know how to start but not how to stop. In our case a sheet of paper is the best brake in the world. One mu.st first stop to reflect and then write it down. To perceive the kernel of a theme, we must first of all touch upon a few peripheral points on the subject at hand. A person seldom stops to consider what a word means. We are so accustomed to speak and converse that we do not even think about a situation that might arise when we cannot even utter a single word. A mute can best evaluate the value of the gift the spoken word. I speak of a gift because the spoken word is, in a sense, par t of a dowry bequeathed to us by the Creator. Think for a moment what a joyful event it is in a family circle when �4 SLOVAKIA a child comes out with its first word, which is somehow an integral part of every being as he says for the first time, 'Papa,' or 'Mama.' These first intelligible sounds are not only a pleasant surprise for the child's parents who gave him life, but a vital expression of his very being. The first words are important enough to be registered in a family album and an occasion for a family treat or celebration. Everyday life employs the spoken word as a usual, easy and effective means of communicatio n. The spoken word introduces us to the outside world, and works either for good or evil, according to one's inner motives and purposes. The word is a manifestation of our being and thoughts. If human thoughts are good and proper, so will be their outward expression, according to the saying: "What is in the heart is on the tip of our tongue.'' And Holy Scripture notes: "Out of the fullness of the heart the mouth speaketh." Imagine what our life would be like if we were limited to sign language. How far could we advance in civilization and culture? What would be our future destiny as thinking beings? On the other hand, how unbearable life would become if words were misused for lying, chicanery, deceit and instigation, or for indulging the passions and evil desires instead of being put to good use in promoting peace, justice and harmony in society. The meaning of the spoken word, like the written word, has a profound effect and has infinite range. We are aware of the fact that the Slovak spoken word reaches us and our fellow countrymen via radio broadcasts, e. g. from the Vatican, Radio Free Europe and other radio stations. I want to emphasize the Vatican Broadcast in that it unquestionab ly exercises widespread influence in the spiritual life of our Slovak countrymen in their native homeland. Until recently, dozens of letters came from listeners who expressed thanks for every word, declaring that the talks they heard were highly informative, enlightening and a powerful shield to defend themselves against the incessant tempest of anti-religious propaganda in the schools, from the press and radio, on television, in meetings of workingmen's associations, in army barracks, and reams of mis- �SLOVAKIA 5 information in textbooks, etc. This is a vital factor in preserving truth and a sense of justice in a country where all the forces militate against what is just, what is right and truthful. For obvious reasons we cannot publicize these letters, but they indicate beyond a shadow of a doubt that they get the message despite many obstacles that are set up to prevent them from hearing the truth. Permit us to quote briefly from one of these letters that speaks for many: "You have no idea how eagerly we wait for your broadcast. We pass on the information to others who cannot listen. The spiritual message about the Christian way of life for the faithful who constitute the healthy kernel of our Slovak nation is like a falling rain on a desert in our land in which the official press is forever agitating and scandalous. During the recent lull in the anti-religious movement not even such prominent persons as Archbishop Necsey or Bishop Trochta were given the opportunity to express what was in their minds and hearts, as if they did not have anything worthwhile to say to their unseen television audience of millions of fellow countrymen." The written non-Slovak word that has as its subject the Slovak and his life in his native land, or abroad. whether in the original or as a translation, has exceedingly great value. For example, in English we find a series of publications that deal with Slovak themes: history, folklore, folk songs, science, sociology, and almost every phase of Slovak culture and art. Dr. Inovecky's books in Italian truthfully inform the Italian public about the situation of the Catholic Intelligentsia, youth, priests and nuns in Slovakia where they are subjected to atheistic attacks. Although defenseless, they must face a formidable and heavily armed foe who daily attacks them with a barrage of diabolical propaganda. Dr. :ourica, professor of political science at the University of Padua, in his works presents a true picture of our times in the light of historical analysis and perception with precision and conclusive proof, while contemporary Slovak historians in Slovakia under pressing orders from the Party (Communist) must twist, falsify, blacken and distort everything, particularly the events of the second world war and its aftermath. �6 SLOVAKIA A number of valuable works have been published, too, in German, Spanish, and French. For detailed information Professor Michael Lacko, S. J. edited a Slovak bibliography for the years from 1945 to 1965. This come off the press as the 7th volume of Slovak Studies under the auspices of the Slovak Institute (Cleveland-Rome). Works by the old and new generations of Slovak writers in exile have been simply overwhelming. As we all know, perhaps, the old emigrants from Slovakia left their native land mainly for economic reasons. They emigrated to find employment and to assure their future existence. Most of them came from villages where literary tastes usually had as yet not developed beyond the stage of the almanac and the prayerbook. This was much the same in their new environment where the prayerbook and almanac were read but with one notable exception: now they had their own Slovak newspapers. The new wave of emigrants, to which we belong (after World War II) was quite different; it was more idealistic and ideological, and without false pride, it may be said, too, that it was more educated. And therefore, this new generation of emigrants from Slovakia had more estethic and literary tastes, which soon necessitated the publication of books and the establishment of publishing centers to keep alive the fires of Slovak literary and spiritual life abroad. Alphabetically, we may list Buenos Aires, Chicago, Cleveland, Danville, Middletown, Pittsburgh and Scranton in Pennsylvania, Munich, New York, Passaic in New Jersey, Toronto in Canada, Valparaiso and the Slovak Franciscans; Whiting, Indiana, the home of the immortal Father Lach, a great patron of Slovak literature, and Winnipeg, Man., in Canada, where Culen published several noteworthy works. Rome, however, must be recognized for its primacy in the field of Slovak publications abroad, both because here is concentrated the largest single group of Slovak emigrant writers under the sponsorship of the SS. Cyril and Methodius Slovak Institute. To date, the number of editions here has totaled 142, in all more than 30,000 pages of the Slovak word in print. This amazing output of the Slovak press, considering the brief span of the existence of the Institute in Rome, as well as, bearing in mind what �SLOVAKIA 7 obstacles it had to face and overcome, and new difficulties that keep on coming in its way, it is truly a priceless contribution to the spiritual treasury of the Slovak nation. Add to this fact, the Hlasy z Rima monthly over a period of almost twenty years (5,000 pages of printed matter), and you have a tremendous accomplishment which, to borrow a Biblical phrase in our case, these have worked long and perseveringly like the Israelites of old who in rebuilding the Temple in Jerusalem worked with a tool in one hand and a weapon in the other to defend themselves against the enemy in the event of a sudden attack. Let us look at the contents and supplementary material of the Slovak word (written) abroad. Its primary and foremost inspiration is Slovakia and its people: the country, the nation, the history of the country and its people, state institutions, political movements and currents and economic conditions, then, too, the religious aspect and the situation of the people of faith, the activity of the Church and its spokesmen and leaders, Slovak philology, literary history and criticism, architecture, archeology, medicine, the arts, music, books, about Slovaks living abroad, philosophical handbooks, catechetical works, notably Bystrik's catechism, (Nova Cesta) homiletic sources for preachers of the Word of God in Slovak, especially the various revised editions of Sacred Scripture, liturgical texts and prayerbooks, biographies of heroic men, Christian meditations, and finally general works in prose and poetry. Obviously, this is a great treasure, a rich inheritance, an almost inexhaustible source of infinite variety that helps to keep alive the genuine spirit of the Slovak nation in its historic homeland, as well as far beyond its natural boundaries throughout all parts of the free world. Now it is easier to reply to the question: "Of what importance are our Slovak publications abroad?" At the very outset of our brief study, let us reflect upon the religious angle. It is no secret, neither an untruth, to declare that the regime now ruling Slovakia is not only unfriendly but inimical to religion, employing all of its machinery to destroy the religious life of the people after depriving them of every means of publication and communication to resist godless warfare upon their Faith. What little religious publication the regime tolerates is so negligible that it serves the state rather than the Church �8 SLOVAKIA or religion, as far the press is concerned. This applies to the Spolok sv . Vojtecha, which once was the chief source of religious instruction and religious literary publications for the common people, as well as for the intelligentsia, but at present its publishing activities in the religious program have been reduced almost to zero. Meanwhile, its resources are actually being misused in the planning of the Party system for abetting and supplementing its ideological struggle against religion all along the line. A liturgical renewal from which an intensification of the spiritual life was naturally expected was announced as necessary to those who believe in God. This, of course, went against the grain of an actively aggressive atheism. Permission for paper and printing for this purpose advanced at a snail's pace and virtually came to a standstill as government requisition failed to materialize. Quite surprisingly, but soon fully understood, was a motherly concern by the atheistic regime to preserve the Latin liturgy intact, it was fearful of the introduction of the vernacular because the language of the people would strengthen the position of the church. Meanwhile, the Slovak Institute of SS. Cyril and Methodius in Rome edited and published a complete Slovak-Latin Missal which, under the circumstances (the result of Divine Providence actually), the civil authorities in Slovakia could not refuse entry because that would have given them a bad image abroad. Thus, the liturgical movement gained momentum and reached all parishes and became at the same time a manifestation of the strong faith of the people and a source of spiritual nourishment. In Rome a Slovak missal appeared in the latest postconciliar form and is now in use in Slovak parishes outside Slovakia. This has not only activated a spiritual renewal among the Slovak faithful abroad but has assured the preservation of the Slovak language in various parts of the free world, which is indirectly a vital contribution to the entire Slovak nation. Last year, only because of pressure from abroad, an edition of new canons for the Mass was published in Slovakia. Our people in Slovakia were unable to obtain prayerbooks to strengthen them morally and spiritually in their everyday struggle for their temporal as well as for their �SLOVAKIA 9 ~piritual welfare. They, therefore, begged their brethren abroad not for bread but rather for prayerbooks that were denied them in their own native land. Their more fortunate brethren heeded their plea even though it required sacrifices beyond the call of duty . . . and for this the public activists in Slovakia ought to be grateful, too, because prayer contributes to public morality, to borrow a contemporary and timely phrase. Moreover, morality suffers a sharp decline where prayer ceases. The people who work most conscientously in our native country are certainly those who pray ... and, thank God, there are few exceptions, if any. If the rulers of our country were not blinded by their fanatical hatred of God and religious beliefs, we could suggest a helpful program, namely, to give the people more prayerbooks, assuring them that then the morale of the workers everywhere would improve considerably and the working standards would increase, too, because a vital religious faith is a source of action: it inevitably inspires an optimistic attitude and fosters initiative. Without these primary principles there cannot be spontaneous and fruitful productivity. Ideological atheism in practice spawns laziness, indifference, indolence, and exploitation, in fact, to put it bluntly, eventually it robs both the individual and society. For the above cited reasons the majority of Slovak tourists from abroad sought to bring into Slovakia, particularly during the year before the Soviet invasion of 1968, a generous supply of prayerbooks and religious literature. The spiritual hunger of the Slovak people, subjected to a planned scarcity of religious sources of the printed word, was satisfied temporarily, at least, by a welcome influx of books, which offered conclusive proof or evidence that there was a universal need for religious literature as the result of anti-religious policies of the governing regime. At the same time, it manifested beyond any doubt that the best part of the people understood the need and value of such books for their temporal and spiritual welfare. Karel Havlicek-Borovsky who said many obscene things elsewhere, did, however, express something nice about books as being "a universal school, a school for young and old, a school with many wise teachers." If he really meant 'good' books, he certainly deserves an A plus. �SLOVAKIA Dr. Montaigne consiqered books to be the best preparation for life's journey, and he felt pity for all who did not possess books. In our times, he would have felt sorry, too, for those who are forced to read books that are contrary to their way of sound thinking. Ruskin wrote that books are as necessary to man as wings for a bird. And in this respect the Slovak book abroad became practically the only means for a Christian training of our Slovak youth in their native homeland. The various catechisms for old and young, life stories of virtuous young men and women, reflections on various themes for the sophisticated, e. g., Hlinka's works (K sirsim obzorom -To wider horizons and Cesty-Highways) are rich sources from which all may benefit, both those who are being trained and the trainers themselves personally. In no way it is rash or a breach of confidence to statethat Marxism-Leninism, as we know it so far, has has not proved successful in the development or the advancement of man. While on a state visit to Hungary the late Khruschev said quite frankly in jest (but truthfully at any rate ) that Russian specialists were unable to train even a young ox, it was enough for the animal to start kicking, the Ukrainian politician said, and the socalled experts scattered in all directions. Particularly in the training of youth the communist system proved to be a failure, for which we have more evidence than is necessary to prove our point. If the communist (Marxist-Leninist) system accomplished something it has been one-sided and doubtful because it does not consider the whole person: it ignores his religious instincts and warps his moral nature. It knows only how to harness instincts and human resources to serve its own perverse purposes and designs. Unfortunately, this is not the place nor the time to dwell upon the moral condition of the Slovak youth today. I will leave the discussion to authorities on the subject and hope that they will devote more time to study the situation in depth and give a more factual and detailed report at some future date. Slovak editions abroad are a great help to our students in their own country. The well known 'scripts' of profes- �SLOVAKIA 11 sors-primarily in the theological schools-are far from complete, if for no other reason than that they are lacking in proper information on the subject and they ignore the development of reasoning and leave out the basic fundamentals of theological and philosophical truths. Theologians in the city of Bratislava have various handbooks at their disposal, even though concise, for teaching philosophy, theology, sociology and the Bible, both the Old and New Testament. Undoubtedly, many are acquainted with the works, "Posolstvo--Mission," and "Za svetlom-Towards the Light" by dedicated men like Msgr. Botek and Msgr. Vrablec. Authoritative handbooks, though lacking much in details, are still far superior to mere 'scripts.' Not even in the field of prose, simply literature, is our group of authors in exile out of step with the times . This fact was admitted in Slovakia when there was some freedom of speech, and when, for a short time several years ago, publications in the country were permitted without being subject to orders 'from above.' Dante's Inferno was translated about the same time both in and outside of Slovakia. In my opinion, in many ways, the translation in exile excelled the domestic edition. The translation and selections of Claudel's poetry in exile, too, are far better than that of the edition in Slovakia. It was not without ulterior motives, therefore, that Karol Strmen, author of the above mentioned translations, became the subject of a virulent attack in the domestic press of Slovakia. Hronsky's original novels and short stories, written and published in exile, were admitted for publication in his native homeland. Meciar's critical reviews of Kukucin's works, too, were permitted entry as a source of vital information about this Slovak novelist who lived in Argentina for many years. The Most quarterly and the Slovak v Amerike's Almanach somehow get into Slovakia and are circulated throughout the country. Slovak poems from abroad are copied and circulated, memorized and recited in closed circles. This, too, belongs to popular education, esthetics, literature, etc. as an answer to those who would deny �12 SLOVAKIA not only political and religious liberty but cultural freedom to the Slovak nation in its native homeland. A word about the meaning and mission of Slovak political literature abroad, particularly for these reasons: 1) In the free world alone can one express himself freely in behalf of the self-determination of the Slovak nation, and nations in the same predicament, or for freedom to manifest its will to control its own national destiny. 2) The truth can be spoken, written and proved in the free world alone as to the past history of the Slovak nation in the light of the facts and truth without fear of police interference and judicial reprisals. We are responsible for the destiny of our Slovak nation that cannot, at this time under the present circumstances, know the full truth of its past because the truth is hidden or falsified and distorted in behalf of the party in power. That is why the Slovak nation is thankful to God that beyond the reach of the politbureau events as they actually happen are factually reported and registered without any pressure from directives or threats from the Party meetings. These are the reasons why I recommend that we have a common center for our historic and political publications of our writers abroad, and no one can hold this against me, justly, that is. A common and mutual endeavor is our responsibility because history-life's teacher-must also be a teacher in our political life. 'I'he late Matus cernak, Karol Sidor, Dr. Frantisek Hrusovsky and Konstantin culen, as well as the living, namely, Professor Vojtech Bucko, Dr. Arved Grebert, Kristof Greiner, Dr. Ferdinand i'.>urcansky, Dr. Jozef Kirschbaum, Dr. Jozef Mikus, Dr. Jozef Pauco, Dr. Jan Rekem, Professor Frantisek Vnuk and many, many others in our Slovak life have made invaluable contributions to the Slovak nation's cause, and to the world in general, by their numerous efforts and achievements. All these will someday provide inexhaustible sources for those who will write the history of Slovakia and the Slovak nation without any bias or prejudice. The future will be concerned not only with historic events but with the truth about personalities who come LIBRARY �SLOVAKIA 13 to the fore in the re-creation of history as it actually happened. For example, the history of Hlinka or Tiso, and of their closest collaborators, and adversaries, too, can now be known only in the writings of authors in the free world because in their homeland a furious campaign to erase their names from history pages, a hate campaign to smear their names and to eliminate them as persons who in their time exercised profound influence. That must be adequately evaluated in Slovak history in the future. Personal biographical profiles sketched by the pens of Dr. Pauco, Bor and others in the free world will one day hold a place of honor in the national album of the great men in the history of the Slovak nation and its historic homeland of a thousand and more years. Finally, the meaning of the Slovak word, written, spoken, in exile, and somewhat exemphasized, perhaps, will one day be understood and properly evaluated in the future when the Slovaks will once again control their national destiny as a free nation in central Europe. The governing regime in Slovakia has unwittingly given public testimony of the intrinsic value of the Slovak word from abroad. The Postal Center 120 in Praha put a ban on Slovak periodicals and publications from abroad and has consistently returned or destroyed the Slovak printed word from the free world. The first document presented here is that of the postal administration addressed to the sender of a parcel of books. I submit it fully with the exception of the name of the publication and the date to prevent tracing the source of my information. It reads: Posta Praha 120. In Prague, date ... Dear Sir, Dear sirs, We inform you that your inclosed postal parcel contains, among other items, the following publication: .. . The entry and circulation of such publications is prohibited by a law on publication and information, given on the basis of Law 23, No. 8/ 1966 Sb., relating to periodicals, publications and other informational mediums according to Law No. 23, 127/1968, Sb. That is why these publications were forbidden postal delivery. Items not admitted for postal delivery fall under Par. 6, Art. 4 of the official regulation No. 240/1949, Sb. under postal laws for the welfare of the state. Greeting-Peace to the world. �14 SLOVAKIA The refusal is officially stamped: "Posta Praha 120". Instead of a signature, there is only the letter K. When such restrictions of freedom of expression are based upon so many laws or regulations, this campaign against the means of formation or information, the spiritual isolation of the people cannot be anything less than illegal legislation and legal spiritual homicide. The second document even more graphically illustrates opposition against religion, which, apparently to all intents and purposes, the state is developing in a legalistic form. It reads: Dissemination of information garnered from foreign publications. Letter and disposition of the Ministry of Culture of the Slovak Socialist Republic, N. MK, 4525/1971 of June 17. 1971. To all the centers of church and religious bodies in Slovakia. Through assorted channels a variety of foreign periodicals and publications dealing with religious and church problems have been brought into the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, whose contents in many cases are biased and in conflict with the interests of our socialist state. Their evaluation has shown that they contain articles which untruthfully and rudely slander the CSSR. Future distribution or circulations of such materials, or any part thereof, is not permitted. This regulation also is in force in regards to the distribution or publication of certain informative instructions, etc., whether by internal religious organs, in official bulletins or in any form whatsoever. We warn that any activity that is contrary to the interest of socialist society is a misdemeanor, according to P. 5, Law No. 150/1969, Sb. We direct that you inform all branches subject to your authority of the contents of these instructions. K. Homola, Secretary General and Director for Church Affairs. This communique (signed by K. Homola) in general refers to "foreign" periodicals and publications, as if it avoided labeling them properly "Slovak," but which subsequently became clear because only these were returned by the postal outhorities with the words: "Non admis ... Not admitted ... " Later the explanation in French was added: "Returned. Violates Custom Regulations." Attempts to obtain official copies of the specific government regulations in order to comply with the law have been in vain. Non-admittance of publications from the outside world is now absolute and arbitrary. The returned publications with the official stamp of rejection attached have been filed in the archives of Slovak organizations �15 SLOVAKIA as real proofs and evidence for the future of the present spiritual enslavement of the people by the ruling regime for which the light of truth is obviously a much-feared scarecrow. The dialectics of the communist party defines everything as "biased" if it does not come off its own press, if it fails to idolize Marxism-Leninism, if it does not propagate the idea of the world revolution of the proletariat, etc. Of course, this type of "bias" is detrimentally opposed to the interests of a socialist state, namely the CSSR. Note that even 'internal church information and instructions from abroad' constitute misdemeanors if distributed (if they are not favorable to the spread of communism) because by the very fact they are not pro, they must be con-according to the borrowed Biblical phrase, "Who is not for me, is against me . . ." twisted to suit their own ends and purposes! Someone once observed that the burning of books furnishes light in darkness. We can surely applay this remark in the case of Slovak books arriving at postal centers in Czecho-Slovakia, particularly in Prague. Their fate may be that they are merely censored and confiscated, then returned to the sender, but more often consigned officially to be burned. Despite this, they continue to have their influence. The fear, in official circles of Czecho• Slovakia, of the Slovak word from abroad is clearly a case of a bad conscience. I conclude this review of past events with reference to a recent article in our press in Slovakia that labelled Slovak emigration as a dry, lifeless branch of the Slovak nation. How much or little truth there is in that arbitrary <;tatement an unprejudiced person can easily determine. lil THE SLOVAK LEAGUE OF AMERICA through its Ladies luud.liary, the "VCIELKY" (Bees), sponsors Slovak cultttrai displays. concerts, lectures, art exhibits, folk festjvals, social evenings, etc. Our aim is to have a "Hive" of our "V~ielky" in every large Slovak community. � SLOVAKIA 3 The Slovak Word Abroad Gorazd Z V O ni C ky A man on a motorcycle cried out as he whizzed by a motorist driving a Mercedes Benz rather leisurely: "Do you know something about Lambretta ?" The elderly man at the wheel of the car stepped on the gas to show the cyclist that he, too, had power, power and speed to pass up the Lambretta! Later he slowed down, and soon the motorcycle came into view and before long was passing him again. The young man on the motorcycle waved his hand and cried out as he passed the car a second time; "Say, do you know anything about a Lambretta." The man in the car this time did not resume the chase, thinking it was no use to race with a speed demon. Soon afterwards he came upon the Lambretta and its occupant piled up by the side of the road. As the young man disengaged himself from his motorcycle, the man in the car stopped and yelled out: "See there, you young smart aleck, where did it get you to show off, anyway?" Whereupon the slightly shaken up young motorcyclist retorted: "Who was showing off? I was merely asking you if you know anything about a Lambretta to tell me how to stop it." The same can happen to an inexperienced speaker; he may know how to start but not how to stop. In our case a sheet of paper is the best brake in the world. One mu.st first stop to reflect and then write it down. To perceive the kernel of a theme, we must first of all touch upon a few peripheral points on the subject at hand. A person seldom stops to consider what a word means. We are so accustomed to speak and converse that we do not even think about a situation that might arise when we cannot even utter a single word. A mute can best evaluate the value of the gift the spoken word. I speak of a gift because the spoken word is, in a sense, par t of a dowry bequeathed to us by the Creator. Think for a moment what a joyful event it is in a family circle when �4 SLOVAKIA a child comes out with its first word, which is somehow an integral part of every being as he says for the first time, 'Papa,' or 'Mama.' These first intelligible sounds are not only a pleasant surprise for the child's parents who gave him life, but a vital expression of his very being. The first words are important enough to be registered in a family album and an occasion for a family treat or celebration. Everyday life employs the spoken word as a usual, easy and effective means of communicatio n. The spoken word introduces us to the outside world, and works either for good or evil, according to one's inner motives and purposes. The word is a manifestation of our being and thoughts. If human thoughts are good and proper, so will be their outward expression, according to the saying: "What is in the heart is on the tip of our tongue.'' And Holy Scripture notes: "Out of the fullness of the heart the mouth speaketh." Imagine what our life would be like if we were limited to sign language. How far could we advance in civilization and culture? What would be our future destiny as thinking beings? On the other hand, how unbearable life would become if words were misused for lying, chicanery, deceit and instigation, or for indulging the passions and evil desires instead of being put to good use in promoting peace, justice and harmony in society. The meaning of the spoken word, like the written word, has a profound effect and has infinite range. We are aware of the fact that the Slovak spoken word reaches us and our fellow countrymen via radio broadcasts, e. g. from the Vatican, Radio Free Europe and other radio stations. I want to emphasize the Vatican Broadcast in that it unquestionab ly exercises widespread influence in the spiritual life of our Slovak countrymen in their native homeland. Until recently, dozens of letters came from listeners who expressed thanks for every word, declaring that the talks they heard were highly informative, enlightening and a powerful shield to defend themselves against the incessant tempest of anti-religious propaganda in the schools, from the press and radio, on television, in meetings of workingmen's associations, in army barracks, and reams of mis- �SLOVAKIA 5 information in textbooks, etc. This is a vital factor in preserving truth and a sense of justice in a country where all the forces militate against what is just, what is right and truthful. For obvious reasons we cannot publicize these letters, but they indicate beyond a shadow of a doubt that they get the message despite many obstacles that are set up to prevent them from hearing the truth. Permit us to quote briefly from one of these letters that speaks for many: "You have no idea how eagerly we wait for your broadcast. We pass on the information to others who cannot listen. The spiritual message about the Christian way of life for the faithful who constitute the healthy kernel of our Slovak nation is like a falling rain on a desert in our land in which the official press is forever agitating and scandalous. During the recent lull in the anti-religious movement not even such prominent persons as Archbishop Necsey or Bishop Trochta were given the opportunity to express what was in their minds and hearts, as if they did not have anything worthwhile to say to their unseen television audience of millions of fellow countrymen." The written non-Slovak word that has as its subject the Slovak and his life in his native land, or abroad. whether in the original or as a translation, has exceedingly great value. For example, in English we find a series of publications that deal with Slovak themes: history, folklore, folk songs, science, sociology, and almost every phase of Slovak culture and art. Dr. Inovecky's books in Italian truthfully inform the Italian public about the situation of the Catholic Intelligentsia, youth, priests and nuns in Slovakia where they are subjected to atheistic attacks. Although defenseless, they must face a formidable and heavily armed foe who daily attacks them with a barrage of diabolical propaganda. Dr. :ourica, professor of political science at the University of Padua, in his works presents a true picture of our times in the light of historical analysis and perception with precision and conclusive proof, while contemporary Slovak historians in Slovakia under pressing orders from the Party (Communist) must twist, falsify, blacken and distort everything, particularly the events of the second world war and its aftermath. �6 SLOVAKIA A number of valuable works have been published, too, in German, Spanish, and French. For detailed information Professor Michael Lacko, S. J. edited a Slovak bibliography for the years from 1945 to 1965. This come off the press as the 7th volume of Slovak Studies under the auspices of the Slovak Institute (Cleveland-Rome). Works by the old and new generations of Slovak writers in exile have been simply overwhelming. As we all know, perhaps, the old emigrants from Slovakia left their native land mainly for economic reasons. They emigrated to find employment and to assure their future existence. Most of them came from villages where literary tastes usually had as yet not developed beyond the stage of the almanac and the prayerbook. This was much the same in their new environment where the prayerbook and almanac were read but with one notable exception: now they had their own Slovak newspapers. The new wave of emigrants, to which we belong (after World War II) was quite different; it was more idealistic and ideological, and without false pride, it may be said, too, that it was more educated. And therefore, this new generation of emigrants from Slovakia had more estethic and literary tastes, which soon necessitated the publication of books and the establishment of publishing centers to keep alive the fires of Slovak literary and spiritual life abroad. Alphabetically, we may list Buenos Aires, Chicago, Cleveland, Danville, Middletown, Pittsburgh and Scranton in Pennsylvania, Munich, New York, Passaic in New Jersey, Toronto in Canada, Valparaiso and the Slovak Franciscans; Whiting, Indiana, the home of the immortal Father Lach, a great patron of Slovak literature, and Winnipeg, Man., in Canada, where Culen published several noteworthy works. Rome, however, must be recognized for its primacy in the field of Slovak publications abroad, both because here is concentrated the largest single group of Slovak emigrant writers under the sponsorship of the SS. Cyril and Methodius Slovak Institute. To date, the number of editions here has totaled 142, in all more than 30,000 pages of the Slovak word in print. This amazing output of the Slovak press, considering the brief span of the existence of the Institute in Rome, as well as, bearing in mind what �SLOVAKIA 7 obstacles it had to face and overcome, and new difficulties that keep on coming in its way, it is truly a priceless contribution to the spiritual treasury of the Slovak nation. Add to this fact, the Hlasy z Rima monthly over a period of almost twenty years (5,000 pages of printed matter), and you have a tremendous accomplishment which, to borrow a Biblical phrase in our case, these have worked long and perseveringly like the Israelites of old who in rebuilding the Temple in Jerusalem worked with a tool in one hand and a weapon in the other to defend themselves against the enemy in the event of a sudden attack. Let us look at the contents and supplementary material of the Slovak word (written) abroad. Its primary and foremost inspiration is Slovakia and its people: the country, the nation, the history of the country and its people, state institutions, political movements and currents and economic conditions, then, too, the religious aspect and the situation of the people of faith, the activity of the Church and its spokesmen and leaders, Slovak philology, literary history and criticism, architecture, archeology, medicine, the arts, music, books, about Slovaks living abroad, philosophical handbooks, catechetical works, notably Bystrik's catechism, (Nova Cesta) homiletic sources for preachers of the Word of God in Slovak, especially the various revised editions of Sacred Scripture, liturgical texts and prayerbooks, biographies of heroic men, Christian meditations, and finally general works in prose and poetry. Obviously, this is a great treasure, a rich inheritance, an almost inexhaustible source of infinite variety that helps to keep alive the genuine spirit of the Slovak nation in its historic homeland, as well as far beyond its natural boundaries throughout all parts of the free world. Now it is easier to reply to the question: "Of what importance are our Slovak publications abroad?" At the very outset of our brief study, let us reflect upon the religious angle. It is no secret, neither an untruth, to declare that the regime now ruling Slovakia is not only unfriendly but inimical to religion, employing all of its machinery to destroy the religious life of the people after depriving them of every means of publication and communication to resist godless warfare upon their Faith. What little religious publication the regime tolerates is so negligible that it serves the state rather than the Church �8 SLOVAKIA or religion, as far the press is concerned. This applies to the Spolok sv . Vojtecha, which once was the chief source of religious instruction and religious literary publications for the common people, as well as for the intelligentsia, but at present its publishing activities in the religious program have been reduced almost to zero. Meanwhile, its resources are actually being misused in the planning of the Party system for abetting and supplementing its ideological struggle against religion all along the line. A liturgical renewal from which an intensification of the spiritual life was naturally expected was announced as necessary to those who believe in God. This, of course, went against the grain of an actively aggressive atheism. Permission for paper and printing for this purpose advanced at a snail's pace and virtually came to a standstill as government requisition failed to materialize. Quite surprisingly, but soon fully understood, was a motherly concern by the atheistic regime to preserve the Latin liturgy intact, it was fearful of the introduction of the vernacular because the language of the people would strengthen the position of the church. Meanwhile, the Slovak Institute of SS. Cyril and Methodius in Rome edited and published a complete Slovak-Latin Missal which, under the circumstances (the result of Divine Providence actually), the civil authorities in Slovakia could not refuse entry because that would have given them a bad image abroad. Thus, the liturgical movement gained momentum and reached all parishes and became at the same time a manifestation of the strong faith of the people and a source of spiritual nourishment. In Rome a Slovak missal appeared in the latest postconciliar form and is now in use in Slovak parishes outside Slovakia. This has not only activated a spiritual renewal among the Slovak faithful abroad but has assured the preservation of the Slovak language in various parts of the free world, which is indirectly a vital contribution to the entire Slovak nation. Last year, only because of pressure from abroad, an edition of new canons for the Mass was published in Slovakia. Our people in Slovakia were unable to obtain prayerbooks to strengthen them morally and spiritually in their everyday struggle for their temporal as well as for their �SLOVAKIA 9 ~piritual welfare. They, therefore, begged their brethren abroad not for bread but rather for prayerbooks that were denied them in their own native land. Their more fortunate brethren heeded their plea even though it required sacrifices beyond the call of duty . . . and for this the public activists in Slovakia ought to be grateful, too, because prayer contributes to public morality, to borrow a contemporary and timely phrase. Moreover, morality suffers a sharp decline where prayer ceases. The people who work most conscientously in our native country are certainly those who pray ... and, thank God, there are few exceptions, if any. If the rulers of our country were not blinded by their fanatical hatred of God and religious beliefs, we could suggest a helpful program, namely, to give the people more prayerbooks, assuring them that then the morale of the workers everywhere would improve considerably and the working standards would increase, too, because a vital religious faith is a source of action: it inevitably inspires an optimistic attitude and fosters initiative. Without these primary principles there cannot be spontaneous and fruitful productivity. Ideological atheism in practice spawns laziness, indifference, indolence, and exploitation, in fact, to put it bluntly, eventually it robs both the individual and society. For the above cited reasons the majority of Slovak tourists from abroad sought to bring into Slovakia, particularly during the year before the Soviet invasion of 1968, a generous supply of prayerbooks and religious literature. The spiritual hunger of the Slovak people, subjected to a planned scarcity of religious sources of the printed word, was satisfied temporarily, at least, by a welcome influx of books, which offered conclusive proof or evidence that there was a universal need for religious literature as the result of anti-religious policies of the governing regime. At the same time, it manifested beyond any doubt that the best part of the people understood the need and value of such books for their temporal and spiritual welfare. Karel Havlicek-Borovsky who said many obscene things elsewhere, did, however, express something nice about books as being "a universal school, a school for young and old, a school with many wise teachers." If he really meant 'good' books, he certainly deserves an A plus. �SLOVAKIA Dr. Montaigne consiqered books to be the best preparation for life's journey, and he felt pity for all who did not possess books. In our times, he would have felt sorry, too, for those who are forced to read books that are contrary to their way of sound thinking. Ruskin wrote that books are as necessary to man as wings for a bird. And in this respect the Slovak book abroad became practically the only means for a Christian training of our Slovak youth in their native homeland. The various catechisms for old and young, life stories of virtuous young men and women, reflections on various themes for the sophisticated, e. g., Hlinka's works (K sirsim obzorom -To wider horizons and Cesty-Highways) are rich sources from which all may benefit, both those who are being trained and the trainers themselves personally. In no way it is rash or a breach of confidence to statethat Marxism-Leninism, as we know it so far, has has not proved successful in the development or the advancement of man. While on a state visit to Hungary the late Khruschev said quite frankly in jest (but truthfully at any rate ) that Russian specialists were unable to train even a young ox, it was enough for the animal to start kicking, the Ukrainian politician said, and the socalled experts scattered in all directions. Particularly in the training of youth the communist system proved to be a failure, for which we have more evidence than is necessary to prove our point. If the communist (Marxist-Leninist) system accomplished something it has been one-sided and doubtful because it does not consider the whole person: it ignores his religious instincts and warps his moral nature. It knows only how to harness instincts and human resources to serve its own perverse purposes and designs. Unfortunately, this is not the place nor the time to dwell upon the moral condition of the Slovak youth today. I will leave the discussion to authorities on the subject and hope that they will devote more time to study the situation in depth and give a more factual and detailed report at some future date. Slovak editions abroad are a great help to our students in their own country. The well known 'scripts' of profes- �SLOVAKIA 11 sors-primarily in the theological schools-are far from complete, if for no other reason than that they are lacking in proper information on the subject and they ignore the development of reasoning and leave out the basic fundamentals of theological and philosophical truths. Theologians in the city of Bratislava have various handbooks at their disposal, even though concise, for teaching philosophy, theology, sociology and the Bible, both the Old and New Testament. Undoubtedly, many are acquainted with the works, "Posolstvo--Mission," and "Za svetlom-Towards the Light" by dedicated men like Msgr. Botek and Msgr. Vrablec. Authoritative handbooks, though lacking much in details, are still far superior to mere 'scripts.' Not even in the field of prose, simply literature, is our group of authors in exile out of step with the times . This fact was admitted in Slovakia when there was some freedom of speech, and when, for a short time several years ago, publications in the country were permitted without being subject to orders 'from above.' Dante's Inferno was translated about the same time both in and outside of Slovakia. In my opinion, in many ways, the translation in exile excelled the domestic edition. The translation and selections of Claudel's poetry in exile, too, are far better than that of the edition in Slovakia. It was not without ulterior motives, therefore, that Karol Strmen, author of the above mentioned translations, became the subject of a virulent attack in the domestic press of Slovakia. Hronsky's original novels and short stories, written and published in exile, were admitted for publication in his native homeland. Meciar's critical reviews of Kukucin's works, too, were permitted entry as a source of vital information about this Slovak novelist who lived in Argentina for many years. The Most quarterly and the Slovak v Amerike's Almanach somehow get into Slovakia and are circulated throughout the country. Slovak poems from abroad are copied and circulated, memorized and recited in closed circles. This, too, belongs to popular education, esthetics, literature, etc. as an answer to those who would deny �12 SLOVAKIA not only political and religious liberty but cultural freedom to the Slovak nation in its native homeland. A word about the meaning and mission of Slovak political literature abroad, particularly for these reasons: 1) In the free world alone can one express himself freely in behalf of the self-determination of the Slovak nation, and nations in the same predicament, or for freedom to manifest its will to control its own national destiny. 2) The truth can be spoken, written and proved in the free world alone as to the past history of the Slovak nation in the light of the facts and truth without fear of police interference and judicial reprisals. We are responsible for the destiny of our Slovak nation that cannot, at this time under the present circumstances, know the full truth of its past because the truth is hidden or falsified and distorted in behalf of the party in power. That is why the Slovak nation is thankful to God that beyond the reach of the politbureau events as they actually happen are factually reported and registered without any pressure from directives or threats from the Party meetings. These are the reasons why I recommend that we have a common center for our historic and political publications of our writers abroad, and no one can hold this against me, justly, that is. A common and mutual endeavor is our responsibility because history-life's teacher-must also be a teacher in our political life. 'I'he late Matus cernak, Karol Sidor, Dr. Frantisek Hrusovsky and Konstantin culen, as well as the living, namely, Professor Vojtech Bucko, Dr. Arved Grebert, Kristof Greiner, Dr. Ferdinand i'.>urcansky, Dr. Jozef Kirschbaum, Dr. Jozef Mikus, Dr. Jozef Pauco, Dr. Jan Rekem, Professor Frantisek Vnuk and many, many others in our Slovak life have made invaluable contributions to the Slovak nation's cause, and to the world in general, by their numerous efforts and achievements. All these will someday provide inexhaustible sources for those who will write the history of Slovakia and the Slovak nation without any bias or prejudice. The future will be concerned not only with historic events but with the truth about personalities who come LIBRARY �SLOVAKIA 13 to the fore in the re-creation of history as it actually happened. For example, the history of Hlinka or Tiso, and of their closest collaborators, and adversaries, too, can now be known only in the writings of authors in the free world because in their homeland a furious campaign to erase their names from history pages, a hate campaign to smear their names and to eliminate them as persons who in their time exercised profound influence. That must be adequately evaluated in Slovak history in the future. Personal biographical profiles sketched by the pens of Dr. Pauco, Bor and others in the free world will one day hold a place of honor in the national album of the great men in the history of the Slovak nation and its historic homeland of a thousand and more years. Finally, the meaning of the Slovak word, written, spoken, in exile, and somewhat exemphasized, perhaps, will one day be understood and properly evaluated in the future when the Slovaks will once again control their national destiny as a free nation in central Europe. The governing regime in Slovakia has unwittingly given public testimony of the intrinsic value of the Slovak word from abroad. The Postal Center 120 in Praha put a ban on Slovak periodicals and publications from abroad and has consistently returned or destroyed the Slovak printed word from the free world. The first document presented here is that of the postal administration addressed to the sender of a parcel of books. I submit it fully with the exception of the name of the publication and the date to prevent tracing the source of my information. It reads: Posta Praha 120. In Prague, date ... Dear Sir, Dear sirs, We inform you that your inclosed postal parcel contains, among other items, the following publication: .. . The entry and circulation of such publications is prohibited by a law on publication and information, given on the basis of Law 23, No. 8/ 1966 Sb., relating to periodicals, publications and other informational mediums according to Law No. 23, 127/1968, Sb. That is why these publications were forbidden postal delivery. Items not admitted for postal delivery fall under Par. 6, Art. 4 of the official regulation No. 240/1949, Sb. under postal laws for the welfare of the state. Greeting-Peace to the world. �14 SLOVAKIA The refusal is officially stamped: "Posta Praha 120". Instead of a signature, there is only the letter K. When such restrictions of freedom of expression are based upon so many laws or regulations, this campaign against the means of formation or information, the spiritual isolation of the people cannot be anything less than illegal legislation and legal spiritual homicide. The second document even more graphically illustrates opposition against religion, which, apparently to all intents and purposes, the state is developing in a legalistic form. It reads: Dissemination of information garnered from foreign publications. Letter and disposition of the Ministry of Culture of the Slovak Socialist Republic, N. MK, 4525/1971 of June 17. 1971. To all the centers of church and religious bodies in Slovakia. Through assorted channels a variety of foreign periodicals and publications dealing with religious and church problems have been brought into the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, whose contents in many cases are biased and in conflict with the interests of our socialist state. Their evaluation has shown that they contain articles which untruthfully and rudely slander the CSSR. Future distribution or circulations of such materials, or any part thereof, is not permitted. This regulation also is in force in regards to the distribution or publication of certain informative instructions, etc., whether by internal religious organs, in official bulletins or in any form whatsoever. We warn that any activity that is contrary to the interest of socialist society is a misdemeanor, according to P. 5, Law No. 150/1969, Sb. We direct that you inform all branches subject to your authority of the contents of these instructions. K. Homola, Secretary General and Director for Church Affairs. This communique (signed by K. Homola) in general refers to "foreign" periodicals and publications, as if it avoided labeling them properly "Slovak," but which subsequently became clear because only these were returned by the postal outhorities with the words: "Non admis ... Not admitted ... " Later the explanation in French was added: "Returned. Violates Custom Regulations." Attempts to obtain official copies of the specific government regulations in order to comply with the law have been in vain. Non-admittance of publications from the outside world is now absolute and arbitrary. The returned publications with the official stamp of rejection attached have been filed in the archives of Slovak organizations �15 SLOVAKIA as real proofs and evidence for the future of the present spiritual enslavement of the people by the ruling regime for which the light of truth is obviously a much-feared scarecrow. The dialectics of the communist party defines everything as "biased" if it does not come off its own press, if it fails to idolize Marxism-Leninism, if it does not propagate the idea of the world revolution of the proletariat, etc. Of course, this type of "bias" is detrimentally opposed to the interests of a socialist state, namely the CSSR. Note that even 'internal church information and instructions from abroad' constitute misdemeanors if distributed (if they are not favorable to the spread of communism) because by the very fact they are not pro, they must be con-according to the borrowed Biblical phrase, "Who is not for me, is against me . . ." twisted to suit their own ends and purposes! Someone once observed that the burning of books furnishes light in darkness. We can surely applay this remark in the case of Slovak books arriving at postal centers in Czecho-Slovakia, particularly in Prague. Their fate may be that they are merely censored and confiscated, then returned to the sender, but more often consigned officially to be burned. Despite this, they continue to have their influence. The fear, in official circles of Czecho• Slovakia, of the Slovak word from abroad is clearly a case of a bad conscience. I conclude this review of past events with reference to a recent article in our press in Slovakia that labelled Slovak emigration as a dry, lifeless branch of the Slovak nation. How much or little truth there is in that arbitrary <;tatement an unprejudiced person can easily determine. lil THE SLOVAK LEAGUE OF AMERICA through its Ladies luud.liary, the "VCIELKY" (Bees), sponsors Slovak cultttrai displays. concerts, lectures, art exhibits, folk festjvals, social evenings, etc. Our aim is to have a "Hive" of our "V~ielky" in every large Slovak community. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1973, Vol. 23 Description An account of the resource Vol. 23 (No. 46), 1973. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1973 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document SLOVAKIA 3 The Slovak Word Abroad Gorazd Z V O ni C ky A man on a motorcycle cried out as he whizzed by a motorist driving a Mercedes Benz rather leisurely: "Do you know something about Lambretta ?" The elderly man at the wheel of the car stepped on the gas to show the cyclist that he, too, had power, power and speed to pass up the Lambretta! Later he slowed down, and soon the motorcycle came into view and before long was passing him again. The young man on the motorcycle waved his hand and cried out as he passed the car a second time; "Say, do you know anything about a Lambretta." The man in the car this time did not resume the chase, thinking it was no use to race with a speed demon. Soon afterwards he came upon the Lambretta and its occupant piled up by the side of the road. As the young man disengaged himself from his motorcycle, the man in the car stopped and yelled out: "See there, you young smart aleck, where did it get you to show off, anyway?" Whereupon the slightly shaken up young motorcyclist retorted: "Who was showing off? I was merely asking you if you know anything about a Lambretta to tell me how to stop it." The same can happen to an inexperienced speaker; he may know how to start but not how to stop. In our case a sheet of paper is the best brake in the world. One mu.st first stop to reflect and then write it down. To perceive the kernel of a theme, we must first of all touch upon a few peripheral points on the subject at hand. A person seldom stops to consider what a word means. We are so accustomed to speak and converse that we do not even think about a situation that might arise when we cannot even utter a single word. A mute can best evaluate the value of the gift the spoken word. I speak of a gift because the spoken word is, in a sense, par t of a dowry bequeathed to us by the Creator. Think for a moment what a joyful event it is in a family circle when 4 SLOVAKIA a child comes out with its first word, which is somehow an integral part of every being as he says for the first time, 'Papa,' or 'Mama.' These first intelligible sounds are not only a pleasant surprise for the child's parents who gave him life, but a vital expression of his very being. The first words are important enough to be registered in a family album and an occasion for a family treat or celebration. Everyday life employs the spoken word as a usual, easy and effective means of communicatio n. The spoken word introduces us to the outside world, and works either for good or evil, according to one's inner motives and purposes. The word is a manifestation of our being and thoughts. If human thoughts are good and proper, so will be their outward expression, according to the saying: "What is in the heart is on the tip of our tongue.'' And Holy Scripture notes: "Out of the fullness of the heart the mouth speaketh." Imagine what our life would be like if we were limited to sign language. How far could we advance in civilization and culture? What would be our future destiny as thinking beings? On the other hand, how unbearable life would become if words were misused for lying, chicanery, deceit and instigation, or for indulging the passions and evil desires instead of being put to good use in promoting peace, justice and harmony in society. The meaning of the spoken word, like the written word, has a profound effect and has infinite range. We are aware of the fact that the Slovak spoken word reaches us and our fellow countrymen via radio broadcasts, e. g. from the Vatican, Radio Free Europe and other radio stations. I want to emphasize the Vatican Broadcast in that it unquestionab ly exercises widespread influence in the spiritual life of our Slovak countrymen in their native homeland. Until recently, dozens of letters came from listeners who expressed thanks for every word, declaring that the talks they heard were highly informative, enlightening and a powerful shield to defend themselves against the incessant tempest of anti-religious propaganda in the schools, from the press and radio, on television, in meetings of workingmen's associations, in army barracks, and reams of mis- SLOVAKIA 5 information in textbooks, etc. This is a vital factor in preserving truth and a sense of justice in a country where all the forces militate against what is just, what is right and truthful. For obvious reasons we cannot publicize these letters, but they indicate beyond a shadow of a doubt that they get the message despite many obstacles that are set up to prevent them from hearing the truth. Permit us to quote briefly from one of these letters that speaks for many: "You have no idea how eagerly we wait for your broadcast. We pass on the information to others who cannot listen. The spiritual message about the Christian way of life for the faithful who constitute the healthy kernel of our Slovak nation is like a falling rain on a desert in our land in which the official press is forever agitating and scandalous. During the recent lull in the anti-religious movement not even such prominent persons as Archbishop Necsey or Bishop Trochta were given the opportunity to express what was in their minds and hearts, as if they did not have anything worthwhile to say to their unseen television audience of millions of fellow countrymen." The written non-Slovak word that has as its subject the Slovak and his life in his native land, or abroad. whether in the original or as a translation, has exceedingly great value. For example, in English we find a series of publications that deal with Slovak themes: history, folklore, folk songs, science, sociology, and almost every phase of Slovak culture and art. Dr. Inovecky's books in Italian truthfully inform the Italian public about the situation of the Catholic Intelligentsia, youth, priests and nuns in Slovakia where they are subjected to atheistic attacks. Although defenseless, they must face a formidable and heavily armed foe who daily attacks them with a barrage of diabolical propaganda. Dr. :ourica, professor of political science at the University of Padua, in his works presents a true picture of our times in the light of historical analysis and perception with precision and conclusive proof, while contemporary Slovak historians in Slovakia under pressing orders from the Party (Communist) must twist, falsify, blacken and distort everything, particularly the events of the second world war and its aftermath. 6 SLOVAKIA A number of valuable works have been published, too, in German, Spanish, and French. For detailed information Professor Michael Lacko, S. J. edited a Slovak bibliography for the years from 1945 to 1965. This come off the press as the 7th volume of Slovak Studies under the auspices of the Slovak Institute (Cleveland-Rome). Works by the old and new generations of Slovak writers in exile have been simply overwhelming. As we all know, perhaps, the old emigrants from Slovakia left their native land mainly for economic reasons. They emigrated to find employment and to assure their future existence. Most of them came from villages where literary tastes usually had as yet not developed beyond the stage of the almanac and the prayerbook. This was much the same in their new environment where the prayerbook and almanac were read but with one notable exception: now they had their own Slovak newspapers. The new wave of emigrants, to which we belong (after World War II) was quite different; it was more idealistic and ideological, and without false pride, it may be said, too, that it was more educated. And therefore, this new generation of emigrants from Slovakia had more estethic and literary tastes, which soon necessitated the publication of books and the establishment of publishing centers to keep alive the fires of Slovak literary and spiritual life abroad. Alphabetically, we may list Buenos Aires, Chicago, Cleveland, Danville, Middletown, Pittsburgh and Scranton in Pennsylvania, Munich, New York, Passaic in New Jersey, Toronto in Canada, Valparaiso and the Slovak Franciscans; Whiting, Indiana, the home of the immortal Father Lach, a great patron of Slovak literature, and Winnipeg, Man., in Canada, where Culen published several noteworthy works. Rome, however, must be recognized for its primacy in the field of Slovak publications abroad, both because here is concentrated the largest single group of Slovak emigrant writers under the sponsorship of the SS. Cyril and Methodius Slovak Institute. To date, the number of editions here has totaled 142, in all more than 30,000 pages of the Slovak word in print. This amazing output of the Slovak press, considering the brief span of the existence of the Institute in Rome, as well as, bearing in mind what SLOVAKIA 7 obstacles it had to face and overcome, and new difficulties that keep on coming in its way, it is truly a priceless contribution to the spiritual treasury of the Slovak nation. Add to this fact, the Hlasy z Rima monthly over a period of almost twenty years (5,000 pages of printed matter), and you have a tremendous accomplishment which, to borrow a Biblical phrase in our case, these have worked long and perseveringly like the Israelites of old who in rebuilding the Temple in Jerusalem worked with a tool in one hand and a weapon in the other to defend themselves against the enemy in the event of a sudden attack. Let us look at the contents and supplementary material of the Slovak word (written) abroad. Its primary and foremost inspiration is Slovakia and its people: the country, the nation, the history of the country and its people, state institutions, political movements and currents and economic conditions, then, too, the religious aspect and the situation of the people of faith, the activity of the Church and its spokesmen and leaders, Slovak philology, literary history and criticism, architecture, archeology, medicine, the arts, music, books, about Slovaks living abroad, philosophical handbooks, catechetical works, notably Bystrik's catechism, (Nova Cesta) homiletic sources for preachers of the Word of God in Slovak, especially the various revised editions of Sacred Scripture, liturgical texts and prayerbooks, biographies of heroic men, Christian meditations, and finally general works in prose and poetry. Obviously, this is a great treasure, a rich inheritance, an almost inexhaustible source of infinite variety that helps to keep alive the genuine spirit of the Slovak nation in its historic homeland, as well as far beyond its natural boundaries throughout all parts of the free world. Now it is easier to reply to the question: "Of what importance are our Slovak publications abroad?" At the very outset of our brief study, let us reflect upon the religious angle. It is no secret, neither an untruth, to declare that the regime now ruling Slovakia is not only unfriendly but inimical to religion, employing all of its machinery to destroy the religious life of the people after depriving them of every means of publication and communication to resist godless warfare upon their Faith. What little religious publication the regime tolerates is so negligible that it serves the state rather than the Church 8 SLOVAKIA or religion, as far the press is concerned. This applies to the Spolok sv . Vojtecha, which once was the chief source of religious instruction and religious literary publications for the common people, as well as for the intelligentsia, but at present its publishing activities in the religious program have been reduced almost to zero. Meanwhile, its resources are actually being misused in the planning of the Party system for abetting and supplementing its ideological struggle against religion all along the line. A liturgical renewal from which an intensification of the spiritual life was naturally expected was announced as necessary to those who believe in God. This, of course, went against the grain of an actively aggressive atheism. Permission for paper and printing for this purpose advanced at a snail's pace and virtually came to a standstill as government requisition failed to materialize. Quite surprisingly, but soon fully understood, was a motherly concern by the atheistic regime to preserve the Latin liturgy intact, it was fearful of the introduction of the vernacular because the language of the people would strengthen the position of the church. Meanwhile, the Slovak Institute of SS. Cyril and Methodius in Rome edited and published a complete Slovak-Latin Missal which, under the circumstances (the result of Divine Providence actually), the civil authorities in Slovakia could not refuse entry because that would have given them a bad image abroad. Thus, the liturgical movement gained momentum and reached all parishes and became at the same time a manifestation of the strong faith of the people and a source of spiritual nourishment. In Rome a Slovak missal appeared in the latest postconciliar form and is now in use in Slovak parishes outside Slovakia. This has not only activated a spiritual renewal among the Slovak faithful abroad but has assured the preservation of the Slovak language in various parts of the free world, which is indirectly a vital contribution to the entire Slovak nation. Last year, only because of pressure from abroad, an edition of new canons for the Mass was published in Slovakia. Our people in Slovakia were unable to obtain prayerbooks to strengthen them morally and spiritually in their everyday struggle for their temporal as well as for their SLOVAKIA 9 ~piritual welfare. They, therefore, begged their brethren abroad not for bread but rather for prayerbooks that were denied them in their own native land. Their more fortunate brethren heeded their plea even though it required sacrifices beyond the call of duty . . . and for this the public activists in Slovakia ought to be grateful, too, because prayer contributes to public morality, to borrow a contemporary and timely phrase. Moreover, morality suffers a sharp decline where prayer ceases. The people who work most conscientously in our native country are certainly those who pray ... and, thank God, there are few exceptions, if any. If the rulers of our country were not blinded by their fanatical hatred of God and religious beliefs, we could suggest a helpful program, namely, to give the people more prayerbooks, assuring them that then the morale of the workers everywhere would improve considerably and the working standards would increase, too, because a vital religious faith is a source of action: it inevitably inspires an optimistic attitude and fosters initiative. Without these primary principles there cannot be spontaneous and fruitful productivity. Ideological atheism in practice spawns laziness, indifference, indolence, and exploitation, in fact, to put it bluntly, eventually it robs both the individual and society. For the above cited reasons the majority of Slovak tourists from abroad sought to bring into Slovakia, particularly during the year before the Soviet invasion of 1968, a generous supply of prayerbooks and religious literature. The spiritual hunger of the Slovak people, subjected to a planned scarcity of religious sources of the printed word, was satisfied temporarily, at least, by a welcome influx of books, which offered conclusive proof or evidence that there was a universal need for religious literature as the result of anti-religious policies of the governing regime. At the same time, it manifested beyond any doubt that the best part of the people understood the need and value of such books for their temporal and spiritual welfare. Karel Havlicek-Borovsky who said many obscene things elsewhere, did, however, express something nice about books as being "a universal school, a school for young and old, a school with many wise teachers." If he really meant 'good' books, he certainly deserves an A plus. SLOVAKIA Dr. Montaigne consiqered books to be the best preparation for life's journey, and he felt pity for all who did not possess books. In our times, he would have felt sorry, too, for those who are forced to read books that are contrary to their way of sound thinking. Ruskin wrote that books are as necessary to man as wings for a bird. And in this respect the Slovak book abroad became practically the only means for a Christian training of our Slovak youth in their native homeland. The various catechisms for old and young, life stories of virtuous young men and women, reflections on various themes for the sophisticated, e. g., Hlinka's works (K sirsim obzorom -To wider horizons and Cesty-Highways) are rich sources from which all may benefit, both those who are being trained and the trainers themselves personally. In no way it is rash or a breach of confidence to statethat Marxism-Leninism, as we know it so far, has has not proved successful in the development or the advancement of man. While on a state visit to Hungary the late Khruschev said quite frankly in jest (but truthfully at any rate ) that Russian specialists were unable to train even a young ox, it was enough for the animal to start kicking, the Ukrainian politician said, and the socalled experts scattered in all directions. Particularly in the training of youth the communist system proved to be a failure, for which we have more evidence than is necessary to prove our point. If the communist (Marxist-Leninist) system accomplished something it has been one-sided and doubtful because it does not consider the whole person: it ignores his religious instincts and warps his moral nature. It knows only how to harness instincts and human resources to serve its own perverse purposes and designs. Unfortunately, this is not the place nor the time to dwell upon the moral condition of the Slovak youth today. I will leave the discussion to authorities on the subject and hope that they will devote more time to study the situation in depth and give a more factual and detailed report at some future date. Slovak editions abroad are a great help to our students in their own country. The well known 'scripts' of profes- SLOVAKIA 11 sors-primarily in the theological schools-are far from complete, if for no other reason than that they are lacking in proper information on the subject and they ignore the development of reasoning and leave out the basic fundamentals of theological and philosophical truths. Theologians in the city of Bratislava have various handbooks at their disposal, even though concise, for teaching philosophy, theology, sociology and the Bible, both the Old and New Testament. Undoubtedly, many are acquainted with the works, "Posolstvo--Mission," and "Za svetlom-Towards the Light" by dedicated men like Msgr. Botek and Msgr. Vrablec. Authoritative handbooks, though lacking much in details, are still far superior to mere 'scripts.' Not even in the field of prose, simply literature, is our group of authors in exile out of step with the times . This fact was admitted in Slovakia when there was some freedom of speech, and when, for a short time several years ago, publications in the country were permitted without being subject to orders 'from above.' Dante's Inferno was translated about the same time both in and outside of Slovakia. In my opinion, in many ways, the translation in exile excelled the domestic edition. The translation and selections of Claudel's poetry in exile, too, are far better than that of the edition in Slovakia. It was not without ulterior motives, therefore, that Karol Strmen, author of the above mentioned translations, became the subject of a virulent attack in the domestic press of Slovakia. Hronsky's original novels and short stories, written and published in exile, were admitted for publication in his native homeland. Meciar's critical reviews of Kukucin's works, too, were permitted entry as a source of vital information about this Slovak novelist who lived in Argentina for many years. The Most quarterly and the Slovak v Amerike's Almanach somehow get into Slovakia and are circulated throughout the country. Slovak poems from abroad are copied and circulated, memorized and recited in closed circles. This, too, belongs to popular education, esthetics, literature, etc. as an answer to those who would deny 12 SLOVAKIA not only political and religious liberty but cultural freedom to the Slovak nation in its native homeland. A word about the meaning and mission of Slovak political literature abroad, particularly for these reasons: 1) In the free world alone can one express himself freely in behalf of the self-determination of the Slovak nation, and nations in the same predicament, or for freedom to manifest its will to control its own national destiny. 2) The truth can be spoken, written and proved in the free world alone as to the past history of the Slovak nation in the light of the facts and truth without fear of police interference and judicial reprisals. We are responsible for the destiny of our Slovak nation that cannot, at this time under the present circumstances, know the full truth of its past because the truth is hidden or falsified and distorted in behalf of the party in power. That is why the Slovak nation is thankful to God that beyond the reach of the politbureau events as they actually happen are factually reported and registered without any pressure from directives or threats from the Party meetings. These are the reasons why I recommend that we have a common center for our historic and political publications of our writers abroad, and no one can hold this against me, justly, that is. A common and mutual endeavor is our responsibility because history-life's teacher-must also be a teacher in our political life. 'I'he late Matus cernak, Karol Sidor, Dr. Frantisek Hrusovsky and Konstantin culen, as well as the living, namely, Professor Vojtech Bucko, Dr. Arved Grebert, Kristof Greiner, Dr. Ferdinand i'.>urcansky, Dr. Jozef Kirschbaum, Dr. Jozef Mikus, Dr. Jozef Pauco, Dr. Jan Rekem, Professor Frantisek Vnuk and many, many others in our Slovak life have made invaluable contributions to the Slovak nation's cause, and to the world in general, by their numerous efforts and achievements. All these will someday provide inexhaustible sources for those who will write the history of Slovakia and the Slovak nation without any bias or prejudice. The future will be concerned not only with historic events but with the truth about personalities who come LIBRARY SLOVAKIA 13 to the fore in the re-creation of history as it actually happened. For example, the history of Hlinka or Tiso, and of their closest collaborators, and adversaries, too, can now be known only in the writings of authors in the free world because in their homeland a furious campaign to erase their names from history pages, a hate campaign to smear their names and to eliminate them as persons who in their time exercised profound influence. That must be adequately evaluated in Slovak history in the future. Personal biographical profiles sketched by the pens of Dr. Pauco, Bor and others in the free world will one day hold a place of honor in the national album of the great men in the history of the Slovak nation and its historic homeland of a thousand and more years. Finally, the meaning of the Slovak word, written, spoken, in exile, and somewhat exemphasized, perhaps, will one day be understood and properly evaluated in the future when the Slovaks will once again control their national destiny as a free nation in central Europe. The governing regime in Slovakia has unwittingly given public testimony of the intrinsic value of the Slovak word from abroad. The Postal Center 120 in Praha put a ban on Slovak periodicals and publications from abroad and has consistently returned or destroyed the Slovak printed word from the free world. The first document presented here is that of the postal administration addressed to the sender of a parcel of books. I submit it fully with the exception of the name of the publication and the date to prevent tracing the source of my information. It reads: Posta Praha 120. In Prague, date ... Dear Sir, Dear sirs, We inform you that your inclosed postal parcel contains, among other items, the following publication: .. . The entry and circulation of such publications is prohibited by a law on publication and information, given on the basis of Law 23, No. 8/ 1966 Sb., relating to periodicals, publications and other informational mediums according to Law No. 23, 127/1968, Sb. That is why these publications were forbidden postal delivery. Items not admitted for postal delivery fall under Par. 6, Art. 4 of the official regulation No. 240/1949, Sb. under postal laws for the welfare of the state. Greeting-Peace to the world. 14 SLOVAKIA The refusal is officially stamped: "Posta Praha 120". Instead of a signature, there is only the letter K. When such restrictions of freedom of expression are based upon so many laws or regulations, this campaign against the means of formation or information, the spiritual isolation of the people cannot be anything less than illegal legislation and legal spiritual homicide. The second document even more graphically illustrates opposition against religion, which, apparently to all intents and purposes, the state is developing in a legalistic form. It reads: Dissemination of information garnered from foreign publications. Letter and disposition of the Ministry of Culture of the Slovak Socialist Republic, N. MK, 4525/1971 of June 17. 1971. To all the centers of church and religious bodies in Slovakia. Through assorted channels a variety of foreign periodicals and publications dealing with religious and church problems have been brought into the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, whose contents in many cases are biased and in conflict with the interests of our socialist state. Their evaluation has shown that they contain articles which untruthfully and rudely slander the CSSR. Future distribution or circulations of such materials, or any part thereof, is not permitted. This regulation also is in force in regards to the distribution or publication of certain informative instructions, etc., whether by internal religious organs, in official bulletins or in any form whatsoever. We warn that any activity that is contrary to the interest of socialist society is a misdemeanor, according to P. 5, Law No. 150/1969, Sb. We direct that you inform all branches subject to your authority of the contents of these instructions. K. Homola, Secretary General and Director for Church Affairs. This communique (signed by K. Homola) in general refers to "foreign" periodicals and publications, as if it avoided labeling them properly "Slovak," but which subsequently became clear because only these were returned by the postal outhorities with the words: "Non admis ... Not admitted ... " Later the explanation in French was added: "Returned. Violates Custom Regulations." Attempts to obtain official copies of the specific government regulations in order to comply with the law have been in vain. Non-admittance of publications from the outside world is now absolute and arbitrary. The returned publications with the official stamp of rejection attached have been filed in the archives of Slovak organizations 15 SLOVAKIA as real proofs and evidence for the future of the present spiritual enslavement of the people by the ruling regime for which the light of truth is obviously a much-feared scarecrow. The dialectics of the communist party defines everything as "biased" if it does not come off its own press, if it fails to idolize Marxism-Leninism, if it does not propagate the idea of the world revolution of the proletariat, etc. Of course, this type of "bias" is detrimentally opposed to the interests of a socialist state, namely the CSSR. Note that even 'internal church information and instructions from abroad' constitute misdemeanors if distributed (if they are not favorable to the spread of communism) because by the very fact they are not pro, they must be con-according to the borrowed Biblical phrase, "Who is not for me, is against me . . ." twisted to suit their own ends and purposes! Someone once observed that the burning of books furnishes light in darkness. We can surely applay this remark in the case of Slovak books arriving at postal centers in Czecho-Slovakia, particularly in Prague. Their fate may be that they are merely censored and confiscated, then returned to the sender, but more often consigned officially to be burned. Despite this, they continue to have their influence. The fear, in official circles of Czecho• Slovakia, of the Slovak word from abroad is clearly a case of a bad conscience. I conclude this review of past events with reference to a recent article in our press in Slovakia that labelled Slovak emigration as a dry, lifeless branch of the Slovak nation. How much or little truth there is in that arbitrary <;tatement an unprejudiced person can easily determine. lil THE SLOVAK LEAGUE OF AMERICA through its Ladies luud.liary, the "VCIELKY" (Bees), sponsors Slovak cultttrai displays. concerts, lectures, art exhibits, folk festjvals, social evenings, etc. Our aim is to have a "Hive" of our "V~ielky" in every large Slovak community.  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Slovak Word Abroad Description An account of the resource Gorazd Zvonický Slovakia, Vol. 23 (No. 46), 1973 pp. 3-15 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Zvonický, Gorazd, 1913-1995 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1973 LCNAF https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/52ea442fca9b65f3b5732d6af78d86f3.pdf a63f14f90cdd0d3b8a28bbfb76fcbc53 PDF Text Text SLOVAKIA Twenty Years of the Slovak Institute in CI eve land Joseph Pa u co, Ph.D. It was not by mere chance that on September 15, 1952, the Slovak Institute was founded at St. Andrew Svorad Abbey in Cleveland, Ohio. For years the Slovak Benedictine abbey had been a center for Slovak books, periodicals, publications and materials of historic value. But since lines of communication were practically terminated with Slovakia in the postwar era after World War II it was deemed necessary to establish an institution that would be, in some measure at last, a substitute, temporarily, for the Matica Slovenska and the Spolok sv. Vojtecha for the purpose of giving moral support to Slovak writers, artists and all cultural workers in the Slovak world in exile. Abbot Theodore Kojis, O.S.B. called a special meeting to establish the Slovak Institute. The Charter members were: Abbot Kojis, who was elected president, Dr. Frantisek Hrusovsky, Ph.D. ,whom the president named immediately as director, and members Rev. Mikulas ~princ, Dr. Joseph Cincik, Ph.D., Dr. Karol Strmen, Ph.D. and Rev. Andrew Pir, O.S.B. A decade later a branch of the Institute was formed in Rome and approved by the executive council in Cleveland. Known far and wide as a prominent leader among American Slovaks and the builder of St. Andrew's Abbey, Abbot Kojis became vitally interested in promoting American Slovak culture. It was mainly through his initiative, vision and leadership that a grant of $50,000 was made by the Abbey chapter to build the Slovak SS. Cyril and Methodius center in Rome. This action inspired individuals and organizations among Slovaks through the free world to pour out approximately a million dollars for the new religious and cultural Slovak enterprise in the Eternal City. �SLOVAKIA 17 The Abbot, a lover and patron of good books, promoted the publication of a number of works that proved invaluable as solid historical sources of the true story of the Slovak nation's destiny in central Europe. These were distributed to various public and university libraries throughout the U.S. and Canada. Abbot Theodore Kojis, O.S.B. represented the Slovak Institute publicly as its president and privately as a generous host to an ever-increasing stream of guests who discovered his ready willingness to promote Slovak cultural projects in the interest of the common Slovak cause. In the Church he was an authoritative spokesman for the Slovak people. Dr. Frantisek Hrusovsky, Ph.D., author of the first complete scholarly history of the Slovak nation, continued to draw upon his extensive knowledge of the historical background of the Slovaks by writing many articles for American Slovak newspapers and publications on a variety of themes relating to the glorious past of his native homeland of Slovakia. His Slovak history (Slovenske dejiny) in no small measure helped to intensify and enrich the national consciousness of the Slovak people during the eventful era of the Slovak Republic. As a matter of record, his historical work in several editions ( exceeding the publication of more than 100,000 volumes) was a complete sellout before World War II. In Cleveland, Ohio, in less than a decade of untiring work and relentless effort, Dr. Hrusovsky made a lasting impression on American Slovak life before his untimely death at the age of 53 on September 9, 1956. In addition to his many articles which appeared regularly in the Slovak press he was in constant demand as an eloquent speaker. Moreover, he succeeded in correcting many misconceptions about the Slovak people and their native country. The documented history of Slovak Religious Orders in America, published in 1955, was perhaps the crowning achievement of his monumental work in America. Konstantin Culen, a leading Slovak journalist and publicist, as well as a dynamic patriot, succeeded the eminent Dr. Hrusovsky as the second director of the Slovak Institute. Konsto Culen, author of a popular history of �18 SLOVAKIA the American Slovaks before World War II that won a national award in his native homeland of Slovakia, continued to collect, classify and publish a series of historical articles on the early beginnings of Slovak life in America. Far-reaching plans into the future by Culen were inaugurated by a Slovak Exhibition of books and art under the sponsorship in the Slovak Institute in the Benedictine High School auditorium in 1957. The Exhibit in which Dr. Cincik collaborated with the help of the Slovak Brothers at the Abbey was a pronounced success and a manifestation of culen's great love of Slovak culture, as well as his deep and unquestioned appreciation of the contributions of the American Slovaks to our common national heritage. His was unquestionably a true idealism, unbridled enthusiasm and genuine attachment to the cultural values of the Slovak nation. Unfortunately, tragedy marked the life of Konstantin Culen. What he planned he was unable to complete. He envisioned a grandiose program: a new, revised and detailed history of the American Slovaks and a series of biographies of leading Slovaks. He planned to accomplish all this under the aegis of the Slovak Institute with the help of an ever-increasing staff of research scholars and co-workers. But Culen vanished from sight like a meteor in the heavens. Nonetheless, neither Dr. Hrusovsky nor culen lived in vain. Their names are immortalized by their works and will live forever in the annals of Slovak history. Abbot Theodore Kojis, O.S.B. placed the Slovak Institute into the hands of his religious colleague, Rev. Andrej Pir, O.S.B. in 1958. The third director of the Institute had much in common with his illustrious predecessors. He shared with them a common love for Slovak culture and, like both of them, he, too, was an indefatigable, energetic and enthusiastic worker. Today the Slovak Institute continues to enlarge its library and archives (over 10,000 items) which are in the process of being organized and systematically classified and cataloged each summer by a library staff under the �SLOVAKIA 19 direction of Sister Angelina Burak, SS.C.M. from Villa Sacred Heart, Danville, Pa. Originally the nucleus for the present creditable library of Slovak books at the Institute was provided by the Matica Slovenska and Spolok sv. Vojtecha delegations that came to America in 1935 and 1937 respectively. Each contributed several hundred volumes directly from Slovakia. Year by year individuals and organizations continue to send in books, periodicals and souvenirs (such as ceramics, pictures, photos, etc.) and these are added to the valuable collection at the Institute. As director of the Slovak Institute, Father Pir, O.S.B. has taken care of the library in the traditional spirit of the sons of St. Benedict who have always manifested special concern for books, manuscripts, etc. down through the centuries. A decade ago the Slovak Institute sponsored a Book Fair in the Benedictine High School auditorium, the first public ethnic display of books in the city of Cleveland. Father Pir is in touch with many cultural-minded persons and has the opportunity to meet students who do research in the Slovak fields of literature, art, history, science, politics, economics, industry, religion and education. He has been a steady contributor of articles to Slovak periodicals on assorted Slovak subjects for the past thirty years. In Cleveland he has been the director of a speaker's bureau for the Cleveland Slovak Cultural Radio Club (Station WERE) for more than a quarter of a century. Under his supervision approximately a hundred speakers have delivered more than a total of 1,250 speeches since 1947. He has been the editor of the Ave Maria religious magazine the past 15 years. His "Slovak News and Views" weekly column, which began in 1947 as a feature in the Katolicky Sokol weekly and was tranferred to the Jednota weekly newspaper in 1959, is a true reflection of Slovak contemporary life here and elsewhere. For many this column has been an inspiration for the study of their own background, particularly among Slovak youth. Although the Slovak Institute is primarly an American Slovak institution in Cleveland, it has a branch in Rome. �20 SLOVAKIA This gives it somewhat of an international flavor and offers scholars a wide field of research in problems that effect the destiny of the Slovak nation. Needless to add, this gives the Slovak Institute added prestige both here and abroad. Abbot Jerome Koval, O.S.B., who succeeded Abbot Kojis as president of the Slovak Institute, retained both Father Pir as director and Dr. Karol Strme:n, Ph.D. as secretary of the Institute. Both are closely associated as co-editors of the Ave Maria magazine published by St. Andrew's Abbey in Cleveland, Ohio. Dr. Karol Strmefl, Ph.D. rightfully enjoys a high place in Slovak culture. He is a talented poet and a versatile translator of the leading poets of the world. There is scarcely a poet of renown in the West or East with whose work he is not acquainted, and whose poems are not represented in Slovak literature through his translations. Both his original poems and those he has translated are veritable pearls in Slovak literature. There is no doubt that Dr. Strmen is the most qualified person for the office of secretary of the Slovak Institute. For years he has been associated with its director. For the most part of a decade (1949-1959) he was a member of the triumvirate (Dr. Francis Hrusovsky, Ph.D., Rev. Andrew Pir, O.S.B., Dr. Karol Strmefl, Ph.D.) that edited the Slovenske noviny-Slovak News weekly. Dr. Strmen is a multi-faceted personality whom it is difficult to classify or emulate. It is no exaggeration to claim that he is unique, and irreplaceable in Slovak literature. Father Mikulas sprinc, a life-long friend of Dr. Strmen, may be called his "literary twin." He, too, is one of the Charter members of the Slovak Institute and belongs in the brightest constellation of the Slovak literary world. Father sprinc's prolific works in poetry and prose surpass practically all of his contemporaries here, in his native Slovakia or abroad. Each year for the past quarter of a century he has published at least one book. Literary critics have given his works favorable reviews through the years. His productivity is surely impressive. �SLOVAKIA 21 Comparison of sprinc and Strmen as poets leaves us puzzled. Both have their admirers, and one would find it difficult to choose whose poetry excels. Their styles and subjects are quite different. Both, however, are truly poets. New laurels have been won by Father sprinc by the continuous editorship of the Most, a Slovak cultural quarterly, the past nineteen years. After a succession of several publishers, the Slovak Institute adopted it as an official publication during the past decade. Many of the best writings of Slovak authors and artists in exile have appeared in this excellent cultural periodical. Contemporaries, perhaps, are not aware of the difficulties that have to be overcome in editing a cultural publication of classical quality. Literary critics and keen observers of the Slovak emigrants' struggles in a strange world, however, appreciate the sacrifices of the editor and his staff, and contributors, who have produced a worthwhile work at a time when wars and revolutions raged and political disturbances everywhere buffeted us on every side and threatened to wrest the pens and palettes of Slovak writers and artists from our hands. Charismatic gifts of Father sprinc are quite manifest in his eloquent preaching of the Word of God, as well as in his public speeches. He has travelled throughout the United States and Canada, sowing the seed of truth everywhere and performing invaluable service to the Slovak cause in a twofold manner: a) By arousing, informing and inspiring his hearers and readers; b) By obtaining ideas for new works. He is a true analyst of the thoughts and feelings of the American Slovaks to whom he belongs heart and soul, both as a priest of God and as a literary genius. Dr. Jozef Cincik, Ph.D., a Charter member, too, has done yeoman work by his unique work in art in the common cause of Slovak advancement in cultural endeavor far from his native homeland. His work bears the indelible mark of a rich personality and is an integral part of our American Slovak heritage. A number of Slovak churches have the unmistakable 'Dr. Cincik' stamp of artistic design emanating from his deep knowledge of the history of Slovak art and the science of archeology. Through many of his discoveries in the latter field he has helped to place �2.2 SLOVAKIA Slovakia on the map as an important archeological center in the very heart of central Europe. In his native homeland of Slovakia where he was a prominent member of the Matica Slovenska and the Slovak University staff, Dr. Cincik's imprint of genius is evident in many church edifices, public buildings, and illustrations of books and engravings of the currency and banknotes of the Slovak Republic. If there is anything regrettable in the career of Dr. Cincik it is certainly the cruel fate that drove him into exile, thus depriving his country of his rich creative talents at a time when they are needed the most. No one can deny that Dr. Cincik is eminently capable of expressing his unusual artistic talents in works of arts and in his writings, but he excels, too, in his ability to turn on a veritable torrent of words in his native Slovak tongue. Moreover, he is a living Slovak encyclopedia. To catch every word requires at least a pair of wide-awake listeners. It will surely be a great loss not to register his informal lectures, which on occasion he gives spontaneously and with a brilliant display of imaginative and dramatic flourishes that add color to his profound, scholarly and extemporaneous talks in an intimate gathering of friends . So much for the historic background of the Slovak Institute's Charter members. In the past twenty years many outstanding personalities and authorities in various fields of science, literature, art, history, music, religion and public life have become intimately associated with the Institute. The list is long enough to merit a volume or two of memoirs. But that is not our mission. On the 20th anniversary of the Slovak Institute we cannot pass over reference to a vital role played by its branch in Rome where Reverend Michael Lacko, S. J., Ph.D., has done notable work in editing the Slovak Studies. It is a pioneer project and appears annually, mainly in the English language. A variety of important articles by authorities in various fields is proof of the merit of this timely issue. As a program for the future it would be quite worthwhile to extend its efforts by the publication of its contents in leading modern languages. This could, indeed, �SLOVAKIA 23 become the main purpose of the Roman branch of the Slovak Institute. As we pause on the occasion of its 20th anniversary to express our congratulations and gratitude to the Slovak Institute in Cleveland, Ohio, for its achievements in behalf of Slovak culture in the free world, we note with satisfaction that is has fulfilled its avowed purpose of existence as expressed precisely in the Constitution and by-laws: "The Slovak Institute at St. Andrew's Abbey wants to support Slovak cultural life by inviting all Slovak cultural workers living in the free world outside Slovakia to membership, and promises to aid them in every possible manner in their cultural, scientific, literary and artistic endeavors because the Slovak nation in itll historic homeland after World War II cannot freely rule its own destiny according to its own principles, spirit or ideals, and consequently cannot direct its own proper cultural development." No program of dynamic action in the next forseeable fifty or seventy years can excel the idealism incorporated in the original Constitution and by-laws of the Slovak Institute in Cleveland as adopted a score of years ago. • • • SLOVAK 'INSTANT John Mizerak, a retired factory worker who became an instant millionaire via MILLIONAIRE' DIES the New York state lottery last September, died February 5, 1973 in Little Falls (N.Y.) Hospital. He was 77. Mizerak, blinded by glaucoma for several years, had been hospitalized since January 10 with an undisclosed illness. Mizerak, his wife Anna and their only child, John W. "Rusty" Mizerak, a musician and former baseball player in the Cincinnati Reds organization, won $1 million in the 1972 "summer special" lottery after the number of their $3 ticket was drawn. � SLOVAKIA Twenty Years of the Slovak Institute in CI eve land Joseph Pa u co, Ph.D. It was not by mere chance that on September 15, 1952, the Slovak Institute was founded at St. Andrew Svorad Abbey in Cleveland, Ohio. For years the Slovak Benedictine abbey had been a center for Slovak books, periodicals, publications and materials of historic value. But since lines of communication were practically terminated with Slovakia in the postwar era after World War II it was deemed necessary to establish an institution that would be, in some measure at last, a substitute, temporarily, for the Matica Slovenska and the Spolok sv. Vojtecha for the purpose of giving moral support to Slovak writers, artists and all cultural workers in the Slovak world in exile. Abbot Theodore Kojis, O.S.B. called a special meeting to establish the Slovak Institute. The Charter members were: Abbot Kojis, who was elected president, Dr. Frantisek Hrusovsky, Ph.D. ,whom the president named immediately as director, and members Rev. Mikulas ~princ, Dr. Joseph Cincik, Ph.D., Dr. Karol Strmen, Ph.D. and Rev. Andrew Pir, O.S.B. A decade later a branch of the Institute was formed in Rome and approved by the executive council in Cleveland. Known far and wide as a prominent leader among American Slovaks and the builder of St. Andrew's Abbey, Abbot Kojis became vitally interested in promoting American Slovak culture. It was mainly through his initiative, vision and leadership that a grant of $50,000 was made by the Abbey chapter to build the Slovak SS. Cyril and Methodius center in Rome. This action inspired individuals and organizations among Slovaks through the free world to pour out approximately a million dollars for the new religious and cultural Slovak enterprise in the Eternal City. �SLOVAKIA 17 The Abbot, a lover and patron of good books, promoted the publication of a number of works that proved invaluable as solid historical sources of the true story of the Slovak nation's destiny in central Europe. These were distributed to various public and university libraries throughout the U.S. and Canada. Abbot Theodore Kojis, O.S.B. represented the Slovak Institute publicly as its president and privately as a generous host to an ever-increasing stream of guests who discovered his ready willingness to promote Slovak cultural projects in the interest of the common Slovak cause. In the Church he was an authoritative spokesman for the Slovak people. Dr. Frantisek Hrusovsky, Ph.D., author of the first complete scholarly history of the Slovak nation, continued to draw upon his extensive knowledge of the historical background of the Slovaks by writing many articles for American Slovak newspapers and publications on a variety of themes relating to the glorious past of his native homeland of Slovakia. His Slovak history (Slovenske dejiny) in no small measure helped to intensify and enrich the national consciousness of the Slovak people during the eventful era of the Slovak Republic. As a matter of record, his historical work in several editions ( exceeding the publication of more than 100,000 volumes) was a complete sellout before World War II. In Cleveland, Ohio, in less than a decade of untiring work and relentless effort, Dr. Hrusovsky made a lasting impression on American Slovak life before his untimely death at the age of 53 on September 9, 1956. In addition to his many articles which appeared regularly in the Slovak press he was in constant demand as an eloquent speaker. Moreover, he succeeded in correcting many misconceptions about the Slovak people and their native country. The documented history of Slovak Religious Orders in America, published in 1955, was perhaps the crowning achievement of his monumental work in America. Konstantin Culen, a leading Slovak journalist and publicist, as well as a dynamic patriot, succeeded the eminent Dr. Hrusovsky as the second director of the Slovak Institute. Konsto Culen, author of a popular history of �18 SLOVAKIA the American Slovaks before World War II that won a national award in his native homeland of Slovakia, continued to collect, classify and publish a series of historical articles on the early beginnings of Slovak life in America. Far-reaching plans into the future by Culen were inaugurated by a Slovak Exhibition of books and art under the sponsorship in the Slovak Institute in the Benedictine High School auditorium in 1957. The Exhibit in which Dr. Cincik collaborated with the help of the Slovak Brothers at the Abbey was a pronounced success and a manifestation of culen's great love of Slovak culture, as well as his deep and unquestioned appreciation of the contributions of the American Slovaks to our common national heritage. His was unquestionably a true idealism, unbridled enthusiasm and genuine attachment to the cultural values of the Slovak nation. Unfortunately, tragedy marked the life of Konstantin Culen. What he planned he was unable to complete. He envisioned a grandiose program: a new, revised and detailed history of the American Slovaks and a series of biographies of leading Slovaks. He planned to accomplish all this under the aegis of the Slovak Institute with the help of an ever-increasing staff of research scholars and co-workers. But Culen vanished from sight like a meteor in the heavens. Nonetheless, neither Dr. Hrusovsky nor culen lived in vain. Their names are immortalized by their works and will live forever in the annals of Slovak history. Abbot Theodore Kojis, O.S.B. placed the Slovak Institute into the hands of his religious colleague, Rev. Andrej Pir, O.S.B. in 1958. The third director of the Institute had much in common with his illustrious predecessors. He shared with them a common love for Slovak culture and, like both of them, he, too, was an indefatigable, energetic and enthusiastic worker. Today the Slovak Institute continues to enlarge its library and archives (over 10,000 items) which are in the process of being organized and systematically classified and cataloged each summer by a library staff under the �SLOVAKIA 19 direction of Sister Angelina Burak, SS.C.M. from Villa Sacred Heart, Danville, Pa. Originally the nucleus for the present creditable library of Slovak books at the Institute was provided by the Matica Slovenska and Spolok sv. Vojtecha delegations that came to America in 1935 and 1937 respectively. Each contributed several hundred volumes directly from Slovakia. Year by year individuals and organizations continue to send in books, periodicals and souvenirs (such as ceramics, pictures, photos, etc.) and these are added to the valuable collection at the Institute. As director of the Slovak Institute, Father Pir, O.S.B. has taken care of the library in the traditional spirit of the sons of St. Benedict who have always manifested special concern for books, manuscripts, etc. down through the centuries. A decade ago the Slovak Institute sponsored a Book Fair in the Benedictine High School auditorium, the first public ethnic display of books in the city of Cleveland. Father Pir is in touch with many cultural-minded persons and has the opportunity to meet students who do research in the Slovak fields of literature, art, history, science, politics, economics, industry, religion and education. He has been a steady contributor of articles to Slovak periodicals on assorted Slovak subjects for the past thirty years. In Cleveland he has been the director of a speaker's bureau for the Cleveland Slovak Cultural Radio Club (Station WERE) for more than a quarter of a century. Under his supervision approximately a hundred speakers have delivered more than a total of 1,250 speeches since 1947. He has been the editor of the Ave Maria religious magazine the past 15 years. His "Slovak News and Views" weekly column, which began in 1947 as a feature in the Katolicky Sokol weekly and was tranferred to the Jednota weekly newspaper in 1959, is a true reflection of Slovak contemporary life here and elsewhere. For many this column has been an inspiration for the study of their own background, particularly among Slovak youth. Although the Slovak Institute is primarly an American Slovak institution in Cleveland, it has a branch in Rome. �20 SLOVAKIA This gives it somewhat of an international flavor and offers scholars a wide field of research in problems that effect the destiny of the Slovak nation. Needless to add, this gives the Slovak Institute added prestige both here and abroad. Abbot Jerome Koval, O.S.B., who succeeded Abbot Kojis as president of the Slovak Institute, retained both Father Pir as director and Dr. Karol Strme:n, Ph.D. as secretary of the Institute. Both are closely associated as co-editors of the Ave Maria magazine published by St. Andrew's Abbey in Cleveland, Ohio. Dr. Karol Strmefl, Ph.D. rightfully enjoys a high place in Slovak culture. He is a talented poet and a versatile translator of the leading poets of the world. There is scarcely a poet of renown in the West or East with whose work he is not acquainted, and whose poems are not represented in Slovak literature through his translations. Both his original poems and those he has translated are veritable pearls in Slovak literature. There is no doubt that Dr. Strmen is the most qualified person for the office of secretary of the Slovak Institute. For years he has been associated with its director. For the most part of a decade (1949-1959) he was a member of the triumvirate (Dr. Francis Hrusovsky, Ph.D., Rev. Andrew Pir, O.S.B., Dr. Karol Strmefl, Ph.D.) that edited the Slovenske noviny-Slovak News weekly. Dr. Strmen is a multi-faceted personality whom it is difficult to classify or emulate. It is no exaggeration to claim that he is unique, and irreplaceable in Slovak literature. Father Mikulas sprinc, a life-long friend of Dr. Strmen, may be called his "literary twin." He, too, is one of the Charter members of the Slovak Institute and belongs in the brightest constellation of the Slovak literary world. Father sprinc's prolific works in poetry and prose surpass practically all of his contemporaries here, in his native Slovakia or abroad. Each year for the past quarter of a century he has published at least one book. Literary critics have given his works favorable reviews through the years. His productivity is surely impressive. �SLOVAKIA 21 Comparison of sprinc and Strmen as poets leaves us puzzled. Both have their admirers, and one would find it difficult to choose whose poetry excels. Their styles and subjects are quite different. Both, however, are truly poets. New laurels have been won by Father sprinc by the continuous editorship of the Most, a Slovak cultural quarterly, the past nineteen years. After a succession of several publishers, the Slovak Institute adopted it as an official publication during the past decade. Many of the best writings of Slovak authors and artists in exile have appeared in this excellent cultural periodical. Contemporaries, perhaps, are not aware of the difficulties that have to be overcome in editing a cultural publication of classical quality. Literary critics and keen observers of the Slovak emigrants' struggles in a strange world, however, appreciate the sacrifices of the editor and his staff, and contributors, who have produced a worthwhile work at a time when wars and revolutions raged and political disturbances everywhere buffeted us on every side and threatened to wrest the pens and palettes of Slovak writers and artists from our hands. Charismatic gifts of Father sprinc are quite manifest in his eloquent preaching of the Word of God, as well as in his public speeches. He has travelled throughout the United States and Canada, sowing the seed of truth everywhere and performing invaluable service to the Slovak cause in a twofold manner: a) By arousing, informing and inspiring his hearers and readers; b) By obtaining ideas for new works. He is a true analyst of the thoughts and feelings of the American Slovaks to whom he belongs heart and soul, both as a priest of God and as a literary genius. Dr. Jozef Cincik, Ph.D., a Charter member, too, has done yeoman work by his unique work in art in the common cause of Slovak advancement in cultural endeavor far from his native homeland. His work bears the indelible mark of a rich personality and is an integral part of our American Slovak heritage. A number of Slovak churches have the unmistakable 'Dr. Cincik' stamp of artistic design emanating from his deep knowledge of the history of Slovak art and the science of archeology. Through many of his discoveries in the latter field he has helped to place �2.2 SLOVAKIA Slovakia on the map as an important archeological center in the very heart of central Europe. In his native homeland of Slovakia where he was a prominent member of the Matica Slovenska and the Slovak University staff, Dr. Cincik's imprint of genius is evident in many church edifices, public buildings, and illustrations of books and engravings of the currency and banknotes of the Slovak Republic. If there is anything regrettable in the career of Dr. Cincik it is certainly the cruel fate that drove him into exile, thus depriving his country of his rich creative talents at a time when they are needed the most. No one can deny that Dr. Cincik is eminently capable of expressing his unusual artistic talents in works of arts and in his writings, but he excels, too, in his ability to turn on a veritable torrent of words in his native Slovak tongue. Moreover, he is a living Slovak encyclopedia. To catch every word requires at least a pair of wide-awake listeners. It will surely be a great loss not to register his informal lectures, which on occasion he gives spontaneously and with a brilliant display of imaginative and dramatic flourishes that add color to his profound, scholarly and extemporaneous talks in an intimate gathering of friends . So much for the historic background of the Slovak Institute's Charter members. In the past twenty years many outstanding personalities and authorities in various fields of science, literature, art, history, music, religion and public life have become intimately associated with the Institute. The list is long enough to merit a volume or two of memoirs. But that is not our mission. On the 20th anniversary of the Slovak Institute we cannot pass over reference to a vital role played by its branch in Rome where Reverend Michael Lacko, S. J., Ph.D., has done notable work in editing the Slovak Studies. It is a pioneer project and appears annually, mainly in the English language. A variety of important articles by authorities in various fields is proof of the merit of this timely issue. As a program for the future it would be quite worthwhile to extend its efforts by the publication of its contents in leading modern languages. This could, indeed, �SLOVAKIA 23 become the main purpose of the Roman branch of the Slovak Institute. As we pause on the occasion of its 20th anniversary to express our congratulations and gratitude to the Slovak Institute in Cleveland, Ohio, for its achievements in behalf of Slovak culture in the free world, we note with satisfaction that is has fulfilled its avowed purpose of existence as expressed precisely in the Constitution and by-laws: "The Slovak Institute at St. Andrew's Abbey wants to support Slovak cultural life by inviting all Slovak cultural workers living in the free world outside Slovakia to membership, and promises to aid them in every possible manner in their cultural, scientific, literary and artistic endeavors because the Slovak nation in itll historic homeland after World War II cannot freely rule its own destiny according to its own principles, spirit or ideals, and consequently cannot direct its own proper cultural development." No program of dynamic action in the next forseeable fifty or seventy years can excel the idealism incorporated in the original Constitution and by-laws of the Slovak Institute in Cleveland as adopted a score of years ago. • • • SLOVAK 'INSTANT John Mizerak, a retired factory worker who became an instant millionaire via MILLIONAIRE' DIES the New York state lottery last September, died February 5, 1973 in Little Falls (N.Y.) Hospital. He was 77. Mizerak, blinded by glaucoma for several years, had been hospitalized since January 10 with an undisclosed illness. Mizerak, his wife Anna and their only child, John W. "Rusty" Mizerak, a musician and former baseball player in the Cincinnati Reds organization, won $1 million in the 1972 "summer special" lottery after the number of their $3 ticket was drawn. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1973, Vol. 23 Description An account of the resource Vol. 23 (No. 46), 1973. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1973 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document SLOVAKIA Twenty Years of the Slovak Institute in CI eve land Joseph Pa u co, Ph.D. It was not by mere chance that on September 15, 1952, the Slovak Institute was founded at St. Andrew Svorad Abbey in Cleveland, Ohio. For years the Slovak Benedictine abbey had been a center for Slovak books, periodicals, publications and materials of historic value. But since lines of communication were practically terminated with Slovakia in the postwar era after World War II it was deemed necessary to establish an institution that would be, in some measure at last, a substitute, temporarily, for the Matica Slovenska and the Spolok sv. Vojtecha for the purpose of giving moral support to Slovak writers, artists and all cultural workers in the Slovak world in exile. Abbot Theodore Kojis, O.S.B. called a special meeting to establish the Slovak Institute. The Charter members were: Abbot Kojis, who was elected president, Dr. Frantisek Hrusovsky, Ph.D. ,whom the president named immediately as director, and members Rev. Mikulas ~princ, Dr. Joseph Cincik, Ph.D., Dr. Karol Strmen, Ph.D. and Rev. Andrew Pir, O.S.B. A decade later a branch of the Institute was formed in Rome and approved by the executive council in Cleveland. Known far and wide as a prominent leader among American Slovaks and the builder of St. Andrew's Abbey, Abbot Kojis became vitally interested in promoting American Slovak culture. It was mainly through his initiative, vision and leadership that a grant of $50,000 was made by the Abbey chapter to build the Slovak SS. Cyril and Methodius center in Rome. This action inspired individuals and organizations among Slovaks through the free world to pour out approximately a million dollars for the new religious and cultural Slovak enterprise in the Eternal City. SLOVAKIA 17 The Abbot, a lover and patron of good books, promoted the publication of a number of works that proved invaluable as solid historical sources of the true story of the Slovak nation's destiny in central Europe. These were distributed to various public and university libraries throughout the U.S. and Canada. Abbot Theodore Kojis, O.S.B. represented the Slovak Institute publicly as its president and privately as a generous host to an ever-increasing stream of guests who discovered his ready willingness to promote Slovak cultural projects in the interest of the common Slovak cause. In the Church he was an authoritative spokesman for the Slovak people. Dr. Frantisek Hrusovsky, Ph.D., author of the first complete scholarly history of the Slovak nation, continued to draw upon his extensive knowledge of the historical background of the Slovaks by writing many articles for American Slovak newspapers and publications on a variety of themes relating to the glorious past of his native homeland of Slovakia. His Slovak history (Slovenske dejiny) in no small measure helped to intensify and enrich the national consciousness of the Slovak people during the eventful era of the Slovak Republic. As a matter of record, his historical work in several editions ( exceeding the publication of more than 100,000 volumes) was a complete sellout before World War II. In Cleveland, Ohio, in less than a decade of untiring work and relentless effort, Dr. Hrusovsky made a lasting impression on American Slovak life before his untimely death at the age of 53 on September 9, 1956. In addition to his many articles which appeared regularly in the Slovak press he was in constant demand as an eloquent speaker. Moreover, he succeeded in correcting many misconceptions about the Slovak people and their native country. The documented history of Slovak Religious Orders in America, published in 1955, was perhaps the crowning achievement of his monumental work in America. Konstantin Culen, a leading Slovak journalist and publicist, as well as a dynamic patriot, succeeded the eminent Dr. Hrusovsky as the second director of the Slovak Institute. Konsto Culen, author of a popular history of 18 SLOVAKIA the American Slovaks before World War II that won a national award in his native homeland of Slovakia, continued to collect, classify and publish a series of historical articles on the early beginnings of Slovak life in America. Far-reaching plans into the future by Culen were inaugurated by a Slovak Exhibition of books and art under the sponsorship in the Slovak Institute in the Benedictine High School auditorium in 1957. The Exhibit in which Dr. Cincik collaborated with the help of the Slovak Brothers at the Abbey was a pronounced success and a manifestation of culen's great love of Slovak culture, as well as his deep and unquestioned appreciation of the contributions of the American Slovaks to our common national heritage. His was unquestionably a true idealism, unbridled enthusiasm and genuine attachment to the cultural values of the Slovak nation. Unfortunately, tragedy marked the life of Konstantin Culen. What he planned he was unable to complete. He envisioned a grandiose program: a new, revised and detailed history of the American Slovaks and a series of biographies of leading Slovaks. He planned to accomplish all this under the aegis of the Slovak Institute with the help of an ever-increasing staff of research scholars and co-workers. But Culen vanished from sight like a meteor in the heavens. Nonetheless, neither Dr. Hrusovsky nor culen lived in vain. Their names are immortalized by their works and will live forever in the annals of Slovak history. Abbot Theodore Kojis, O.S.B. placed the Slovak Institute into the hands of his religious colleague, Rev. Andrej Pir, O.S.B. in 1958. The third director of the Institute had much in common with his illustrious predecessors. He shared with them a common love for Slovak culture and, like both of them, he, too, was an indefatigable, energetic and enthusiastic worker. Today the Slovak Institute continues to enlarge its library and archives (over 10,000 items) which are in the process of being organized and systematically classified and cataloged each summer by a library staff under the SLOVAKIA 19 direction of Sister Angelina Burak, SS.C.M. from Villa Sacred Heart, Danville, Pa. Originally the nucleus for the present creditable library of Slovak books at the Institute was provided by the Matica Slovenska and Spolok sv. Vojtecha delegations that came to America in 1935 and 1937 respectively. Each contributed several hundred volumes directly from Slovakia. Year by year individuals and organizations continue to send in books, periodicals and souvenirs (such as ceramics, pictures, photos, etc.) and these are added to the valuable collection at the Institute. As director of the Slovak Institute, Father Pir, O.S.B. has taken care of the library in the traditional spirit of the sons of St. Benedict who have always manifested special concern for books, manuscripts, etc. down through the centuries. A decade ago the Slovak Institute sponsored a Book Fair in the Benedictine High School auditorium, the first public ethnic display of books in the city of Cleveland. Father Pir is in touch with many cultural-minded persons and has the opportunity to meet students who do research in the Slovak fields of literature, art, history, science, politics, economics, industry, religion and education. He has been a steady contributor of articles to Slovak periodicals on assorted Slovak subjects for the past thirty years. In Cleveland he has been the director of a speaker's bureau for the Cleveland Slovak Cultural Radio Club (Station WERE) for more than a quarter of a century. Under his supervision approximately a hundred speakers have delivered more than a total of 1,250 speeches since 1947. He has been the editor of the Ave Maria religious magazine the past 15 years. His "Slovak News and Views" weekly column, which began in 1947 as a feature in the Katolicky Sokol weekly and was tranferred to the Jednota weekly newspaper in 1959, is a true reflection of Slovak contemporary life here and elsewhere. For many this column has been an inspiration for the study of their own background, particularly among Slovak youth. Although the Slovak Institute is primarly an American Slovak institution in Cleveland, it has a branch in Rome. 20 SLOVAKIA This gives it somewhat of an international flavor and offers scholars a wide field of research in problems that effect the destiny of the Slovak nation. Needless to add, this gives the Slovak Institute added prestige both here and abroad. Abbot Jerome Koval, O.S.B., who succeeded Abbot Kojis as president of the Slovak Institute, retained both Father Pir as director and Dr. Karol Strme:n, Ph.D. as secretary of the Institute. Both are closely associated as co-editors of the Ave Maria magazine published by St. Andrew's Abbey in Cleveland, Ohio. Dr. Karol Strmefl, Ph.D. rightfully enjoys a high place in Slovak culture. He is a talented poet and a versatile translator of the leading poets of the world. There is scarcely a poet of renown in the West or East with whose work he is not acquainted, and whose poems are not represented in Slovak literature through his translations. Both his original poems and those he has translated are veritable pearls in Slovak literature. There is no doubt that Dr. Strmen is the most qualified person for the office of secretary of the Slovak Institute. For years he has been associated with its director. For the most part of a decade (1949-1959) he was a member of the triumvirate (Dr. Francis Hrusovsky, Ph.D., Rev. Andrew Pir, O.S.B., Dr. Karol Strmefl, Ph.D.) that edited the Slovenske noviny-Slovak News weekly. Dr. Strmen is a multi-faceted personality whom it is difficult to classify or emulate. It is no exaggeration to claim that he is unique, and irreplaceable in Slovak literature. Father Mikulas sprinc, a life-long friend of Dr. Strmen, may be called his "literary twin." He, too, is one of the Charter members of the Slovak Institute and belongs in the brightest constellation of the Slovak literary world. Father sprinc's prolific works in poetry and prose surpass practically all of his contemporaries here, in his native Slovakia or abroad. Each year for the past quarter of a century he has published at least one book. Literary critics have given his works favorable reviews through the years. His productivity is surely impressive. SLOVAKIA 21 Comparison of sprinc and Strmen as poets leaves us puzzled. Both have their admirers, and one would find it difficult to choose whose poetry excels. Their styles and subjects are quite different. Both, however, are truly poets. New laurels have been won by Father sprinc by the continuous editorship of the Most, a Slovak cultural quarterly, the past nineteen years. After a succession of several publishers, the Slovak Institute adopted it as an official publication during the past decade. Many of the best writings of Slovak authors and artists in exile have appeared in this excellent cultural periodical. Contemporaries, perhaps, are not aware of the difficulties that have to be overcome in editing a cultural publication of classical quality. Literary critics and keen observers of the Slovak emigrants' struggles in a strange world, however, appreciate the sacrifices of the editor and his staff, and contributors, who have produced a worthwhile work at a time when wars and revolutions raged and political disturbances everywhere buffeted us on every side and threatened to wrest the pens and palettes of Slovak writers and artists from our hands. Charismatic gifts of Father sprinc are quite manifest in his eloquent preaching of the Word of God, as well as in his public speeches. He has travelled throughout the United States and Canada, sowing the seed of truth everywhere and performing invaluable service to the Slovak cause in a twofold manner: a) By arousing, informing and inspiring his hearers and readers; b) By obtaining ideas for new works. He is a true analyst of the thoughts and feelings of the American Slovaks to whom he belongs heart and soul, both as a priest of God and as a literary genius. Dr. Jozef Cincik, Ph.D., a Charter member, too, has done yeoman work by his unique work in art in the common cause of Slovak advancement in cultural endeavor far from his native homeland. His work bears the indelible mark of a rich personality and is an integral part of our American Slovak heritage. A number of Slovak churches have the unmistakable 'Dr. Cincik' stamp of artistic design emanating from his deep knowledge of the history of Slovak art and the science of archeology. Through many of his discoveries in the latter field he has helped to place 2.2 SLOVAKIA Slovakia on the map as an important archeological center in the very heart of central Europe. In his native homeland of Slovakia where he was a prominent member of the Matica Slovenska and the Slovak University staff, Dr. Cincik's imprint of genius is evident in many church edifices, public buildings, and illustrations of books and engravings of the currency and banknotes of the Slovak Republic. If there is anything regrettable in the career of Dr. Cincik it is certainly the cruel fate that drove him into exile, thus depriving his country of his rich creative talents at a time when they are needed the most. No one can deny that Dr. Cincik is eminently capable of expressing his unusual artistic talents in works of arts and in his writings, but he excels, too, in his ability to turn on a veritable torrent of words in his native Slovak tongue. Moreover, he is a living Slovak encyclopedia. To catch every word requires at least a pair of wide-awake listeners. It will surely be a great loss not to register his informal lectures, which on occasion he gives spontaneously and with a brilliant display of imaginative and dramatic flourishes that add color to his profound, scholarly and extemporaneous talks in an intimate gathering of friends . So much for the historic background of the Slovak Institute's Charter members. In the past twenty years many outstanding personalities and authorities in various fields of science, literature, art, history, music, religion and public life have become intimately associated with the Institute. The list is long enough to merit a volume or two of memoirs. But that is not our mission. On the 20th anniversary of the Slovak Institute we cannot pass over reference to a vital role played by its branch in Rome where Reverend Michael Lacko, S. J., Ph.D., has done notable work in editing the Slovak Studies. It is a pioneer project and appears annually, mainly in the English language. A variety of important articles by authorities in various fields is proof of the merit of this timely issue. As a program for the future it would be quite worthwhile to extend its efforts by the publication of its contents in leading modern languages. This could, indeed, SLOVAKIA 23 become the main purpose of the Roman branch of the Slovak Institute. As we pause on the occasion of its 20th anniversary to express our congratulations and gratitude to the Slovak Institute in Cleveland, Ohio, for its achievements in behalf of Slovak culture in the free world, we note with satisfaction that is has fulfilled its avowed purpose of existence as expressed precisely in the Constitution and by-laws: "The Slovak Institute at St. Andrew's Abbey wants to support Slovak cultural life by inviting all Slovak cultural workers living in the free world outside Slovakia to membership, and promises to aid them in every possible manner in their cultural, scientific, literary and artistic endeavors because the Slovak nation in itll historic homeland after World War II cannot freely rule its own destiny according to its own principles, spirit or ideals, and consequently cannot direct its own proper cultural development." No program of dynamic action in the next forseeable fifty or seventy years can excel the idealism incorporated in the original Constitution and by-laws of the Slovak Institute in Cleveland as adopted a score of years ago. • • • SLOVAK 'INSTANT John Mizerak, a retired factory worker who became an instant millionaire via MILLIONAIRE' DIES the New York state lottery last September, died February 5, 1973 in Little Falls (N.Y.) Hospital. He was 77. Mizerak, blinded by glaucoma for several years, had been hospitalized since January 10 with an undisclosed illness. Mizerak, his wife Anna and their only child, John W. "Rusty" Mizerak, a musician and former baseball player in the Cincinnati Reds organization, won $1 million in the 1972 "summer special" lottery after the number of their $3 ticket was drawn.  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Twenty Years of the Slovak Institute in Cleveland Description An account of the resource Joseph Paučo, Ph.D. Slovakia, Vol. 23 (No. 46), 1973 pp. 16-23 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Paučo, Jozef, 1914-1975 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1973 SNK https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/37c3d0b4b904f6008dc60d3f8a957baa.pdf 984ee428331824dc82654ac63902b1b1 PDF Text Text SLOVAKIA - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - - -- - - -- 24 The Inflectional Morphology of Standard Slovak: A Descriptive Analysis John Michael Koch i k , Ph.D. Research on this topic grew out of a desire to present Standard Slovak anew in a particularly modern linguistic form. The work was performed and completed at the University of Pittsburgh under the direction of the late Doctor Charles E. Bidwell, Professor of Linguistics and Slavic Linguistics. The aim of this work is to give English-speakers interested in the Slovak language a concise, consistent, and structurally-oriented description in the analysts of Standard Slovak inflectional morphology. The theoretical approach is primarily that of American structural descriptivism ( in this case neo-Bloomfieldian). The study commences with a general introduction in which a definition of the variety of Slovak analyzed, the approximate number of contemporaneous speakers, and its linguistic locale are provided. A brief history of the language from earliest to modern times is presented, listing some of the outstanding proponents of the modern literary form and contributors to its development. Previous structural treatments of the language are outlined, implemented by the author's original treatments projected into the sections on morphophonemics and on the verb, with certain original features produced in the methods of noun classification, special-type classification of many adjectives, the illustration of similarities among some of the noun, pronoun and adjective endings, the arrangements of paradigms to illustrate identical endings, the use of synoptic tables to exhibit the endings, and the analysis of the comparative formant into two morphemes. The symbols and conventions, the phonemic notation, the primary �SLOVAKIA 25 sources consulted, the acknowledgments as well as the abbreviations utilized in the work complete section one. Section two lists the phonemes of the language: the vowels and the consonants, and adds a paragraph on the primary and secondary stresses in the language. Section three treats morphophonemics, both automatic and non-automatic (here an original treatment, as stated above). Under automatic morphophonemics are presented: voicing assimilation, simplification of double consonants, simplification of consonant clusters, sibilant assimilation, and the sequence of (j) plus (i) plus a vowel [other than (i) ] . Under non-automatic morphophonemics are these: the classification of consonantal stems as "hard" and "soft", the morphophonemic length correspondences of vowels, the alternation of vowel and zero, the "Rhythmic Law" concerning vowel length, the intercalation of -jbefore verbal suffixes, and the substitutive softening of certain consonants , and the dental/ palatal changes. Section four begins the morphology ( that is, the inflection of endings). The noun is treated first. Nouns are divided into various classes, principally feminine, neuter and masculine. These in turn are divided into subclasses according to their inflectional peculiarities. Feminine nouns have the subclasses: zena (hard stem), ulica-dlan (soft stem), kost' and pani. Neuter nouns have subclasses exemplified by the words: mesto (hard stem), plece (soft stem), vysvedcenie, and dievca. Masculine nouns are subclassified according to the sample words: chlap (hard stem animate), dub (hard stem inanimate), priatel' (soft stem animate), mec (soft stem inanimate), ujko (masculine o-noun), and the mixed declension: sluha. Next follow the mixed mesto/ kost' (oko, ucho) nouns, the mixed neuter noun di et'a, and the mixed noun/ adjective declensions exemplified by ujcirui and mufti. A synoptic table of nountype endings is included. Section five consists of the adjectives: novy (hard declension), cudzi (soft declension) , substantivized adjectives, short-form adjectives, special adjectives: possessives from nouns like bratov, and pronominal possessives like m6j, and jeden. A synoptic table of adjective-type endings is incorporated. Finally, the comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs is treated. �26 SLOVAKIA Section six comprises the personal pronouns and the interrogative/ relative pronouns. Section seven presents the cardinal (plus the compound) and the collective numerals. Section eight describes the verb. Its introduction defines the verb in this study. Given next are the endings of the finite forms. The formants are presented in this order: the imperative, the gerund and present active participle, the infinitive, the l-forms, the past active participle, the past passive participle and the verbal noun. The verb is classified according to the thematic vowel in the present- and the infinitive-stems. All verbs are subdivided into Class I which has the same thematic vowel in all forms, and Class II which has in most cases different thematic vowels in the present- and the infinitive-stems and in all cases thematic zero in present-stem forms other than first singular to second plural. Within Class I there are two subclasses: the a-type with thematic a (volat', vracat', citat') and the ie 1-type with thematic ie or its shortened variant e (rozumiet', mudriet'). Class II contains the following subtypes with the combination of thematic vowels in the present- and infinitivestem: ei2-type with thematic ie or its shortened variant e in the infinitive stem and the present tense (except 3 pl.), (triet', mliet'), ie/0- (niest', minut'), ie/ a- (brat', hnat'); e/ 0- (bit', priat', zat', kradnut'), e/a- (hrabat', cesat', pracovat', klat'); i-type with thematic i in the infinitive stem and present tense (except 3 pl.), (hovorit', kupit'); i / e( vidiet'), i / a- (lezat', spat', stat'); and the special e/ ie-verb chciet'. Base suffixes are provided as the next feature. Then, presented are the alternations in the base which include the base-final consonant change, substitutive softening alternations, change in the infinitive formant, alternation of the root-final nasal consonant with the vowel in a certain verb-type, root alternations including one vowel alternating with another vowel, simple root-vowel lengthening in a certain verb-type, the alternation of a vowel and zero, and certain irregularities in verb-types. �SLOVAKIA 27 Aspect derivation exemplified by perfectivization and imperfectivization follow next. Perfectivization is described according to the technique of prefixation, the addition of certain suffixes, and suppletion. Imperfectivization methods are explained, followed by the characterization of frequentative verbs. The section on the verb is concluded with the verbal constructions in which are listed and clarified: the future of imperfective verbs; the l-form constructions which embrace the simple past, the pluperfect, the conditional, the conditional past, and the negation of the l-form constructions; the passive constructions; and, the word-order of elements in verbal constructions. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bartek Henrich. 1944. Spravna vyslcnmost' slovenska. Bratislava-Turc. Sv. Martin, Jan Horacek. 1956. Slovensky pravopis. Gilnzburg/Donau, G. Jantsch. Belie, Jaromir, et al. 1964. Slovenstina. Praha, SPN. Bidwell, Charles E. 1958. "The Morphophonemics of Polish". General Linguistics 2. 71-99. 1959. "The Serbo-Croatian Comparative". La,i,guage 35. 259-63. 1960. "The Polish Verb". General Linguistics 4. 771964. "The Serbo-Croatian Verb". Language 4. 532-50. 1969a. Outline of Slovenian Morphology. Pittsburgh, University Center for International Studies, Univ. of Pittsburgh. 1969b. A Morpho-Syntactic Characterization of the Modern Slavic Languages. Pittsburgh, University Center for International Studies, Univ. of Pittsburgh. 1969c. The Structure of Russian in Outline. Pittsburgh. Univ. of Pittsburgh Press, Univ. of Pittsburgh. 1970. Outline of Bielorussian Morphology. (2d ed.) Pittsburgh, University Center for International Studies, Univ. of Pittsburgh. 1971a. Outline of Ukrainian Morphology. (2d ed.) Pittsburgh, University Center for International Studies, Univ. of Pittsburgh. 1971b. Outline of Czech Morphology. Pittsburgh, University Center for International Studies, Univ. of Pittsburgh. 1965. Outline of Polish Nominal Morphology. Pittsburgh, Unpublished pre-print, Univ. of Pittsburgh. Czambel, Samo. 1919. Rukovi:it' spisovnej reci slovenskej. (3d ed.). Turc. Sv. Martin. 1'.>urovic, ~ubomir. 1964. Paradigmatika spisovnej rustiny. Bratislava, SPN. Dvonc, Ladislav. 1955. Rytmicky zakon v spisovnej slovencine. Bratislava, SAV. Ga§parikova, Z. and A. Kami§. 1967. Slovensko-cesky slovni k. Praha, SPN. Habov§tiak, A. 1965. Oravske narecia. Bratislava, SAV. �28 SLOVAKIA Hodge, C. T. 1945. Spoken Serbo-Croatian. Madison, Linguistic Society of America. Horecky, Jan. 1964. Morfematicka struktura slovenciny. Bratislava, SAV. Isacenko, Aleksandr V. 1964. "The Morphology of the Slovak Verb". Travaux linguistiques de Prague. 1. 183-201. 1965. Grammaticeskij stroj russkogo jazyka v sopostavlenii s slovackim. I. (2d ed.) Bratislava, SAV. 1968. Spektograficka analyza slovenskych hlasok. Bratislava, SAV. Jakobson, Roman. 1931. "Z fonologie spisovne sloven~tiny". Slovens/ca miscellanea. 155-63. 1962. " Phonemic Notes on Standard Slovak". Roman Jakobson 1896- Selected Writings. The Hague, Mouton. 1. 221-30. Kotek, Ludvik (ed.). 1968. Dejiny ceskoslovenska v datech. (1st ed.) Praha, Svoboda. Kucera, Henry. 1961. The Phonology of Czech. The Hague, Mouton. Kurylowicz, J. 1962. "Personal and Animate Genders in Slavic". Lingua 11. 249-56. Machek, Vaclav. 1957. Etymologicky slovnik jaZ1/ka ceskeho a slovenskeho. Praha, CSAV. Miko, Franmek. 1962. Rod, cisla a pad podstatnych mien. Bratislava, SAV. Necas, J. and M. Kopecky. 1964. Slovensko-cesky, cesko-slovensk11 slovnik rozdilnych vyrazu. Praha, SPN. Novak, I.:udovit. 1934. Fonol6gia a studium slovenciny. Turc. Sv. Martin, Matica slovenska. Ondrus, Pavel. 1964. Morfol6gia spisovnej slovenciny. Bratislava, SPN. Orlovsky, J. and L. Arany. 1946. Gramatika jaZ11ka slovenskeho. Bratislava-Nitra, Pravda. Pauliny, Eugen. 1963. Kratka gramatika slovenska. Bratislava, SPN. 1968. Fonol6gia spisovnej slovenciny. Bratislava, SPN. Pauliny, E.; Stolz, J.; Ruzicka, J. 1963. Slovenska gramatika. (4th ed.) Martin, Osveta. Peciar, Stefan (ed.) 1964. Pravidla slovenskeho pravopisu. (5th ed.) Bratislava, SAV. 1959-1968. Slovnik slovenskeho jazyka. 1-6. Bratislava, SAV. Ruzicka, Jozef (ed.). 1966. Morfol6gia slovenskeho jazyka. Bratislava, SAV. Simko, Jan. 1968. Anglicko-slovensky slovnik. (2d ed.) Bratislava, SPN. Smejkalova, J ., et al. 1968. Anglicko-slovensky a slovensko-anglicky vreckovy slovnik. Bratislava, SPN. Stanislav, Jan. 1953. Slovenska vyslovnost'. Martin, Osveta. 1967. Dejiny slovenskeho jazyka. 1-3. (2d rev. ed.) Bratislava, SAV. Stole, Jozef (ed.). 1968. Atlas slovenskeho jazyka. Bratislava, SAV. Trubetzkoj, N. S. 1937. "Gedanken Uber die Slowakische Deklination". Readings in Linguistics. 2.96-103. Vilikovska, J .; Vilikovsky, J.; Simko, J. 1966. Slovensko-anglicky slovnik. (3d ed.) Bratislava, Obzor. Zauner, Alfonz. 1966. Prakticka prirucka slovenskeho pravopisu. Banska Bystrica, Obzor. � SLOVAKIA - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - - -- - - -- 24 The Inflectional Morphology of Standard Slovak: A Descriptive Analysis John Michael Koch i k , Ph.D. Research on this topic grew out of a desire to present Standard Slovak anew in a particularly modern linguistic form. The work was performed and completed at the University of Pittsburgh under the direction of the late Doctor Charles E. Bidwell, Professor of Linguistics and Slavic Linguistics. The aim of this work is to give English-speakers interested in the Slovak language a concise, consistent, and structurally-oriented description in the analysts of Standard Slovak inflectional morphology. The theoretical approach is primarily that of American structural descriptivism ( in this case neo-Bloomfieldian). The study commences with a general introduction in which a definition of the variety of Slovak analyzed, the approximate number of contemporaneous speakers, and its linguistic locale are provided. A brief history of the language from earliest to modern times is presented, listing some of the outstanding proponents of the modern literary form and contributors to its development. Previous structural treatments of the language are outlined, implemented by the author's original treatments projected into the sections on morphophonemics and on the verb, with certain original features produced in the methods of noun classification, special-type classification of many adjectives, the illustration of similarities among some of the noun, pronoun and adjective endings, the arrangements of paradigms to illustrate identical endings, the use of synoptic tables to exhibit the endings, and the analysis of the comparative formant into two morphemes. The symbols and conventions, the phonemic notation, the primary �SLOVAKIA 25 sources consulted, the acknowledgments as well as the abbreviations utilized in the work complete section one. Section two lists the phonemes of the language: the vowels and the consonants, and adds a paragraph on the primary and secondary stresses in the language. Section three treats morphophonemics, both automatic and non-automatic (here an original treatment, as stated above). Under automatic morphophonemics are presented: voicing assimilation, simplification of double consonants, simplification of consonant clusters, sibilant assimilation, and the sequence of (j) plus (i) plus a vowel [other than (i) ] . Under non-automatic morphophonemics are these: the classification of consonantal stems as "hard" and "soft", the morphophonemic length correspondences of vowels, the alternation of vowel and zero, the "Rhythmic Law" concerning vowel length, the intercalation of -jbefore verbal suffixes, and the substitutive softening of certain consonants , and the dental/ palatal changes. Section four begins the morphology ( that is, the inflection of endings). The noun is treated first. Nouns are divided into various classes, principally feminine, neuter and masculine. These in turn are divided into subclasses according to their inflectional peculiarities. Feminine nouns have the subclasses: zena (hard stem), ulica-dlan (soft stem), kost' and pani. Neuter nouns have subclasses exemplified by the words: mesto (hard stem), plece (soft stem), vysvedcenie, and dievca. Masculine nouns are subclassified according to the sample words: chlap (hard stem animate), dub (hard stem inanimate), priatel' (soft stem animate), mec (soft stem inanimate), ujko (masculine o-noun), and the mixed declension: sluha. Next follow the mixed mesto/ kost' (oko, ucho) nouns, the mixed neuter noun di et'a, and the mixed noun/ adjective declensions exemplified by ujcirui and mufti. A synoptic table of nountype endings is included. Section five consists of the adjectives: novy (hard declension), cudzi (soft declension) , substantivized adjectives, short-form adjectives, special adjectives: possessives from nouns like bratov, and pronominal possessives like m6j, and jeden. A synoptic table of adjective-type endings is incorporated. Finally, the comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs is treated. �26 SLOVAKIA Section six comprises the personal pronouns and the interrogative/ relative pronouns. Section seven presents the cardinal (plus the compound) and the collective numerals. Section eight describes the verb. Its introduction defines the verb in this study. Given next are the endings of the finite forms. The formants are presented in this order: the imperative, the gerund and present active participle, the infinitive, the l-forms, the past active participle, the past passive participle and the verbal noun. The verb is classified according to the thematic vowel in the present- and the infinitive-stems. All verbs are subdivided into Class I which has the same thematic vowel in all forms, and Class II which has in most cases different thematic vowels in the present- and the infinitive-stems and in all cases thematic zero in present-stem forms other than first singular to second plural. Within Class I there are two subclasses: the a-type with thematic a (volat', vracat', citat') and the ie 1-type with thematic ie or its shortened variant e (rozumiet', mudriet'). Class II contains the following subtypes with the combination of thematic vowels in the present- and infinitivestem: ei2-type with thematic ie or its shortened variant e in the infinitive stem and the present tense (except 3 pl.), (triet', mliet'), ie/0- (niest', minut'), ie/ a- (brat', hnat'); e/ 0- (bit', priat', zat', kradnut'), e/a- (hrabat', cesat', pracovat', klat'); i-type with thematic i in the infinitive stem and present tense (except 3 pl.), (hovorit', kupit'); i / e( vidiet'), i / a- (lezat', spat', stat'); and the special e/ ie-verb chciet'. Base suffixes are provided as the next feature. Then, presented are the alternations in the base which include the base-final consonant change, substitutive softening alternations, change in the infinitive formant, alternation of the root-final nasal consonant with the vowel in a certain verb-type, root alternations including one vowel alternating with another vowel, simple root-vowel lengthening in a certain verb-type, the alternation of a vowel and zero, and certain irregularities in verb-types. �SLOVAKIA 27 Aspect derivation exemplified by perfectivization and imperfectivization follow next. Perfectivization is described according to the technique of prefixation, the addition of certain suffixes, and suppletion. Imperfectivization methods are explained, followed by the characterization of frequentative verbs. The section on the verb is concluded with the verbal constructions in which are listed and clarified: the future of imperfective verbs; the l-form constructions which embrace the simple past, the pluperfect, the conditional, the conditional past, and the negation of the l-form constructions; the passive constructions; and, the word-order of elements in verbal constructions. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bartek Henrich. 1944. Spravna vyslcnmost' slovenska. Bratislava-Turc. Sv. Martin, Jan Horacek. 1956. Slovensky pravopis. Gilnzburg/Donau, G. Jantsch. Belie, Jaromir, et al. 1964. Slovenstina. Praha, SPN. Bidwell, Charles E. 1958. "The Morphophonemics of Polish". General Linguistics 2. 71-99. 1959. "The Serbo-Croatian Comparative". La,i,guage 35. 259-63. 1960. "The Polish Verb". General Linguistics 4. 771964. "The Serbo-Croatian Verb". Language 4. 532-50. 1969a. Outline of Slovenian Morphology. Pittsburgh, University Center for International Studies, Univ. of Pittsburgh. 1969b. A Morpho-Syntactic Characterization of the Modern Slavic Languages. Pittsburgh, University Center for International Studies, Univ. of Pittsburgh. 1969c. The Structure of Russian in Outline. Pittsburgh. Univ. of Pittsburgh Press, Univ. of Pittsburgh. 1970. Outline of Bielorussian Morphology. (2d ed.) Pittsburgh, University Center for International Studies, Univ. of Pittsburgh. 1971a. Outline of Ukrainian Morphology. (2d ed.) Pittsburgh, University Center for International Studies, Univ. of Pittsburgh. 1971b. Outline of Czech Morphology. Pittsburgh, University Center for International Studies, Univ. of Pittsburgh. 1965. Outline of Polish Nominal Morphology. Pittsburgh, Unpublished pre-print, Univ. of Pittsburgh. Czambel, Samo. 1919. Rukovi:it' spisovnej reci slovenskej. (3d ed.). Turc. Sv. Martin. 1'.>urovic, ~ubomir. 1964. Paradigmatika spisovnej rustiny. Bratislava, SPN. Dvonc, Ladislav. 1955. Rytmicky zakon v spisovnej slovencine. Bratislava, SAV. Ga§parikova, Z. and A. Kami§. 1967. Slovensko-cesky slovni k. Praha, SPN. Habov§tiak, A. 1965. Oravske narecia. Bratislava, SAV. �28 SLOVAKIA Hodge, C. T. 1945. Spoken Serbo-Croatian. Madison, Linguistic Society of America. Horecky, Jan. 1964. Morfematicka struktura slovenciny. Bratislava, SAV. Isacenko, Aleksandr V. 1964. "The Morphology of the Slovak Verb". Travaux linguistiques de Prague. 1. 183-201. 1965. Grammaticeskij stroj russkogo jazyka v sopostavlenii s slovackim. I. (2d ed.) Bratislava, SAV. 1968. Spektograficka analyza slovenskych hlasok. Bratislava, SAV. Jakobson, Roman. 1931. "Z fonologie spisovne sloven~tiny". Slovens/ca miscellanea. 155-63. 1962. " Phonemic Notes on Standard Slovak". Roman Jakobson 1896- Selected Writings. The Hague, Mouton. 1. 221-30. Kotek, Ludvik (ed.). 1968. Dejiny ceskoslovenska v datech. (1st ed.) Praha, Svoboda. Kucera, Henry. 1961. The Phonology of Czech. The Hague, Mouton. Kurylowicz, J. 1962. "Personal and Animate Genders in Slavic". Lingua 11. 249-56. Machek, Vaclav. 1957. Etymologicky slovnik jaZ1/ka ceskeho a slovenskeho. Praha, CSAV. Miko, Franmek. 1962. Rod, cisla a pad podstatnych mien. Bratislava, SAV. Necas, J. and M. Kopecky. 1964. Slovensko-cesky, cesko-slovensk11 slovnik rozdilnych vyrazu. Praha, SPN. Novak, I.:udovit. 1934. Fonol6gia a studium slovenciny. Turc. Sv. Martin, Matica slovenska. Ondrus, Pavel. 1964. Morfol6gia spisovnej slovenciny. Bratislava, SPN. Orlovsky, J. and L. Arany. 1946. Gramatika jaZ11ka slovenskeho. Bratislava-Nitra, Pravda. Pauliny, Eugen. 1963. Kratka gramatika slovenska. Bratislava, SPN. 1968. Fonol6gia spisovnej slovenciny. Bratislava, SPN. Pauliny, E.; Stolz, J.; Ruzicka, J. 1963. Slovenska gramatika. (4th ed.) Martin, Osveta. Peciar, Stefan (ed.) 1964. Pravidla slovenskeho pravopisu. (5th ed.) Bratislava, SAV. 1959-1968. Slovnik slovenskeho jazyka. 1-6. Bratislava, SAV. Ruzicka, Jozef (ed.). 1966. Morfol6gia slovenskeho jazyka. Bratislava, SAV. Simko, Jan. 1968. Anglicko-slovensky slovnik. (2d ed.) Bratislava, SPN. Smejkalova, J ., et al. 1968. Anglicko-slovensky a slovensko-anglicky vreckovy slovnik. Bratislava, SPN. Stanislav, Jan. 1953. Slovenska vyslovnost'. Martin, Osveta. 1967. Dejiny slovenskeho jazyka. 1-3. (2d rev. ed.) Bratislava, SAV. Stole, Jozef (ed.). 1968. Atlas slovenskeho jazyka. Bratislava, SAV. Trubetzkoj, N. S. 1937. "Gedanken Uber die Slowakische Deklination". Readings in Linguistics. 2.96-103. Vilikovska, J .; Vilikovsky, J.; Simko, J. 1966. Slovensko-anglicky slovnik. (3d ed.) Bratislava, Obzor. Zauner, Alfonz. 1966. Prakticka prirucka slovenskeho pravopisu. Banska Bystrica, Obzor. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1973, Vol. 23 Description An account of the resource Vol. 23 (No. 46), 1973. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1973 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document SLOVAKIA - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - - -- - - -- 24 The Inflectional Morphology of Standard Slovak: A Descriptive Analysis John Michael Koch i k , Ph.D. Research on this topic grew out of a desire to present Standard Slovak anew in a particularly modern linguistic form. The work was performed and completed at the University of Pittsburgh under the direction of the late Doctor Charles E. Bidwell, Professor of Linguistics and Slavic Linguistics. The aim of this work is to give English-speakers interested in the Slovak language a concise, consistent, and structurally-oriented description in the analysts of Standard Slovak inflectional morphology. The theoretical approach is primarily that of American structural descriptivism ( in this case neo-Bloomfieldian). The study commences with a general introduction in which a definition of the variety of Slovak analyzed, the approximate number of contemporaneous speakers, and its linguistic locale are provided. A brief history of the language from earliest to modern times is presented, listing some of the outstanding proponents of the modern literary form and contributors to its development. Previous structural treatments of the language are outlined, implemented by the author's original treatments projected into the sections on morphophonemics and on the verb, with certain original features produced in the methods of noun classification, special-type classification of many adjectives, the illustration of similarities among some of the noun, pronoun and adjective endings, the arrangements of paradigms to illustrate identical endings, the use of synoptic tables to exhibit the endings, and the analysis of the comparative formant into two morphemes. The symbols and conventions, the phonemic notation, the primary SLOVAKIA 25 sources consulted, the acknowledgments as well as the abbreviations utilized in the work complete section one. Section two lists the phonemes of the language: the vowels and the consonants, and adds a paragraph on the primary and secondary stresses in the language. Section three treats morphophonemics, both automatic and non-automatic (here an original treatment, as stated above). Under automatic morphophonemics are presented: voicing assimilation, simplification of double consonants, simplification of consonant clusters, sibilant assimilation, and the sequence of (j) plus (i) plus a vowel [other than (i) ] . Under non-automatic morphophonemics are these: the classification of consonantal stems as "hard" and "soft", the morphophonemic length correspondences of vowels, the alternation of vowel and zero, the "Rhythmic Law" concerning vowel length, the intercalation of -jbefore verbal suffixes, and the substitutive softening of certain consonants , and the dental/ palatal changes. Section four begins the morphology ( that is, the inflection of endings). The noun is treated first. Nouns are divided into various classes, principally feminine, neuter and masculine. These in turn are divided into subclasses according to their inflectional peculiarities. Feminine nouns have the subclasses: zena (hard stem), ulica-dlan (soft stem), kost' and pani. Neuter nouns have subclasses exemplified by the words: mesto (hard stem), plece (soft stem), vysvedcenie, and dievca. Masculine nouns are subclassified according to the sample words: chlap (hard stem animate), dub (hard stem inanimate), priatel' (soft stem animate), mec (soft stem inanimate), ujko (masculine o-noun), and the mixed declension: sluha. Next follow the mixed mesto/ kost' (oko, ucho) nouns, the mixed neuter noun di et'a, and the mixed noun/ adjective declensions exemplified by ujcirui and mufti. A synoptic table of nountype endings is included. Section five consists of the adjectives: novy (hard declension), cudzi (soft declension) , substantivized adjectives, short-form adjectives, special adjectives: possessives from nouns like bratov, and pronominal possessives like m6j, and jeden. A synoptic table of adjective-type endings is incorporated. Finally, the comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs is treated. 26 SLOVAKIA Section six comprises the personal pronouns and the interrogative/ relative pronouns. Section seven presents the cardinal (plus the compound) and the collective numerals. Section eight describes the verb. Its introduction defines the verb in this study. Given next are the endings of the finite forms. The formants are presented in this order: the imperative, the gerund and present active participle, the infinitive, the l-forms, the past active participle, the past passive participle and the verbal noun. The verb is classified according to the thematic vowel in the present- and the infinitive-stems. All verbs are subdivided into Class I which has the same thematic vowel in all forms, and Class II which has in most cases different thematic vowels in the present- and the infinitive-stems and in all cases thematic zero in present-stem forms other than first singular to second plural. Within Class I there are two subclasses: the a-type with thematic a (volat', vracat', citat') and the ie 1-type with thematic ie or its shortened variant e (rozumiet', mudriet'). Class II contains the following subtypes with the combination of thematic vowels in the present- and infinitivestem: ei2-type with thematic ie or its shortened variant e in the infinitive stem and the present tense (except 3 pl.), (triet', mliet'), ie/0- (niest', minut'), ie/ a- (brat', hnat'); e/ 0- (bit', priat', zat', kradnut'), e/a- (hrabat', cesat', pracovat', klat'); i-type with thematic i in the infinitive stem and present tense (except 3 pl.), (hovorit', kupit'); i / e( vidiet'), i / a- (lezat', spat', stat'); and the special e/ ie-verb chciet'. Base suffixes are provided as the next feature. Then, presented are the alternations in the base which include the base-final consonant change, substitutive softening alternations, change in the infinitive formant, alternation of the root-final nasal consonant with the vowel in a certain verb-type, root alternations including one vowel alternating with another vowel, simple root-vowel lengthening in a certain verb-type, the alternation of a vowel and zero, and certain irregularities in verb-types. SLOVAKIA 27 Aspect derivation exemplified by perfectivization and imperfectivization follow next. Perfectivization is described according to the technique of prefixation, the addition of certain suffixes, and suppletion. Imperfectivization methods are explained, followed by the characterization of frequentative verbs. The section on the verb is concluded with the verbal constructions in which are listed and clarified: the future of imperfective verbs; the l-form constructions which embrace the simple past, the pluperfect, the conditional, the conditional past, and the negation of the l-form constructions; the passive constructions; and, the word-order of elements in verbal constructions. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bartek Henrich. 1944. Spravna vyslcnmost' slovenska. Bratislava-Turc. Sv. Martin, Jan Horacek. 1956. Slovensky pravopis. Gilnzburg/Donau, G. Jantsch. Belie, Jaromir, et al. 1964. Slovenstina. Praha, SPN. Bidwell, Charles E. 1958. "The Morphophonemics of Polish". General Linguistics 2. 71-99. 1959. "The Serbo-Croatian Comparative". La,i,guage 35. 259-63. 1960. "The Polish Verb". General Linguistics 4. 771964. "The Serbo-Croatian Verb". Language 4. 532-50. 1969a. Outline of Slovenian Morphology. Pittsburgh, University Center for International Studies, Univ. of Pittsburgh. 1969b. A Morpho-Syntactic Characterization of the Modern Slavic Languages. Pittsburgh, University Center for International Studies, Univ. of Pittsburgh. 1969c. The Structure of Russian in Outline. Pittsburgh. Univ. of Pittsburgh Press, Univ. of Pittsburgh. 1970. Outline of Bielorussian Morphology. (2d ed.) Pittsburgh, University Center for International Studies, Univ. of Pittsburgh. 1971a. Outline of Ukrainian Morphology. (2d ed.) Pittsburgh, University Center for International Studies, Univ. of Pittsburgh. 1971b. Outline of Czech Morphology. Pittsburgh, University Center for International Studies, Univ. of Pittsburgh. 1965. Outline of Polish Nominal Morphology. Pittsburgh, Unpublished pre-print, Univ. of Pittsburgh. Czambel, Samo. 1919. Rukovi:it' spisovnej reci slovenskej. (3d ed.). Turc. Sv. Martin. 1'.>urovic, ~ubomir. 1964. Paradigmatika spisovnej rustiny. Bratislava, SPN. Dvonc, Ladislav. 1955. Rytmicky zakon v spisovnej slovencine. Bratislava, SAV. Ga§parikova, Z. and A. Kami§. 1967. Slovensko-cesky slovni k. Praha, SPN. Habov§tiak, A. 1965. Oravske narecia. Bratislava, SAV. 28 SLOVAKIA Hodge, C. T. 1945. Spoken Serbo-Croatian. Madison, Linguistic Society of America. Horecky, Jan. 1964. Morfematicka struktura slovenciny. Bratislava, SAV. Isacenko, Aleksandr V. 1964. "The Morphology of the Slovak Verb". Travaux linguistiques de Prague. 1. 183-201. 1965. Grammaticeskij stroj russkogo jazyka v sopostavlenii s slovackim. I. (2d ed.) Bratislava, SAV. 1968. Spektograficka analyza slovenskych hlasok. Bratislava, SAV. Jakobson, Roman. 1931. "Z fonologie spisovne sloven~tiny". Slovens/ca miscellanea. 155-63. 1962. " Phonemic Notes on Standard Slovak". Roman Jakobson 1896- Selected Writings. The Hague, Mouton. 1. 221-30. Kotek, Ludvik (ed.). 1968. Dejiny ceskoslovenska v datech. (1st ed.) Praha, Svoboda. Kucera, Henry. 1961. The Phonology of Czech. The Hague, Mouton. Kurylowicz, J. 1962. "Personal and Animate Genders in Slavic". Lingua 11. 249-56. Machek, Vaclav. 1957. Etymologicky slovnik jaZ1/ka ceskeho a slovenskeho. Praha, CSAV. Miko, Franmek. 1962. Rod, cisla a pad podstatnych mien. Bratislava, SAV. Necas, J. and M. Kopecky. 1964. Slovensko-cesky, cesko-slovensk11 slovnik rozdilnych vyrazu. Praha, SPN. Novak, I.:udovit. 1934. Fonol6gia a studium slovenciny. Turc. Sv. Martin, Matica slovenska. Ondrus, Pavel. 1964. Morfol6gia spisovnej slovenciny. Bratislava, SPN. Orlovsky, J. and L. Arany. 1946. Gramatika jaZ11ka slovenskeho. Bratislava-Nitra, Pravda. Pauliny, Eugen. 1963. Kratka gramatika slovenska. Bratislava, SPN. 1968. Fonol6gia spisovnej slovenciny. Bratislava, SPN. Pauliny, E.; Stolz, J.; Ruzicka, J. 1963. Slovenska gramatika. (4th ed.) Martin, Osveta. Peciar, Stefan (ed.) 1964. Pravidla slovenskeho pravopisu. (5th ed.) Bratislava, SAV. 1959-1968. Slovnik slovenskeho jazyka. 1-6. Bratislava, SAV. Ruzicka, Jozef (ed.). 1966. Morfol6gia slovenskeho jazyka. Bratislava, SAV. Simko, Jan. 1968. Anglicko-slovensky slovnik. (2d ed.) Bratislava, SPN. Smejkalova, J ., et al. 1968. Anglicko-slovensky a slovensko-anglicky vreckovy slovnik. Bratislava, SPN. Stanislav, Jan. 1953. Slovenska vyslovnost'. Martin, Osveta. 1967. Dejiny slovenskeho jazyka. 1-3. (2d rev. ed.) Bratislava, SAV. Stole, Jozef (ed.). 1968. Atlas slovenskeho jazyka. Bratislava, SAV. Trubetzkoj, N. S. 1937. "Gedanken Uber die Slowakische Deklination". Readings in Linguistics. 2.96-103. Vilikovska, J .; Vilikovsky, J.; Simko, J. 1966. Slovensko-anglicky slovnik. (3d ed.) Bratislava, Obzor. Zauner, Alfonz. 1966. Prakticka prirucka slovenskeho pravopisu. Banska Bystrica, Obzor.  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Inflectional Morphology of Standard Slovak: A Descriptive Analysis Description An account of the resource John Michael Kochik, Ph.D. Slovakia, Vol. 23 (No. 46), 1973 pp. 24-28 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Kochik, John Michael Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1973 name https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/d710ffe05e14f68953f35f514b888de5.pdf c1266c123713fc11d8142f8caa13afd8 PDF Text Text SLOVAKIA Stefan P O la k O 29 Vi C : The Ethnical Philosophy of L'udovtt Stur* A. INTRODUCTION 1. Philosophy and Life The present day people generally are ignoring the Philosophy and consider it as an antiquarian and discarded discipline without any relation to the concrete life. And they forget that even the most unphilosophical concrete, individual life is expression of philosophy. It would be sufficient to observe an individual and his actions in order to write down "his" philosophy, i.e. the principles which are guiding him in his personal life. There is a mutual dependence between philosophy and life to such an extent that the fulness of the accidental aspects of the life is permeated by the general principles of philosophical character, while these principles in their abstract form can become a ferment for concrete life and contribute, by their turn, to the changes and even upheavals of the life. This fundamental relation between life and philosophy has been observed by Plato and Aristoteles teaching that the beginning of philosophy is "admiring" ( thaumazein). And in reality, there are many concrete "materials" in the concrete world for the analysis of an observing mind. As a philosopher who received a Hegelian formation in its authentic source during his studies in Germany, Cudovit stlir did not remain insensible in front of the concrete situation of the Slovak nation in Hungary at the beginning of the 19th century. It was a splendid "material" to be analyzed and studied under the light of the then modern philosophical doctrine. And these studies had been done by stur with the result of general principles, valid even today, on the life of nations in general. From the other side, the very same conditions of the Slovaks in �30 SLOVAKIA Hungary were for the patriot ~tur an object of very serious preoccupations. In this way, if from one side he was abstracting general principles out of this situation, from the other side he was putting down general principles for the recuperation of the Slovaks and their awakening from the centennial sleepiness. 1 2. The Ethnical Situation in Hungary in 1800 and After After the destruction of the Slovak kingdom in 910 A.D. by the Magyars with the help of the Franks (Germans) and its occupation by the victors, the higher culture of the Slovaks did not permit their assimilation by the Magyars 2 and so, in order to maintain the stability of the problematic common monarchy for two different nations (the Slovaks are Slavs and the Magyars are Mongolians), the new kings had recourse to a solution unique in the history of Europe: the adoption of the Latin as official language of the kingdom. 3 This anachronical situation lasted until 1793, when the Magyar language was for the first time codified and first attempts had been made to impose the Magyar language as the official one in the entire territory of Hungary. The consequences of the use of the Latin in Hungary during nine centuries were disastrous both for the Slovaks and Magyars: neither the Slovaks nor the Magyars had been able to develop their own literary works and so their language remained limited to the vernacular function (folk songs, folk legends etc.). After the Reform only appear here and there the first Slovak and Magyar works printed in dialects. Another, not less disastrous consequence of the reign of the Latin in our country was "darkness, brutality; lack of undertaking and higher civic liberty" 4 ; such was the common destiny of the Slovaks and the Magyars because of the lack of instruction. The schools and the real life of the two nations were separated by an abysmal gap: "All the knowledge and culture in the middle age were sticking in the schools and were limited to them ... It was a natural consequence of the separation of the schools from the life due to the foreign language" (i.e. the Latin).5 This led to the "contemptous looking of the schools on the life, the condemnation of the common life as of �SLOVAKIA 31 something vulgar; the contempt of national life and erradication of the even undangerous national customs; the rise of the cultivated casts and general neglect of the people who ... were needing instruction nor were allowed to enter into the temple of the instruction." 6 As soon as the Magyars codified their language, the Slovaks did the same: The Slovak Grammar of Bernolak appeared before the year 1800. What the Slovaks as a nation could not do was to hamper the magyarisation of the high and low Slovak nobility which at that time due to the raisons d'Etat stood behind the governmental power. This renegation of the Slovak nobility was a death blow to the Slovak national interests and since then the word "renegate" got a smell of moral insanity among the Slovaks. In this way to the Slovaks "were left the middle classes only: townsmen, low clergy, teachers." 7 The Slovaks were left only "what could not be taken away from them . . . due to the impossibility of the matters." 8 3. Civic Priesthood of Stur stur was 25 years old, when he came back to Slovakia from Germany: the mind full of ideas and the heart full of love for his Slovak nation. His decision as far as his personal life was concerned, was all made already: he had to sacrifice his life to his people and decided not to get married in order to be completely free from familiar ties. In very short nine years (from 1840 to 1849) he developed a febrile activity as teacher and scholar, as publisher and journalist, as politician and representative to Parliament, as revolucionary and soldier. He succeeded in forming an entire generation of Slovak activists whose merit was the preservation of the Slovak national life in a hostile and brutal country. The students were drawn by his ideas and confirmed by the chastity of his exemplar personal life. stur was doing what he was preaching: to prefer the common and public interests to his own personal advantages. He was not appointed by anybody to this national job: he had choosen it freely as a selfappointed high priest subject to his conscience and God only according to one of his devices: "We entered into the service of the Spirit; therefore we have to pass on a life full of thorns." �32 SLOVAKIA We got registered his farewell speech to his students before they left for holidays in 1842: like Moses on the mount Nebo with his hands elevated towards the heaven imploring God's blessings for the fighting soldiers Stur was dismissing his friends in the function of national missionaries like a high priest: "Who is living out of the spirit, is living in the humanity, is living suitably to humanity . . . and who is not living out to the spirit, is living for himself only, there is no humanity in him not is he in the humanity, because he is natural being only and not spiritual being like is the humanity ... Why the field of our Slovakia lies fallow as a desert; why our nation fell so down? Because it is not conscious of itself ... it is unconscious in the sphere of language, customs and ways of life as a distinct personality, it does not know itself as one wholeness, is not aware of itself and does not understand itself in the spirit of its own personality as belonging exclusively to itself." 9 In 13udovit Stur's works, articles, speeches there is a graduation during the mentioned nine years: the climax of all this febrile activity is the armed uprising of 1848-49 against the Magyars with the declaration of the independence of Slovakia (September 19, 1848). After this unsuccessful uprising the police curtain fell over a life consecrated to his nation: house prison, sorrow and death. In brevi explevit tempora multa ... B. ST-OR'S IDEAS CONCERNING THE LIFE OF NATION 1. The Nation Even if Stur, during his studies in Germany, imbibed with avidity the congenital doctrines of Hegel, he assimilated them in his personal way and was forging practical applications according to the situation of the Slovak nation in Hungary. Whereas "the spirit is the essence of all" 10 and his main task is selfknowledge and whereas, if we freely are interpreting Stur's idea of multiplicity of nations, the manifoldness of the nations is the manifestation of the richness of the Spirit, the main task of every nation it to reach the selfconsciousness. �SLOVAKIA 33 Without this selfconsciousness and selfknowledge the existence of a nation is a very precarious one, if not impossible according to sttir. Like a man (human being) who did not reach the personality is a child as slave who does know nothing about it, as "the nations which did not reach the personality, which did not feel themselves, are like children under the command of a patriarch and slaves under landlord." 11 Every nation "is a one whole, one individuality, one personality" and the highest obligation of very personality is to "become conscious, feel and know itself." 12 This national individuality consists in the spiritual union of all the members13 which can be felt "only on the basis of our nearest natural consanguinity." 14 What does this personality consist in? In the first place, the specificness of every nation is manifested by its language. "The language is the utterance of the spirit and in its turn is destined to influence the spirit." 15 "The language got its own life and the same course as the nations themselves." 16 "When the language lost its original expressivity, force, determination and acuteness, so the force and acuteness of the nation itself had volatilized; got old the language, so got old the nation itself." 17 One with the other are in the strongest union, one with the other are living and dying. 18 Besides the language, there are many other ties assuring the unity of the nation. Some of them are completely natural (as the territory) and or are natural-spiritual (among these on the first place is the language, afterwards customs, ways of life) and or completely spiritual (religion, political and civic order etc.) . The yearning after personality in an ethnical group is the most noble desire, because it is a desire of selffeeling and selfknowledge19 and in the last consequences it is a desire of being useful to the humanity. A nation which did not come to personality is unable t o register anything of its own in the world among the �34 SLOVAKIA other nations, nor is able to represent anything in the history. Notwithstanding that Stur is emphasizing the importance of the feeling of personality for a nation, he asseverates that "the personality is not the highest degree and that when a man or nations want to live and actuate indeed humanly, they must rise to a higher degree, wherefore the personality must be ennobled and morally hightened." 20 The spiritual personality of the nation, if it has to be a real and not imaginary one, must dispose of itself. This selfdisposition cannot be carried out, when a nation is united to another like an accident: the result of such an union can only be a weakness for both the partners. It is no life, but only a vegetation. 21 "When a nation wants to live and has to live, it cannot and must not rely on another nation and from it wait for the awakening and maintenance of its life ... Such a nation does not deserve to live." 22 Such a nation is like a log, "wherein there is no life."23 The life of the nation consists in spiritual movement and activity. Every true nation desires to rise to a higher life and wants its life to be registered in the life of mankind. It only is possible, when the nation is creating values of universal human validity which are contributing to the progress of humanity. In order that this be possible, these works of everlasting human validity have to bear the seal of the national authorship. 24 All this is possible only, when the nation had reached the degree of selfconsciousness as a nation, "because the selfconscious nation is united by the spirit in the strongest way . . . and is respecting its existence and its honest staying among others." 25 The true union of the members of the nation is in the spirit only i.e. when present in the conscience of all. Such a nation is strong, even if a small one. This "community-minded spirit" 26 is the essential force of every nation. Stur had to fight the family-minded spirit of the common Slovak people of that time with the purpose to �SLOVAKIA 35 awaken them for a higher life of the national community. He and his disciples had done an admirable work on this field. 27 And as usual, stur was analyzing the relation between the family and community life within the framework of the nation. He did not want to condemn the family life; he only wanted to exclude the exaggerate cult of family life: "The community life must not absorb the family life as well as the family life cannot exclude the community life." 28 Of course, the first society to which the man belongs is family: to it he is united with body and sentiments. Thus, while the fundament of family is a natural one and its union is of natural origin, in the national community the union is of spiritual character. And as body is of lower nature than the spirit, so the family is lower than the national community. In consequence thereof the community is higher than the family. Even if this ratiocination is of undoubtedly Hegelian precedence, there is series of fundamental theoremas concerning the life of nations which are issuing from this admitted superiority of spirit. First of all, no nation can lastingly remain on the niveau of the family life, because nation as nation got completely different the essential ties than the family; and also because the spirit can develop through the national community only which takes care of education and spiritual formation. 29 That the public life of community is higher than that of family it is growing evident also from the fact that those who were sacrificing themselves for the community met with gratitude of the nation and everlasting glory: they merited this general esteem, because they were concerned about the higher goods of the nation. "Beautiful is the love of Joseph for his brothers, captivating is the sacrifice of Antigona taking care of her father and accompanying him in his blindness on Kyteron; beautiful is the fidelity of Lucretia; beautiful is the love of Solon for his son, the care of Cornelia for her heroic sons, beautiful the care of Aeneas, beautiful the love of Andromeda, but incommensurably higher and more glorious are the deeds of Leonidas, Themistocles, Miltiades, �36 SLOVAKIA Mucius, Scipio, Zrinyi, Franklin, Menin, Pozarsky, Kosciuszko and many others." 30 If anybody would live for his family only, the nation would cease to exist. Of course, there are many degrees of access of a community to the fulness of national life. At the beginning, all the nation being born are rude and brutal, because "they did not reach a spiritual culture.'' 31 These "being born" nations are united by family ties only and they are living patriarchal order. There is a community life, but reduced to corporal necessities. Later on, the community is creating spiritual values and thus is rising to the degree of nation. A community which did not create its spiritual culture disappears from the theatre of History: "The nations which did not rise to the community life, if met by a higher nation were succumbing to it.'' 32 The spiritual life of the nations "consists in all that the spirit is creating; that in it got its roots and origin" 33 i. e. religion, arts, sciences, doctrines, institutes, juridical order etc. Through the creation of such values a nation is able to register its existence in the community o! nations and obtain its identity card: "A nation which did not create anything noble for others, which did not register its li!e in the human community life, got no consideration before others." 34 The more flourishing is the community life and spiritual creativity of a national community, the stronger will be its position among the nations, because it is of one spirit and of one will. According to ~tur, such nations only appertain to History which consists in "continuous evolution." 35 This last expression has to be understood in the terminology of Hegelian philosophy of History.36 "The improvement and heightening of the human life has been progressing through the nations which appertain to History," 37 but never through the vegetation of tribes and barbarian nations. �SLOVAKIA 37 If we are searching for a definition of nation in stur, we will be perhaps disappointed: "By nation has always been understood the community of men using from birth one language." 38 This apparently poor definition has to be understood, however, from the viewpoint of the high function of language in the life of nations. 2. The Nation And The Language The very essence of the ethnical philosophy of stur has to be searched for in his doctrine of language as far as it is in relation with the life of nations in general. We have already mentioned the role of language, when speaking of the personality of nation: the language is one of the fundamental reasons of its specificness, i.e. it identifies the nation. This doctrine does not contradict the fact, that the English is a language common to England and the US, the Portuguese common to Portugal and Brazil, the Spanish common to Spain and many Latin American states. On the first place, all these new "nations" are nations in formation. In this process of formation they feel the necessity of a special language and this trend towards a specific language is being observed as in the United States (the trend to spell and pronounce differently the English ) as in Brazil ( the Brazilians speak of Brazilian as their mother tongue) as in the Latin American states (some o! them are looking for native Indian languages in order to emphasize their "national" identity). Secondly, there exist a subconscious uncertainty and insecurity as far as the national identity is concerned, in all these zones, when comparing their identities with those of other nations recognized as such. "When the nation comes to selfconsciousness, then it will comprehend that it got one life, one aim and so by natural and necessary course of the things this selfconsciousness must express itself in what it is uniting the nation together: one literary language, one literature belong essentially to the unity of nation." 39 �38 SLOVAKIA Thus the language is the instrument of the national unity: no nation (in the acception of a spiritual community and not the state; the state could have more languages) can have two literary languages. From the other side, the language alone is unable to maintain the national unity: 40 "The nations got higher goods which they are yearning after ... These higher goods belong to spiritual aspects. When the nation reaches this higher niveau of spiritual activity, then begins to consider its linguistic unity as secondary, even if always dear and beloved, because inherited from the forefathers, but undecisive in all fundamental questions." 41 In other words, when a nation reaches the stadium of high spiritual activity creating everlasting cultural values, the question of language ceases to be a primary one and is being collocated on the secondary niveau, because in this way the conscious spirit is assuring the unity of nation. But before the language be able to become vehicle of high, spiritual activity, it is necessary to cultivate it i.e. provide it with terms able to express not only things, objects of daily use (the stadium of native vernacular languages), but also high ideas. "The language got the same course, the same evolution like man and nations. The child and the common man are speaking a very common language related to the objects of daily use known to all and in the same way common people who are either not at all or little civilized, but a cultivated man is speaking of higher subjects and his language is more abundant, more complicated and more polished; all the same is to be said of the language of a cultivated nation." 42 This general principle is being confirmed every day in our times too: India is being overhauling the Hindostani in order to give it an efficiency as a modern cultivated language; the missionaries are struggling with the imperfections of the hundred and hundred native languages in order to convert them in vehicles capable to express high ideas putting down in this way the very foundations for a road to civilization of the different tribes. But from all the functions a literary language may �SLOVAKIA 3g get, the most important is its role in the instruction of the peoples. ~tur was assigning a primordialy importance to the language on this field. "Every nation can be cultivated through its own language only and is being cultivated, when its language is being cultivated" 43 : there is an interdependent action and mutual benefit as a result. In fact, the civilization of a nation is practically impossible, if its language is being postponed. The Guaranis of Paraguay, Brazil and Argentina, the Aymeras of Bolivia and Quechuas of Peru and Bolivia as nations were left on the same cultural niveau as they were living in the times of colonial occupation. According to ~tur "the mother tongue is the mean of civilization of that nation that is speaking it." 44 "If the instruction has to be a true, useful and adequate instruction it must be carried out in the national language i. e. in the mother tongue of the nation. Otherwise, the instruction got no value, is a mechanical work, without any benefit." 45 "The instruction must exercise an influence not only on the mind but also on the heart; it must not be understood only, but also felt" 46 and we feel best the power of words and expressions in our mother tongue. "In this language all is clear and bright; in it the objects denoted by words are immediately present before our eyes, while in the foreign language all appears to us like behind a curtain of fog .. . For these reasons everybody will understand, why the nations being instructed in their schools in the mother tongue are progressing in instruction, knowledge and are occupying a honorable place among other nations, while the nations being instructed in their schools in foreign language are staying behind." 47 There is another important reason, why the instruction has to be carried out in the mother tongue: "Through the mother tongue introduced into the schools the eyes of the nation are being opened; only then it is aware that it exists in the world too and through the mother tongue introduced into the public life, the nation is getting voice in the world." 48 �40 SLOVAKIA All these benefits had been denied to the nations in the middle age, when the Latin was used commonly in all the 15chools. The consequences thereof have been the obscuratism and barbarity, no undertaking and no public liberty. "In the middle age the world and schools were opposed to such a degree that whatever was appertaining to the schools did not concern the life and vice versa and this was a natural consequence of the separation of the schools from the life through a foreign language." 49 At that time the universities were like castles, where secret treasures were being hidden and whoever wanted to get to these treasures, he had to break through the dead Latin world. By a similar bad luck are being stricken many small nations even in the modern times. In this occasion Stur described the situation of the Irish nation, where the original Irish language is being ousted from the schools and the English is being imposed on its place; a similar destiny got the Flemish nation in Belgiwn and the Slovaks in Hungary. "We have to call it a disaster, when a nation is being instructed in foreign language, it is not possible to talk about the progress in knowledge and culture of such a nation. And without culture a nation is like mud being trampled under feet." 50 By the repression of its language, the nation is being menaced in its very being. "A nation to whom had been imposed a foreign language even in its elementary schools got a sensible blow on its very life and spirit . . . and is condemned to blindness and obscurity ... In such a nation there will flourish no culture, instead of it there will dwell obscurity; there will flourish no freedom, instead of it there will spread the spirit of servilism, there will flourish no wealth, instead of it unfold poverty and misery." 51 "When a nation had fallen so deeply, it is the declaration of the last historical sentence over it and the accomplishment of its servility." 52 In this connection, Stur is mentioning again the situation of the Irish nation, where the imposition of the English in the public life were conducing to the paralization of the authentic national life. The introduction of the English into the public life in Wales and Scotland got �SLOVAKIA 41 practically the same effect: the original national identity got a deadly blow and there is practically no probability that these two Celtic nationalities could revive their original national life. Not dissimilar grew the situation of the Basks in Spain and France: deprived of the possibility to make use of their many thousands years old language in their public life, they are decaying as a distinct nationality and are merging with the Spanish and French. 3. The Rights of The Nations According to Stur 53 While individual rights have been object of different declarations and international instruments (Bill of Rights etc.), the rights of the nations neither have been enumerated nor sanctioned by international domuments. All this is perfectly understandable, because the world policy has always been carried out by the big powers interested only in their power positions and very little or nothing at all in the rights of the small nations. This situation prevails even today. What can be said of the situation prevailing hundred or more years ago? The big powers are able to assure their real and or pretended rights as today as they were doing in the past. They were and are enjoying them in full measure what cannot be said of the small nations, whose rights are being trampled under feet and denied. Only who is suffering injustice on his own flesh is able to understand the benefits of the right and justice and to yearn after them. Only nations which have been subjugated and denied their fundamental rights were able to forge the ideas about these rights amidst their sufferings. If you examine the modern history of the Basks, Irish, Jews, Slovaks and other perfectly constituted nations whose the only defect was to be small ones, you will gather abundant evidences of their desire to see protected and realized their rights they are feeling to be entitled to. More than hundred years ago, stur was expressing some of these fundamental rights of the nations. All these ideas are very important contribution to the creation of new international law which undoubtedly will take place in the next decades and conduce to the reorganization of mankind on the base of respect for all the nations, not �42 SLOVAKIA only the big ones, but also the small ones which are the majority and feel the thirst of justice. After all we have said about the function of the mother tongue in the life of nation, it is not difficult to understand that titur was preaching the right to language as the most proper mark of every nationality: "Who is touching (the language) is touching the most proper possession." 54 If a nation is denied the right to its own language by its expulsion out of the public life and schools, it is getting a death blow to its very existence. The Bask language has been suppressed in France and Spain and nowadays the number of Basks is diminishing in such an allarming way that if they are not allowed to use their own language in their country, this respectable nation will disappear from the map of Europe. The actual society got associations for the protection of animals ( dogs, cats and endangered species) and plants, but the United Nations Organization did not provide for the protection of the dying national communities and nations endangered in their life. Very soon the Bask language, the oldest European spoken language, will be a dead one, if the Basks do not get an international support for their legitimate struggle for independence. The Irish got a blow, when the English was introduced in Ireland instead of the Gaelic and many decades will pass over until the Gaelic will be again a spoken language in Ireland in spite of the Irish Republic and the desire of the authorities to reinstall it. Of course, of all the rights the most fundamental is the right to life. Meanwhile in the old times, the conquerors were depriving the conquered nations of their material goods, in these times the conquest is aiming at the subjugation of the spirit i.e. the conquerors are threating to take away the nationality itself; the last finality nowadays is the incorporation of the physical substance of conquered into the body of the conquering nation. Therefore titti.r requested that "nobody should interfere with our own district from national point of view." 55 From the fact of existence rises the right to personality which is the extension of the right to life. When speaking of nation, we had quoted the ideas of $tti.r relating to personality and its importance for the normal development �SLOVAKIA 43 of the national community. stur was asking for "the recognition of the personality" 56 of the Slovaks with all the consequences issuing therefrom. In his meditations stur arrived to the expression of the "right to personality." When speaking of the tendency to suppress the life of a nation, he qualifies it as an injustice, because such a nation "is denied the right to be per se amid mankind i.e. to be a different personality." 57 It only is natural that every nation is striving for the recognition of its own personality among the other nations, because even if the personality may be not the highest value according to stur, it is a fundament for all its activity. stur was proclaiming also the right to territory: "As a family needs its settlement as needs the nation its territory, where to live; its frontiers as far as its sovereignty extends itself, where to develop freely and to carry out its will." 58 "The nation with its territory which is the field of its activity, is one owner of earth among other owners." 59 "Whoever is taking hold of this ownership i. e. who is limiting the frontiers of its activity is offending the entire nation and provokes it to war." 60 Only weak and vile nations are permitting their frontiers to be narrowed. This idea of the right to its own earth was a guide to the Jewish nation in diaspora since the time of their deportation to Babylon and after. The realization of this right in the form of "Eretz Ischrael" is completely understandable to anybody who thinks of the nations in philosophical terms. This same idea was proclaimed by the Irish insurgents of 1916: "We declare the right of the people of Ireland to the ownership of Ireland . . . The long usurpation of that right by a foreign people and government has not extinguished the right ... " For this same right are fighting the rebellious Basks in Spain and France in these very days: the right to Euzkotarr. For this right have been slaughtered one million of Ibos in Nigeria because they wanted to live in their own country, Biafra. �44 SLOVAK.IA In connection with. the language and its function in the life of the nation, stur uttered the right to education and culture. The main object of all the activity of stur was the Slovak common people: after the desertion of the high and low (practically too) nobility, to the Slovaks were left the middle classes and common people only. Therefore he was directing all his endeavors to these masses with the purpose to provoke their national consciousness: "Our common people is the substantial part of our nation." 61 This people were "abandoned and neglected" and therefore "we stepped down and started to have intercourse with them in their own language ... so that they may feel their dignity ... and work on their own rising." 62 We should not forget that in Hungary until 1848 was prevailing the system of serfdom and there was practically no possibility of instruction for the common people. stur was aware that only through education of the masses the Slovak nation can be preserved from disparition. The consequences of the lack of instruction were disastrous indeed: penury, lack of the spirit of enterprise, total absence of welfare, lack of the sense for community. "An educated and instructed nation is in better spiritual and material situation than a nation without instruction . . . The more one is instructed, the higher dignity, respect, higher rights and better condition is he getting." 63 Without the education, there is no community life within the nation64 and its spiritual life which the very essence of a nation is very deficient. 65 An instructed nation is a free nation and a nation composed of ignorant people is a slavish nation. The freedom of a nation is intimately linked to its education and high degree of culture: "an instructed and cultured nation cannot be held in the chains of slavery." 66 So it is understandable that stur considered the right to education and instruction as high as the same right to life. Not unlike was at that time the situation of the Irish nation. stur got into his hands at that time (AD 1847) a number of a Tipperary newspaper wherein the unknown author is requested that "the source of the Irish misfortune must be destroyed, removed and only then there will be �SLOVAKIA 45 a hope that the people rise. The cause thereof is the humiliation and oppression of our Irish people which are being born in order to serve only. The oppression of our nationality since the times of the English expansion is the main cause of all the evil." 67 Being similar the conditions in Ireland and Slovakia, similar were also the reactions of the leaders of the peoples. In Ireland Thomas Davis, "the educator of nationality", was preaching: "Educate that you may be free." "Selfhelp and reliance were his cardinal principles for national regeneration." 68 stur was also insinuating the right of the nation to selfdetermination at a time, when this principle was not a common and general idea. He said: "No nation got the right . . . to not allow another nation to follow its own way, the way which is to it the most convenient." 69 And in accordance with this principle he led his nation to an open rebellion against the Magyars and proclaimed the independence of Slovakia in 1848. 3. EPILOGUE The short period of the intellectual activity of stur is full of ideas which have to say many things to this generation and to the future ones. His doctrine of the personality of the nations contains nucleus for the revision of the entire actual international law. If the nations exist as communities independently of the states and are subjects of the rights, thus the actual international law is an interstatal law only, the United Nations Organization is an Organization of the States etc. We are living in a world of confusion originated in the equivocal use of the term "nation" by the Latin and Anglosaxon nations. While, from one side, it is necessary only that an ex-colony, insignificant as may be (Barbados, Trinidad-Tobago etc.), get granted its independence and be recognized as such and immediately is getting the right to be "a nation," member o! UNO, on the other side, the authentic nations i. e. spiritual communities with well formed personality and efficient cultural life like Basks in Spain, a pleiade of authentic nations in India, Slovaks in Central Europe are denied even the designation of nations and all the rights inherent to their condition of authentic nations. There is a danger �46 SLOVAKIA that the diplomacy is moving on a terrain either of ignorantia elenchi or moral perversity. The Stu.r's visions of international brotherhood and a humanity living for the fruits of the Spirit on the basis of a material welfare are distant from the reality yet. FOOTNOTES •) By "ethnical" we understand "related to the life of nations," because the word "nation" got two different acceptions. I.:udovit Stur (1815-1856), the Slovak scholar, Philosopher and revolutionary who declared the independence of Slovakia in 1848. 1) The practical aspects of this activity see by J. Pauco, "The instruction of the People by the followers of Stur" (I.:udovychova u sturovcov, Turc. Sv. Martin, 1943). 2) To the contrary, the Magyar language has been enriched by the Slovak words related to state administration, agriculture, construction etc. 3) Analogically in the modern times, India had to adopt the English as official language due to the existence of many ethnics in that country. There are many other cases in the contemporary world. 4) I:. Stur, Dielo I, 314. In Bratislava appeared five volumes of his works in 1954. All the quotations of Stur are taken from this edition. 5) lb., l , 314. 6) lb. 7) 8) 9) 10) 11) 12) 13) 14) 15) 16) 17) 18) 19) 20) 21) 22) 23) lb., l, 168. lb., l, 170. lb., II, 15, 17. lb., V, 41. lb., V, 12. lb. lb. lb. lb., 15. lb. lb., 15, 16. lb., 16. lb., 13. lb., 13. lb. lb., 100. lb., 101. lb., 105, 106. lb., 40. lb., I, 230. 24) 25) 26) 27) J. Pauco, o. c. 28) lb., l, 127. 29) lb., I, 115. �SLOVAKIA 30) 31) 32) 33) 34) 35) 36) 37) 38) 39) 40) 41) 42) 43) 44) 45) 46) 47) 48) 49) 50) 51) 52) 53) 54) 55) 56) 57) 58) 59) 60) 61) 62) 63) 64) 65) 66) 67) 68) 69) 47 Ib., l, 116. lb., l, 114. Ib., I, 125. lb., II, 177. lb., l, 123. lb., II, 182. According to this doctrine, in the History always one nation is the leader of mankind. lb., II, 188. lb., I, 216. Ib., V, 134. lb., l, 212. lb. l, 212, 213. Cfr. lb. l, 215: "Even if the language is not the highest value of a nation, still it is the most important and decisive property as far as its personality and distinction is concerned, and from the fathers holy heritage which if somebody is touching, is touching the most proper possession, even if not the highest one." lb., V, 17. lb., l, 153. lb. Ib., l, 312. lb., I, 313. lb., l, 313, 314. lb., l, 314. lb. lb., l, 317. lb., l, 318, 319. lb., l, 319. S. Polakovic, L'evolution des idees fondamentales de la politique slovaque, Bratislava 1944; S. Polakovic, The Evolution of the Slovak National Philosophy, delivered at the conference in Toronto 1971. Stur, o.c., l, 215. lb., I, 221. lb., l, 216. Manuscript in the Archives of Matica Slovenska, Martin, Slovakia, No. 356a. Stur, o.c., l, 210. lb. lb., l, 211. lb., l, 49. lb., l, 125. lb., I, 154. lb., l, 158. lb., l, 124. lb., l, 334. lb., l, 315-6. We could not identify this Tipperary newspaper. The English quotation is not verbal, because we had to translate it from the Slovak. Dr. Moody in his address to Trinity College, Dublin, on April 20, 1966. Slovo na case, II, 81. � SLOVAKIA Stefan P O la k O 29 Vi C : The Ethnical Philosophy of L'udovtt Stur* A. INTRODUCTION 1. Philosophy and Life The present day people generally are ignoring the Philosophy and consider it as an antiquarian and discarded discipline without any relation to the concrete life. And they forget that even the most unphilosophical concrete, individual life is expression of philosophy. It would be sufficient to observe an individual and his actions in order to write down "his" philosophy, i.e. the principles which are guiding him in his personal life. There is a mutual dependence between philosophy and life to such an extent that the fulness of the accidental aspects of the life is permeated by the general principles of philosophical character, while these principles in their abstract form can become a ferment for concrete life and contribute, by their turn, to the changes and even upheavals of the life. This fundamental relation between life and philosophy has been observed by Plato and Aristoteles teaching that the beginning of philosophy is "admiring" ( thaumazein). And in reality, there are many concrete "materials" in the concrete world for the analysis of an observing mind. As a philosopher who received a Hegelian formation in its authentic source during his studies in Germany, Cudovit stlir did not remain insensible in front of the concrete situation of the Slovak nation in Hungary at the beginning of the 19th century. It was a splendid "material" to be analyzed and studied under the light of the then modern philosophical doctrine. And these studies had been done by stur with the result of general principles, valid even today, on the life of nations in general. From the other side, the very same conditions of the Slovaks in �30 SLOVAKIA Hungary were for the patriot ~tur an object of very serious preoccupations. In this way, if from one side he was abstracting general principles out of this situation, from the other side he was putting down general principles for the recuperation of the Slovaks and their awakening from the centennial sleepiness. 1 2. The Ethnical Situation in Hungary in 1800 and After After the destruction of the Slovak kingdom in 910 A.D. by the Magyars with the help of the Franks (Germans) and its occupation by the victors, the higher culture of the Slovaks did not permit their assimilation by the Magyars 2 and so, in order to maintain the stability of the problematic common monarchy for two different nations (the Slovaks are Slavs and the Magyars are Mongolians), the new kings had recourse to a solution unique in the history of Europe: the adoption of the Latin as official language of the kingdom. 3 This anachronical situation lasted until 1793, when the Magyar language was for the first time codified and first attempts had been made to impose the Magyar language as the official one in the entire territory of Hungary. The consequences of the use of the Latin in Hungary during nine centuries were disastrous both for the Slovaks and Magyars: neither the Slovaks nor the Magyars had been able to develop their own literary works and so their language remained limited to the vernacular function (folk songs, folk legends etc.). After the Reform only appear here and there the first Slovak and Magyar works printed in dialects. Another, not less disastrous consequence of the reign of the Latin in our country was "darkness, brutality; lack of undertaking and higher civic liberty" 4 ; such was the common destiny of the Slovaks and the Magyars because of the lack of instruction. The schools and the real life of the two nations were separated by an abysmal gap: "All the knowledge and culture in the middle age were sticking in the schools and were limited to them ... It was a natural consequence of the separation of the schools from the life due to the foreign language" (i.e. the Latin).5 This led to the "contemptous looking of the schools on the life, the condemnation of the common life as of �SLOVAKIA 31 something vulgar; the contempt of national life and erradication of the even undangerous national customs; the rise of the cultivated casts and general neglect of the people who ... were needing instruction nor were allowed to enter into the temple of the instruction." 6 As soon as the Magyars codified their language, the Slovaks did the same: The Slovak Grammar of Bernolak appeared before the year 1800. What the Slovaks as a nation could not do was to hamper the magyarisation of the high and low Slovak nobility which at that time due to the raisons d'Etat stood behind the governmental power. This renegation of the Slovak nobility was a death blow to the Slovak national interests and since then the word "renegate" got a smell of moral insanity among the Slovaks. In this way to the Slovaks "were left the middle classes only: townsmen, low clergy, teachers." 7 The Slovaks were left only "what could not be taken away from them . . . due to the impossibility of the matters." 8 3. Civic Priesthood of Stur stur was 25 years old, when he came back to Slovakia from Germany: the mind full of ideas and the heart full of love for his Slovak nation. His decision as far as his personal life was concerned, was all made already: he had to sacrifice his life to his people and decided not to get married in order to be completely free from familiar ties. In very short nine years (from 1840 to 1849) he developed a febrile activity as teacher and scholar, as publisher and journalist, as politician and representative to Parliament, as revolucionary and soldier. He succeeded in forming an entire generation of Slovak activists whose merit was the preservation of the Slovak national life in a hostile and brutal country. The students were drawn by his ideas and confirmed by the chastity of his exemplar personal life. stur was doing what he was preaching: to prefer the common and public interests to his own personal advantages. He was not appointed by anybody to this national job: he had choosen it freely as a selfappointed high priest subject to his conscience and God only according to one of his devices: "We entered into the service of the Spirit; therefore we have to pass on a life full of thorns." �32 SLOVAKIA We got registered his farewell speech to his students before they left for holidays in 1842: like Moses on the mount Nebo with his hands elevated towards the heaven imploring God's blessings for the fighting soldiers Stur was dismissing his friends in the function of national missionaries like a high priest: "Who is living out of the spirit, is living in the humanity, is living suitably to humanity . . . and who is not living out to the spirit, is living for himself only, there is no humanity in him not is he in the humanity, because he is natural being only and not spiritual being like is the humanity ... Why the field of our Slovakia lies fallow as a desert; why our nation fell so down? Because it is not conscious of itself ... it is unconscious in the sphere of language, customs and ways of life as a distinct personality, it does not know itself as one wholeness, is not aware of itself and does not understand itself in the spirit of its own personality as belonging exclusively to itself." 9 In 13udovit Stur's works, articles, speeches there is a graduation during the mentioned nine years: the climax of all this febrile activity is the armed uprising of 1848-49 against the Magyars with the declaration of the independence of Slovakia (September 19, 1848). After this unsuccessful uprising the police curtain fell over a life consecrated to his nation: house prison, sorrow and death. In brevi explevit tempora multa ... B. ST-OR'S IDEAS CONCERNING THE LIFE OF NATION 1. The Nation Even if Stur, during his studies in Germany, imbibed with avidity the congenital doctrines of Hegel, he assimilated them in his personal way and was forging practical applications according to the situation of the Slovak nation in Hungary. Whereas "the spirit is the essence of all" 10 and his main task is selfknowledge and whereas, if we freely are interpreting Stur's idea of multiplicity of nations, the manifoldness of the nations is the manifestation of the richness of the Spirit, the main task of every nation it to reach the selfconsciousness. �SLOVAKIA 33 Without this selfconsciousness and selfknowledge the existence of a nation is a very precarious one, if not impossible according to sttir. Like a man (human being) who did not reach the personality is a child as slave who does know nothing about it, as "the nations which did not reach the personality, which did not feel themselves, are like children under the command of a patriarch and slaves under landlord." 11 Every nation "is a one whole, one individuality, one personality" and the highest obligation of very personality is to "become conscious, feel and know itself." 12 This national individuality consists in the spiritual union of all the members13 which can be felt "only on the basis of our nearest natural consanguinity." 14 What does this personality consist in? In the first place, the specificness of every nation is manifested by its language. "The language is the utterance of the spirit and in its turn is destined to influence the spirit." 15 "The language got its own life and the same course as the nations themselves." 16 "When the language lost its original expressivity, force, determination and acuteness, so the force and acuteness of the nation itself had volatilized; got old the language, so got old the nation itself." 17 One with the other are in the strongest union, one with the other are living and dying. 18 Besides the language, there are many other ties assuring the unity of the nation. Some of them are completely natural (as the territory) and or are natural-spiritual (among these on the first place is the language, afterwards customs, ways of life) and or completely spiritual (religion, political and civic order etc.) . The yearning after personality in an ethnical group is the most noble desire, because it is a desire of selffeeling and selfknowledge19 and in the last consequences it is a desire of being useful to the humanity. A nation which did not come to personality is unable t o register anything of its own in the world among the �34 SLOVAKIA other nations, nor is able to represent anything in the history. Notwithstanding that Stur is emphasizing the importance of the feeling of personality for a nation, he asseverates that "the personality is not the highest degree and that when a man or nations want to live and actuate indeed humanly, they must rise to a higher degree, wherefore the personality must be ennobled and morally hightened." 20 The spiritual personality of the nation, if it has to be a real and not imaginary one, must dispose of itself. This selfdisposition cannot be carried out, when a nation is united to another like an accident: the result of such an union can only be a weakness for both the partners. It is no life, but only a vegetation. 21 "When a nation wants to live and has to live, it cannot and must not rely on another nation and from it wait for the awakening and maintenance of its life ... Such a nation does not deserve to live." 22 Such a nation is like a log, "wherein there is no life."23 The life of the nation consists in spiritual movement and activity. Every true nation desires to rise to a higher life and wants its life to be registered in the life of mankind. It only is possible, when the nation is creating values of universal human validity which are contributing to the progress of humanity. In order that this be possible, these works of everlasting human validity have to bear the seal of the national authorship. 24 All this is possible only, when the nation had reached the degree of selfconsciousness as a nation, "because the selfconscious nation is united by the spirit in the strongest way . . . and is respecting its existence and its honest staying among others." 25 The true union of the members of the nation is in the spirit only i.e. when present in the conscience of all. Such a nation is strong, even if a small one. This "community-minded spirit" 26 is the essential force of every nation. Stur had to fight the family-minded spirit of the common Slovak people of that time with the purpose to �SLOVAKIA 35 awaken them for a higher life of the national community. He and his disciples had done an admirable work on this field. 27 And as usual, stur was analyzing the relation between the family and community life within the framework of the nation. He did not want to condemn the family life; he only wanted to exclude the exaggerate cult of family life: "The community life must not absorb the family life as well as the family life cannot exclude the community life." 28 Of course, the first society to which the man belongs is family: to it he is united with body and sentiments. Thus, while the fundament of family is a natural one and its union is of natural origin, in the national community the union is of spiritual character. And as body is of lower nature than the spirit, so the family is lower than the national community. In consequence thereof the community is higher than the family. Even if this ratiocination is of undoubtedly Hegelian precedence, there is series of fundamental theoremas concerning the life of nations which are issuing from this admitted superiority of spirit. First of all, no nation can lastingly remain on the niveau of the family life, because nation as nation got completely different the essential ties than the family; and also because the spirit can develop through the national community only which takes care of education and spiritual formation. 29 That the public life of community is higher than that of family it is growing evident also from the fact that those who were sacrificing themselves for the community met with gratitude of the nation and everlasting glory: they merited this general esteem, because they were concerned about the higher goods of the nation. "Beautiful is the love of Joseph for his brothers, captivating is the sacrifice of Antigona taking care of her father and accompanying him in his blindness on Kyteron; beautiful is the fidelity of Lucretia; beautiful is the love of Solon for his son, the care of Cornelia for her heroic sons, beautiful the care of Aeneas, beautiful the love of Andromeda, but incommensurably higher and more glorious are the deeds of Leonidas, Themistocles, Miltiades, �36 SLOVAKIA Mucius, Scipio, Zrinyi, Franklin, Menin, Pozarsky, Kosciuszko and many others." 30 If anybody would live for his family only, the nation would cease to exist. Of course, there are many degrees of access of a community to the fulness of national life. At the beginning, all the nation being born are rude and brutal, because "they did not reach a spiritual culture.'' 31 These "being born" nations are united by family ties only and they are living patriarchal order. There is a community life, but reduced to corporal necessities. Later on, the community is creating spiritual values and thus is rising to the degree of nation. A community which did not create its spiritual culture disappears from the theatre of History: "The nations which did not rise to the community life, if met by a higher nation were succumbing to it.'' 32 The spiritual life of the nations "consists in all that the spirit is creating; that in it got its roots and origin" 33 i. e. religion, arts, sciences, doctrines, institutes, juridical order etc. Through the creation of such values a nation is able to register its existence in the community o! nations and obtain its identity card: "A nation which did not create anything noble for others, which did not register its li!e in the human community life, got no consideration before others." 34 The more flourishing is the community life and spiritual creativity of a national community, the stronger will be its position among the nations, because it is of one spirit and of one will. According to ~tur, such nations only appertain to History which consists in "continuous evolution." 35 This last expression has to be understood in the terminology of Hegelian philosophy of History.36 "The improvement and heightening of the human life has been progressing through the nations which appertain to History," 37 but never through the vegetation of tribes and barbarian nations. �SLOVAKIA 37 If we are searching for a definition of nation in stur, we will be perhaps disappointed: "By nation has always been understood the community of men using from birth one language." 38 This apparently poor definition has to be understood, however, from the viewpoint of the high function of language in the life of nations. 2. The Nation And The Language The very essence of the ethnical philosophy of stur has to be searched for in his doctrine of language as far as it is in relation with the life of nations in general. We have already mentioned the role of language, when speaking of the personality of nation: the language is one of the fundamental reasons of its specificness, i.e. it identifies the nation. This doctrine does not contradict the fact, that the English is a language common to England and the US, the Portuguese common to Portugal and Brazil, the Spanish common to Spain and many Latin American states. On the first place, all these new "nations" are nations in formation. In this process of formation they feel the necessity of a special language and this trend towards a specific language is being observed as in the United States (the trend to spell and pronounce differently the English ) as in Brazil ( the Brazilians speak of Brazilian as their mother tongue) as in the Latin American states (some o! them are looking for native Indian languages in order to emphasize their "national" identity). Secondly, there exist a subconscious uncertainty and insecurity as far as the national identity is concerned, in all these zones, when comparing their identities with those of other nations recognized as such. "When the nation comes to selfconsciousness, then it will comprehend that it got one life, one aim and so by natural and necessary course of the things this selfconsciousness must express itself in what it is uniting the nation together: one literary language, one literature belong essentially to the unity of nation." 39 �38 SLOVAKIA Thus the language is the instrument of the national unity: no nation (in the acception of a spiritual community and not the state; the state could have more languages) can have two literary languages. From the other side, the language alone is unable to maintain the national unity: 40 "The nations got higher goods which they are yearning after ... These higher goods belong to spiritual aspects. When the nation reaches this higher niveau of spiritual activity, then begins to consider its linguistic unity as secondary, even if always dear and beloved, because inherited from the forefathers, but undecisive in all fundamental questions." 41 In other words, when a nation reaches the stadium of high spiritual activity creating everlasting cultural values, the question of language ceases to be a primary one and is being collocated on the secondary niveau, because in this way the conscious spirit is assuring the unity of nation. But before the language be able to become vehicle of high, spiritual activity, it is necessary to cultivate it i.e. provide it with terms able to express not only things, objects of daily use (the stadium of native vernacular languages), but also high ideas. "The language got the same course, the same evolution like man and nations. The child and the common man are speaking a very common language related to the objects of daily use known to all and in the same way common people who are either not at all or little civilized, but a cultivated man is speaking of higher subjects and his language is more abundant, more complicated and more polished; all the same is to be said of the language of a cultivated nation." 42 This general principle is being confirmed every day in our times too: India is being overhauling the Hindostani in order to give it an efficiency as a modern cultivated language; the missionaries are struggling with the imperfections of the hundred and hundred native languages in order to convert them in vehicles capable to express high ideas putting down in this way the very foundations for a road to civilization of the different tribes. But from all the functions a literary language may �SLOVAKIA 3g get, the most important is its role in the instruction of the peoples. ~tur was assigning a primordialy importance to the language on this field. "Every nation can be cultivated through its own language only and is being cultivated, when its language is being cultivated" 43 : there is an interdependent action and mutual benefit as a result. In fact, the civilization of a nation is practically impossible, if its language is being postponed. The Guaranis of Paraguay, Brazil and Argentina, the Aymeras of Bolivia and Quechuas of Peru and Bolivia as nations were left on the same cultural niveau as they were living in the times of colonial occupation. According to ~tur "the mother tongue is the mean of civilization of that nation that is speaking it." 44 "If the instruction has to be a true, useful and adequate instruction it must be carried out in the national language i. e. in the mother tongue of the nation. Otherwise, the instruction got no value, is a mechanical work, without any benefit." 45 "The instruction must exercise an influence not only on the mind but also on the heart; it must not be understood only, but also felt" 46 and we feel best the power of words and expressions in our mother tongue. "In this language all is clear and bright; in it the objects denoted by words are immediately present before our eyes, while in the foreign language all appears to us like behind a curtain of fog .. . For these reasons everybody will understand, why the nations being instructed in their schools in the mother tongue are progressing in instruction, knowledge and are occupying a honorable place among other nations, while the nations being instructed in their schools in foreign language are staying behind." 47 There is another important reason, why the instruction has to be carried out in the mother tongue: "Through the mother tongue introduced into the schools the eyes of the nation are being opened; only then it is aware that it exists in the world too and through the mother tongue introduced into the public life, the nation is getting voice in the world." 48 �40 SLOVAKIA All these benefits had been denied to the nations in the middle age, when the Latin was used commonly in all the 15chools. The consequences thereof have been the obscuratism and barbarity, no undertaking and no public liberty. "In the middle age the world and schools were opposed to such a degree that whatever was appertaining to the schools did not concern the life and vice versa and this was a natural consequence of the separation of the schools from the life through a foreign language." 49 At that time the universities were like castles, where secret treasures were being hidden and whoever wanted to get to these treasures, he had to break through the dead Latin world. By a similar bad luck are being stricken many small nations even in the modern times. In this occasion Stur described the situation of the Irish nation, where the original Irish language is being ousted from the schools and the English is being imposed on its place; a similar destiny got the Flemish nation in Belgiwn and the Slovaks in Hungary. "We have to call it a disaster, when a nation is being instructed in foreign language, it is not possible to talk about the progress in knowledge and culture of such a nation. And without culture a nation is like mud being trampled under feet." 50 By the repression of its language, the nation is being menaced in its very being. "A nation to whom had been imposed a foreign language even in its elementary schools got a sensible blow on its very life and spirit . . . and is condemned to blindness and obscurity ... In such a nation there will flourish no culture, instead of it there will dwell obscurity; there will flourish no freedom, instead of it there will spread the spirit of servilism, there will flourish no wealth, instead of it unfold poverty and misery." 51 "When a nation had fallen so deeply, it is the declaration of the last historical sentence over it and the accomplishment of its servility." 52 In this connection, Stur is mentioning again the situation of the Irish nation, where the imposition of the English in the public life were conducing to the paralization of the authentic national life. The introduction of the English into the public life in Wales and Scotland got �SLOVAKIA 41 practically the same effect: the original national identity got a deadly blow and there is practically no probability that these two Celtic nationalities could revive their original national life. Not dissimilar grew the situation of the Basks in Spain and France: deprived of the possibility to make use of their many thousands years old language in their public life, they are decaying as a distinct nationality and are merging with the Spanish and French. 3. The Rights of The Nations According to Stur 53 While individual rights have been object of different declarations and international instruments (Bill of Rights etc.), the rights of the nations neither have been enumerated nor sanctioned by international domuments. All this is perfectly understandable, because the world policy has always been carried out by the big powers interested only in their power positions and very little or nothing at all in the rights of the small nations. This situation prevails even today. What can be said of the situation prevailing hundred or more years ago? The big powers are able to assure their real and or pretended rights as today as they were doing in the past. They were and are enjoying them in full measure what cannot be said of the small nations, whose rights are being trampled under feet and denied. Only who is suffering injustice on his own flesh is able to understand the benefits of the right and justice and to yearn after them. Only nations which have been subjugated and denied their fundamental rights were able to forge the ideas about these rights amidst their sufferings. If you examine the modern history of the Basks, Irish, Jews, Slovaks and other perfectly constituted nations whose the only defect was to be small ones, you will gather abundant evidences of their desire to see protected and realized their rights they are feeling to be entitled to. More than hundred years ago, stur was expressing some of these fundamental rights of the nations. All these ideas are very important contribution to the creation of new international law which undoubtedly will take place in the next decades and conduce to the reorganization of mankind on the base of respect for all the nations, not �42 SLOVAKIA only the big ones, but also the small ones which are the majority and feel the thirst of justice. After all we have said about the function of the mother tongue in the life of nation, it is not difficult to understand that titur was preaching the right to language as the most proper mark of every nationality: "Who is touching (the language) is touching the most proper possession." 54 If a nation is denied the right to its own language by its expulsion out of the public life and schools, it is getting a death blow to its very existence. The Bask language has been suppressed in France and Spain and nowadays the number of Basks is diminishing in such an allarming way that if they are not allowed to use their own language in their country, this respectable nation will disappear from the map of Europe. The actual society got associations for the protection of animals ( dogs, cats and endangered species) and plants, but the United Nations Organization did not provide for the protection of the dying national communities and nations endangered in their life. Very soon the Bask language, the oldest European spoken language, will be a dead one, if the Basks do not get an international support for their legitimate struggle for independence. The Irish got a blow, when the English was introduced in Ireland instead of the Gaelic and many decades will pass over until the Gaelic will be again a spoken language in Ireland in spite of the Irish Republic and the desire of the authorities to reinstall it. Of course, of all the rights the most fundamental is the right to life. Meanwhile in the old times, the conquerors were depriving the conquered nations of their material goods, in these times the conquest is aiming at the subjugation of the spirit i.e. the conquerors are threating to take away the nationality itself; the last finality nowadays is the incorporation of the physical substance of conquered into the body of the conquering nation. Therefore titti.r requested that "nobody should interfere with our own district from national point of view." 55 From the fact of existence rises the right to personality which is the extension of the right to life. When speaking of nation, we had quoted the ideas of $tti.r relating to personality and its importance for the normal development �SLOVAKIA 43 of the national community. stur was asking for "the recognition of the personality" 56 of the Slovaks with all the consequences issuing therefrom. In his meditations stur arrived to the expression of the "right to personality." When speaking of the tendency to suppress the life of a nation, he qualifies it as an injustice, because such a nation "is denied the right to be per se amid mankind i.e. to be a different personality." 57 It only is natural that every nation is striving for the recognition of its own personality among the other nations, because even if the personality may be not the highest value according to stur, it is a fundament for all its activity. stur was proclaiming also the right to territory: "As a family needs its settlement as needs the nation its territory, where to live; its frontiers as far as its sovereignty extends itself, where to develop freely and to carry out its will." 58 "The nation with its territory which is the field of its activity, is one owner of earth among other owners." 59 "Whoever is taking hold of this ownership i. e. who is limiting the frontiers of its activity is offending the entire nation and provokes it to war." 60 Only weak and vile nations are permitting their frontiers to be narrowed. This idea of the right to its own earth was a guide to the Jewish nation in diaspora since the time of their deportation to Babylon and after. The realization of this right in the form of "Eretz Ischrael" is completely understandable to anybody who thinks of the nations in philosophical terms. This same idea was proclaimed by the Irish insurgents of 1916: "We declare the right of the people of Ireland to the ownership of Ireland . . . The long usurpation of that right by a foreign people and government has not extinguished the right ... " For this same right are fighting the rebellious Basks in Spain and France in these very days: the right to Euzkotarr. For this right have been slaughtered one million of Ibos in Nigeria because they wanted to live in their own country, Biafra. �44 SLOVAK.IA In connection with. the language and its function in the life of the nation, stur uttered the right to education and culture. The main object of all the activity of stur was the Slovak common people: after the desertion of the high and low (practically too) nobility, to the Slovaks were left the middle classes and common people only. Therefore he was directing all his endeavors to these masses with the purpose to provoke their national consciousness: "Our common people is the substantial part of our nation." 61 This people were "abandoned and neglected" and therefore "we stepped down and started to have intercourse with them in their own language ... so that they may feel their dignity ... and work on their own rising." 62 We should not forget that in Hungary until 1848 was prevailing the system of serfdom and there was practically no possibility of instruction for the common people. stur was aware that only through education of the masses the Slovak nation can be preserved from disparition. The consequences of the lack of instruction were disastrous indeed: penury, lack of the spirit of enterprise, total absence of welfare, lack of the sense for community. "An educated and instructed nation is in better spiritual and material situation than a nation without instruction . . . The more one is instructed, the higher dignity, respect, higher rights and better condition is he getting." 63 Without the education, there is no community life within the nation64 and its spiritual life which the very essence of a nation is very deficient. 65 An instructed nation is a free nation and a nation composed of ignorant people is a slavish nation. The freedom of a nation is intimately linked to its education and high degree of culture: "an instructed and cultured nation cannot be held in the chains of slavery." 66 So it is understandable that stur considered the right to education and instruction as high as the same right to life. Not unlike was at that time the situation of the Irish nation. stur got into his hands at that time (AD 1847) a number of a Tipperary newspaper wherein the unknown author is requested that "the source of the Irish misfortune must be destroyed, removed and only then there will be �SLOVAKIA 45 a hope that the people rise. The cause thereof is the humiliation and oppression of our Irish people which are being born in order to serve only. The oppression of our nationality since the times of the English expansion is the main cause of all the evil." 67 Being similar the conditions in Ireland and Slovakia, similar were also the reactions of the leaders of the peoples. In Ireland Thomas Davis, "the educator of nationality", was preaching: "Educate that you may be free." "Selfhelp and reliance were his cardinal principles for national regeneration." 68 stur was also insinuating the right of the nation to selfdetermination at a time, when this principle was not a common and general idea. He said: "No nation got the right . . . to not allow another nation to follow its own way, the way which is to it the most convenient." 69 And in accordance with this principle he led his nation to an open rebellion against the Magyars and proclaimed the independence of Slovakia in 1848. 3. EPILOGUE The short period of the intellectual activity of stur is full of ideas which have to say many things to this generation and to the future ones. His doctrine of the personality of the nations contains nucleus for the revision of the entire actual international law. If the nations exist as communities independently of the states and are subjects of the rights, thus the actual international law is an interstatal law only, the United Nations Organization is an Organization of the States etc. We are living in a world of confusion originated in the equivocal use of the term "nation" by the Latin and Anglosaxon nations. While, from one side, it is necessary only that an ex-colony, insignificant as may be (Barbados, Trinidad-Tobago etc.), get granted its independence and be recognized as such and immediately is getting the right to be "a nation," member o! UNO, on the other side, the authentic nations i. e. spiritual communities with well formed personality and efficient cultural life like Basks in Spain, a pleiade of authentic nations in India, Slovaks in Central Europe are denied even the designation of nations and all the rights inherent to their condition of authentic nations. There is a danger �46 SLOVAKIA that the diplomacy is moving on a terrain either of ignorantia elenchi or moral perversity. The Stu.r's visions of international brotherhood and a humanity living for the fruits of the Spirit on the basis of a material welfare are distant from the reality yet. FOOTNOTES •) By "ethnical" we understand "related to the life of nations," because the word "nation" got two different acceptions. I.:udovit Stur (1815-1856), the Slovak scholar, Philosopher and revolutionary who declared the independence of Slovakia in 1848. 1) The practical aspects of this activity see by J. Pauco, "The instruction of the People by the followers of Stur" (I.:udovychova u sturovcov, Turc. Sv. Martin, 1943). 2) To the contrary, the Magyar language has been enriched by the Slovak words related to state administration, agriculture, construction etc. 3) Analogically in the modern times, India had to adopt the English as official language due to the existence of many ethnics in that country. There are many other cases in the contemporary world. 4) I:. Stur, Dielo I, 314. In Bratislava appeared five volumes of his works in 1954. All the quotations of Stur are taken from this edition. 5) lb., l , 314. 6) lb. 7) 8) 9) 10) 11) 12) 13) 14) 15) 16) 17) 18) 19) 20) 21) 22) 23) lb., l, 168. lb., l, 170. lb., II, 15, 17. lb., V, 41. lb., V, 12. lb. lb. lb. lb., 15. lb. lb., 15, 16. lb., 16. lb., 13. lb., 13. lb. lb., 100. lb., 101. lb., 105, 106. lb., 40. lb., I, 230. 24) 25) 26) 27) J. Pauco, o. c. 28) lb., l, 127. 29) lb., I, 115. �SLOVAKIA 30) 31) 32) 33) 34) 35) 36) 37) 38) 39) 40) 41) 42) 43) 44) 45) 46) 47) 48) 49) 50) 51) 52) 53) 54) 55) 56) 57) 58) 59) 60) 61) 62) 63) 64) 65) 66) 67) 68) 69) 47 Ib., l, 116. lb., l, 114. Ib., I, 125. lb., II, 177. lb., l, 123. lb., II, 182. According to this doctrine, in the History always one nation is the leader of mankind. lb., II, 188. lb., I, 216. Ib., V, 134. lb., l, 212. lb. l, 212, 213. Cfr. lb. l, 215: "Even if the language is not the highest value of a nation, still it is the most important and decisive property as far as its personality and distinction is concerned, and from the fathers holy heritage which if somebody is touching, is touching the most proper possession, even if not the highest one." lb., V, 17. lb., l, 153. lb. Ib., l, 312. lb., I, 313. lb., l, 313, 314. lb., l, 314. lb. lb., l, 317. lb., l, 318, 319. lb., l, 319. S. Polakovic, L'evolution des idees fondamentales de la politique slovaque, Bratislava 1944; S. Polakovic, The Evolution of the Slovak National Philosophy, delivered at the conference in Toronto 1971. Stur, o.c., l, 215. lb., I, 221. lb., l, 216. Manuscript in the Archives of Matica Slovenska, Martin, Slovakia, No. 356a. Stur, o.c., l, 210. lb. lb., l, 211. lb., l, 49. lb., l, 125. lb., I, 154. lb., l, 158. lb., l, 124. lb., l, 334. lb., l, 315-6. We could not identify this Tipperary newspaper. The English quotation is not verbal, because we had to translate it from the Slovak. Dr. Moody in his address to Trinity College, Dublin, on April 20, 1966. Slovo na case, II, 81. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1973, Vol. 23 Description An account of the resource Vol. 23 (No. 46), 1973. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1973 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document SLOVAKIA Stefan P O la k O 29 Vi C : The Ethnical Philosophy of L'udovtt Stur* A. INTRODUCTION 1. Philosophy and Life The present day people generally are ignoring the Philosophy and consider it as an antiquarian and discarded discipline without any relation to the concrete life. And they forget that even the most unphilosophical concrete, individual life is expression of philosophy. It would be sufficient to observe an individual and his actions in order to write down "his" philosophy, i.e. the principles which are guiding him in his personal life. There is a mutual dependence between philosophy and life to such an extent that the fulness of the accidental aspects of the life is permeated by the general principles of philosophical character, while these principles in their abstract form can become a ferment for concrete life and contribute, by their turn, to the changes and even upheavals of the life. This fundamental relation between life and philosophy has been observed by Plato and Aristoteles teaching that the beginning of philosophy is "admiring" ( thaumazein). And in reality, there are many concrete "materials" in the concrete world for the analysis of an observing mind. As a philosopher who received a Hegelian formation in its authentic source during his studies in Germany, Cudovit stlir did not remain insensible in front of the concrete situation of the Slovak nation in Hungary at the beginning of the 19th century. It was a splendid "material" to be analyzed and studied under the light of the then modern philosophical doctrine. And these studies had been done by stur with the result of general principles, valid even today, on the life of nations in general. From the other side, the very same conditions of the Slovaks in 30 SLOVAKIA Hungary were for the patriot ~tur an object of very serious preoccupations. In this way, if from one side he was abstracting general principles out of this situation, from the other side he was putting down general principles for the recuperation of the Slovaks and their awakening from the centennial sleepiness. 1 2. The Ethnical Situation in Hungary in 1800 and After After the destruction of the Slovak kingdom in 910 A.D. by the Magyars with the help of the Franks (Germans) and its occupation by the victors, the higher culture of the Slovaks did not permit their assimilation by the Magyars 2 and so, in order to maintain the stability of the problematic common monarchy for two different nations (the Slovaks are Slavs and the Magyars are Mongolians), the new kings had recourse to a solution unique in the history of Europe: the adoption of the Latin as official language of the kingdom. 3 This anachronical situation lasted until 1793, when the Magyar language was for the first time codified and first attempts had been made to impose the Magyar language as the official one in the entire territory of Hungary. The consequences of the use of the Latin in Hungary during nine centuries were disastrous both for the Slovaks and Magyars: neither the Slovaks nor the Magyars had been able to develop their own literary works and so their language remained limited to the vernacular function (folk songs, folk legends etc.). After the Reform only appear here and there the first Slovak and Magyar works printed in dialects. Another, not less disastrous consequence of the reign of the Latin in our country was "darkness, brutality; lack of undertaking and higher civic liberty" 4 ; such was the common destiny of the Slovaks and the Magyars because of the lack of instruction. The schools and the real life of the two nations were separated by an abysmal gap: "All the knowledge and culture in the middle age were sticking in the schools and were limited to them ... It was a natural consequence of the separation of the schools from the life due to the foreign language" (i.e. the Latin).5 This led to the "contemptous looking of the schools on the life, the condemnation of the common life as of SLOVAKIA 31 something vulgar; the contempt of national life and erradication of the even undangerous national customs; the rise of the cultivated casts and general neglect of the people who ... were needing instruction nor were allowed to enter into the temple of the instruction." 6 As soon as the Magyars codified their language, the Slovaks did the same: The Slovak Grammar of Bernolak appeared before the year 1800. What the Slovaks as a nation could not do was to hamper the magyarisation of the high and low Slovak nobility which at that time due to the raisons d'Etat stood behind the governmental power. This renegation of the Slovak nobility was a death blow to the Slovak national interests and since then the word "renegate" got a smell of moral insanity among the Slovaks. In this way to the Slovaks "were left the middle classes only: townsmen, low clergy, teachers." 7 The Slovaks were left only "what could not be taken away from them . . . due to the impossibility of the matters." 8 3. Civic Priesthood of Stur stur was 25 years old, when he came back to Slovakia from Germany: the mind full of ideas and the heart full of love for his Slovak nation. His decision as far as his personal life was concerned, was all made already: he had to sacrifice his life to his people and decided not to get married in order to be completely free from familiar ties. In very short nine years (from 1840 to 1849) he developed a febrile activity as teacher and scholar, as publisher and journalist, as politician and representative to Parliament, as revolucionary and soldier. He succeeded in forming an entire generation of Slovak activists whose merit was the preservation of the Slovak national life in a hostile and brutal country. The students were drawn by his ideas and confirmed by the chastity of his exemplar personal life. stur was doing what he was preaching: to prefer the common and public interests to his own personal advantages. He was not appointed by anybody to this national job: he had choosen it freely as a selfappointed high priest subject to his conscience and God only according to one of his devices: "We entered into the service of the Spirit; therefore we have to pass on a life full of thorns." 32 SLOVAKIA We got registered his farewell speech to his students before they left for holidays in 1842: like Moses on the mount Nebo with his hands elevated towards the heaven imploring God's blessings for the fighting soldiers Stur was dismissing his friends in the function of national missionaries like a high priest: "Who is living out of the spirit, is living in the humanity, is living suitably to humanity . . . and who is not living out to the spirit, is living for himself only, there is no humanity in him not is he in the humanity, because he is natural being only and not spiritual being like is the humanity ... Why the field of our Slovakia lies fallow as a desert; why our nation fell so down? Because it is not conscious of itself ... it is unconscious in the sphere of language, customs and ways of life as a distinct personality, it does not know itself as one wholeness, is not aware of itself and does not understand itself in the spirit of its own personality as belonging exclusively to itself." 9 In 13udovit Stur's works, articles, speeches there is a graduation during the mentioned nine years: the climax of all this febrile activity is the armed uprising of 1848-49 against the Magyars with the declaration of the independence of Slovakia (September 19, 1848). After this unsuccessful uprising the police curtain fell over a life consecrated to his nation: house prison, sorrow and death. In brevi explevit tempora multa ... B. ST-OR'S IDEAS CONCERNING THE LIFE OF NATION 1. The Nation Even if Stur, during his studies in Germany, imbibed with avidity the congenital doctrines of Hegel, he assimilated them in his personal way and was forging practical applications according to the situation of the Slovak nation in Hungary. Whereas "the spirit is the essence of all" 10 and his main task is selfknowledge and whereas, if we freely are interpreting Stur's idea of multiplicity of nations, the manifoldness of the nations is the manifestation of the richness of the Spirit, the main task of every nation it to reach the selfconsciousness. SLOVAKIA 33 Without this selfconsciousness and selfknowledge the existence of a nation is a very precarious one, if not impossible according to sttir. Like a man (human being) who did not reach the personality is a child as slave who does know nothing about it, as "the nations which did not reach the personality, which did not feel themselves, are like children under the command of a patriarch and slaves under landlord." 11 Every nation "is a one whole, one individuality, one personality" and the highest obligation of very personality is to "become conscious, feel and know itself." 12 This national individuality consists in the spiritual union of all the members13 which can be felt "only on the basis of our nearest natural consanguinity." 14 What does this personality consist in? In the first place, the specificness of every nation is manifested by its language. "The language is the utterance of the spirit and in its turn is destined to influence the spirit." 15 "The language got its own life and the same course as the nations themselves." 16 "When the language lost its original expressivity, force, determination and acuteness, so the force and acuteness of the nation itself had volatilized; got old the language, so got old the nation itself." 17 One with the other are in the strongest union, one with the other are living and dying. 18 Besides the language, there are many other ties assuring the unity of the nation. Some of them are completely natural (as the territory) and or are natural-spiritual (among these on the first place is the language, afterwards customs, ways of life) and or completely spiritual (religion, political and civic order etc.) . The yearning after personality in an ethnical group is the most noble desire, because it is a desire of selffeeling and selfknowledge19 and in the last consequences it is a desire of being useful to the humanity. A nation which did not come to personality is unable t o register anything of its own in the world among the 34 SLOVAKIA other nations, nor is able to represent anything in the history. Notwithstanding that Stur is emphasizing the importance of the feeling of personality for a nation, he asseverates that "the personality is not the highest degree and that when a man or nations want to live and actuate indeed humanly, they must rise to a higher degree, wherefore the personality must be ennobled and morally hightened." 20 The spiritual personality of the nation, if it has to be a real and not imaginary one, must dispose of itself. This selfdisposition cannot be carried out, when a nation is united to another like an accident: the result of such an union can only be a weakness for both the partners. It is no life, but only a vegetation. 21 "When a nation wants to live and has to live, it cannot and must not rely on another nation and from it wait for the awakening and maintenance of its life ... Such a nation does not deserve to live." 22 Such a nation is like a log, "wherein there is no life."23 The life of the nation consists in spiritual movement and activity. Every true nation desires to rise to a higher life and wants its life to be registered in the life of mankind. It only is possible, when the nation is creating values of universal human validity which are contributing to the progress of humanity. In order that this be possible, these works of everlasting human validity have to bear the seal of the national authorship. 24 All this is possible only, when the nation had reached the degree of selfconsciousness as a nation, "because the selfconscious nation is united by the spirit in the strongest way . . . and is respecting its existence and its honest staying among others." 25 The true union of the members of the nation is in the spirit only i.e. when present in the conscience of all. Such a nation is strong, even if a small one. This "community-minded spirit" 26 is the essential force of every nation. Stur had to fight the family-minded spirit of the common Slovak people of that time with the purpose to SLOVAKIA 35 awaken them for a higher life of the national community. He and his disciples had done an admirable work on this field. 27 And as usual, stur was analyzing the relation between the family and community life within the framework of the nation. He did not want to condemn the family life; he only wanted to exclude the exaggerate cult of family life: "The community life must not absorb the family life as well as the family life cannot exclude the community life." 28 Of course, the first society to which the man belongs is family: to it he is united with body and sentiments. Thus, while the fundament of family is a natural one and its union is of natural origin, in the national community the union is of spiritual character. And as body is of lower nature than the spirit, so the family is lower than the national community. In consequence thereof the community is higher than the family. Even if this ratiocination is of undoubtedly Hegelian precedence, there is series of fundamental theoremas concerning the life of nations which are issuing from this admitted superiority of spirit. First of all, no nation can lastingly remain on the niveau of the family life, because nation as nation got completely different the essential ties than the family; and also because the spirit can develop through the national community only which takes care of education and spiritual formation. 29 That the public life of community is higher than that of family it is growing evident also from the fact that those who were sacrificing themselves for the community met with gratitude of the nation and everlasting glory: they merited this general esteem, because they were concerned about the higher goods of the nation. "Beautiful is the love of Joseph for his brothers, captivating is the sacrifice of Antigona taking care of her father and accompanying him in his blindness on Kyteron; beautiful is the fidelity of Lucretia; beautiful is the love of Solon for his son, the care of Cornelia for her heroic sons, beautiful the care of Aeneas, beautiful the love of Andromeda, but incommensurably higher and more glorious are the deeds of Leonidas, Themistocles, Miltiades, 36 SLOVAKIA Mucius, Scipio, Zrinyi, Franklin, Menin, Pozarsky, Kosciuszko and many others." 30 If anybody would live for his family only, the nation would cease to exist. Of course, there are many degrees of access of a community to the fulness of national life. At the beginning, all the nation being born are rude and brutal, because "they did not reach a spiritual culture.'' 31 These "being born" nations are united by family ties only and they are living patriarchal order. There is a community life, but reduced to corporal necessities. Later on, the community is creating spiritual values and thus is rising to the degree of nation. A community which did not create its spiritual culture disappears from the theatre of History: "The nations which did not rise to the community life, if met by a higher nation were succumbing to it.'' 32 The spiritual life of the nations "consists in all that the spirit is creating; that in it got its roots and origin" 33 i. e. religion, arts, sciences, doctrines, institutes, juridical order etc. Through the creation of such values a nation is able to register its existence in the community o! nations and obtain its identity card: "A nation which did not create anything noble for others, which did not register its li!e in the human community life, got no consideration before others." 34 The more flourishing is the community life and spiritual creativity of a national community, the stronger will be its position among the nations, because it is of one spirit and of one will. According to ~tur, such nations only appertain to History which consists in "continuous evolution." 35 This last expression has to be understood in the terminology of Hegelian philosophy of History.36 "The improvement and heightening of the human life has been progressing through the nations which appertain to History," 37 but never through the vegetation of tribes and barbarian nations. SLOVAKIA 37 If we are searching for a definition of nation in stur, we will be perhaps disappointed: "By nation has always been understood the community of men using from birth one language." 38 This apparently poor definition has to be understood, however, from the viewpoint of the high function of language in the life of nations. 2. The Nation And The Language The very essence of the ethnical philosophy of stur has to be searched for in his doctrine of language as far as it is in relation with the life of nations in general. We have already mentioned the role of language, when speaking of the personality of nation: the language is one of the fundamental reasons of its specificness, i.e. it identifies the nation. This doctrine does not contradict the fact, that the English is a language common to England and the US, the Portuguese common to Portugal and Brazil, the Spanish common to Spain and many Latin American states. On the first place, all these new "nations" are nations in formation. In this process of formation they feel the necessity of a special language and this trend towards a specific language is being observed as in the United States (the trend to spell and pronounce differently the English ) as in Brazil ( the Brazilians speak of Brazilian as their mother tongue) as in the Latin American states (some o! them are looking for native Indian languages in order to emphasize their "national" identity). Secondly, there exist a subconscious uncertainty and insecurity as far as the national identity is concerned, in all these zones, when comparing their identities with those of other nations recognized as such. "When the nation comes to selfconsciousness, then it will comprehend that it got one life, one aim and so by natural and necessary course of the things this selfconsciousness must express itself in what it is uniting the nation together: one literary language, one literature belong essentially to the unity of nation." 39 38 SLOVAKIA Thus the language is the instrument of the national unity: no nation (in the acception of a spiritual community and not the state; the state could have more languages) can have two literary languages. From the other side, the language alone is unable to maintain the national unity: 40 "The nations got higher goods which they are yearning after ... These higher goods belong to spiritual aspects. When the nation reaches this higher niveau of spiritual activity, then begins to consider its linguistic unity as secondary, even if always dear and beloved, because inherited from the forefathers, but undecisive in all fundamental questions." 41 In other words, when a nation reaches the stadium of high spiritual activity creating everlasting cultural values, the question of language ceases to be a primary one and is being collocated on the secondary niveau, because in this way the conscious spirit is assuring the unity of nation. But before the language be able to become vehicle of high, spiritual activity, it is necessary to cultivate it i.e. provide it with terms able to express not only things, objects of daily use (the stadium of native vernacular languages), but also high ideas. "The language got the same course, the same evolution like man and nations. The child and the common man are speaking a very common language related to the objects of daily use known to all and in the same way common people who are either not at all or little civilized, but a cultivated man is speaking of higher subjects and his language is more abundant, more complicated and more polished; all the same is to be said of the language of a cultivated nation." 42 This general principle is being confirmed every day in our times too: India is being overhauling the Hindostani in order to give it an efficiency as a modern cultivated language; the missionaries are struggling with the imperfections of the hundred and hundred native languages in order to convert them in vehicles capable to express high ideas putting down in this way the very foundations for a road to civilization of the different tribes. But from all the functions a literary language may SLOVAKIA 3g get, the most important is its role in the instruction of the peoples. ~tur was assigning a primordialy importance to the language on this field. "Every nation can be cultivated through its own language only and is being cultivated, when its language is being cultivated" 43 : there is an interdependent action and mutual benefit as a result. In fact, the civilization of a nation is practically impossible, if its language is being postponed. The Guaranis of Paraguay, Brazil and Argentina, the Aymeras of Bolivia and Quechuas of Peru and Bolivia as nations were left on the same cultural niveau as they were living in the times of colonial occupation. According to ~tur "the mother tongue is the mean of civilization of that nation that is speaking it." 44 "If the instruction has to be a true, useful and adequate instruction it must be carried out in the national language i. e. in the mother tongue of the nation. Otherwise, the instruction got no value, is a mechanical work, without any benefit." 45 "The instruction must exercise an influence not only on the mind but also on the heart; it must not be understood only, but also felt" 46 and we feel best the power of words and expressions in our mother tongue. "In this language all is clear and bright; in it the objects denoted by words are immediately present before our eyes, while in the foreign language all appears to us like behind a curtain of fog .. . For these reasons everybody will understand, why the nations being instructed in their schools in the mother tongue are progressing in instruction, knowledge and are occupying a honorable place among other nations, while the nations being instructed in their schools in foreign language are staying behind." 47 There is another important reason, why the instruction has to be carried out in the mother tongue: "Through the mother tongue introduced into the schools the eyes of the nation are being opened; only then it is aware that it exists in the world too and through the mother tongue introduced into the public life, the nation is getting voice in the world." 48 40 SLOVAKIA All these benefits had been denied to the nations in the middle age, when the Latin was used commonly in all the 15chools. The consequences thereof have been the obscuratism and barbarity, no undertaking and no public liberty. "In the middle age the world and schools were opposed to such a degree that whatever was appertaining to the schools did not concern the life and vice versa and this was a natural consequence of the separation of the schools from the life through a foreign language." 49 At that time the universities were like castles, where secret treasures were being hidden and whoever wanted to get to these treasures, he had to break through the dead Latin world. By a similar bad luck are being stricken many small nations even in the modern times. In this occasion Stur described the situation of the Irish nation, where the original Irish language is being ousted from the schools and the English is being imposed on its place; a similar destiny got the Flemish nation in Belgiwn and the Slovaks in Hungary. "We have to call it a disaster, when a nation is being instructed in foreign language, it is not possible to talk about the progress in knowledge and culture of such a nation. And without culture a nation is like mud being trampled under feet." 50 By the repression of its language, the nation is being menaced in its very being. "A nation to whom had been imposed a foreign language even in its elementary schools got a sensible blow on its very life and spirit . . . and is condemned to blindness and obscurity ... In such a nation there will flourish no culture, instead of it there will dwell obscurity; there will flourish no freedom, instead of it there will spread the spirit of servilism, there will flourish no wealth, instead of it unfold poverty and misery." 51 "When a nation had fallen so deeply, it is the declaration of the last historical sentence over it and the accomplishment of its servility." 52 In this connection, Stur is mentioning again the situation of the Irish nation, where the imposition of the English in the public life were conducing to the paralization of the authentic national life. The introduction of the English into the public life in Wales and Scotland got SLOVAKIA 41 practically the same effect: the original national identity got a deadly blow and there is practically no probability that these two Celtic nationalities could revive their original national life. Not dissimilar grew the situation of the Basks in Spain and France: deprived of the possibility to make use of their many thousands years old language in their public life, they are decaying as a distinct nationality and are merging with the Spanish and French. 3. The Rights of The Nations According to Stur 53 While individual rights have been object of different declarations and international instruments (Bill of Rights etc.), the rights of the nations neither have been enumerated nor sanctioned by international domuments. All this is perfectly understandable, because the world policy has always been carried out by the big powers interested only in their power positions and very little or nothing at all in the rights of the small nations. This situation prevails even today. What can be said of the situation prevailing hundred or more years ago? The big powers are able to assure their real and or pretended rights as today as they were doing in the past. They were and are enjoying them in full measure what cannot be said of the small nations, whose rights are being trampled under feet and denied. Only who is suffering injustice on his own flesh is able to understand the benefits of the right and justice and to yearn after them. Only nations which have been subjugated and denied their fundamental rights were able to forge the ideas about these rights amidst their sufferings. If you examine the modern history of the Basks, Irish, Jews, Slovaks and other perfectly constituted nations whose the only defect was to be small ones, you will gather abundant evidences of their desire to see protected and realized their rights they are feeling to be entitled to. More than hundred years ago, stur was expressing some of these fundamental rights of the nations. All these ideas are very important contribution to the creation of new international law which undoubtedly will take place in the next decades and conduce to the reorganization of mankind on the base of respect for all the nations, not 42 SLOVAKIA only the big ones, but also the small ones which are the majority and feel the thirst of justice. After all we have said about the function of the mother tongue in the life of nation, it is not difficult to understand that titur was preaching the right to language as the most proper mark of every nationality: "Who is touching (the language) is touching the most proper possession." 54 If a nation is denied the right to its own language by its expulsion out of the public life and schools, it is getting a death blow to its very existence. The Bask language has been suppressed in France and Spain and nowadays the number of Basks is diminishing in such an allarming way that if they are not allowed to use their own language in their country, this respectable nation will disappear from the map of Europe. The actual society got associations for the protection of animals ( dogs, cats and endangered species) and plants, but the United Nations Organization did not provide for the protection of the dying national communities and nations endangered in their life. Very soon the Bask language, the oldest European spoken language, will be a dead one, if the Basks do not get an international support for their legitimate struggle for independence. The Irish got a blow, when the English was introduced in Ireland instead of the Gaelic and many decades will pass over until the Gaelic will be again a spoken language in Ireland in spite of the Irish Republic and the desire of the authorities to reinstall it. Of course, of all the rights the most fundamental is the right to life. Meanwhile in the old times, the conquerors were depriving the conquered nations of their material goods, in these times the conquest is aiming at the subjugation of the spirit i.e. the conquerors are threating to take away the nationality itself; the last finality nowadays is the incorporation of the physical substance of conquered into the body of the conquering nation. Therefore titti.r requested that "nobody should interfere with our own district from national point of view." 55 From the fact of existence rises the right to personality which is the extension of the right to life. When speaking of nation, we had quoted the ideas of $tti.r relating to personality and its importance for the normal development SLOVAKIA 43 of the national community. stur was asking for "the recognition of the personality" 56 of the Slovaks with all the consequences issuing therefrom. In his meditations stur arrived to the expression of the "right to personality." When speaking of the tendency to suppress the life of a nation, he qualifies it as an injustice, because such a nation "is denied the right to be per se amid mankind i.e. to be a different personality." 57 It only is natural that every nation is striving for the recognition of its own personality among the other nations, because even if the personality may be not the highest value according to stur, it is a fundament for all its activity. stur was proclaiming also the right to territory: "As a family needs its settlement as needs the nation its territory, where to live; its frontiers as far as its sovereignty extends itself, where to develop freely and to carry out its will." 58 "The nation with its territory which is the field of its activity, is one owner of earth among other owners." 59 "Whoever is taking hold of this ownership i. e. who is limiting the frontiers of its activity is offending the entire nation and provokes it to war." 60 Only weak and vile nations are permitting their frontiers to be narrowed. This idea of the right to its own earth was a guide to the Jewish nation in diaspora since the time of their deportation to Babylon and after. The realization of this right in the form of "Eretz Ischrael" is completely understandable to anybody who thinks of the nations in philosophical terms. This same idea was proclaimed by the Irish insurgents of 1916: "We declare the right of the people of Ireland to the ownership of Ireland . . . The long usurpation of that right by a foreign people and government has not extinguished the right ... " For this same right are fighting the rebellious Basks in Spain and France in these very days: the right to Euzkotarr. For this right have been slaughtered one million of Ibos in Nigeria because they wanted to live in their own country, Biafra. 44 SLOVAK.IA In connection with. the language and its function in the life of the nation, stur uttered the right to education and culture. The main object of all the activity of stur was the Slovak common people: after the desertion of the high and low (practically too) nobility, to the Slovaks were left the middle classes and common people only. Therefore he was directing all his endeavors to these masses with the purpose to provoke their national consciousness: "Our common people is the substantial part of our nation." 61 This people were "abandoned and neglected" and therefore "we stepped down and started to have intercourse with them in their own language ... so that they may feel their dignity ... and work on their own rising." 62 We should not forget that in Hungary until 1848 was prevailing the system of serfdom and there was practically no possibility of instruction for the common people. stur was aware that only through education of the masses the Slovak nation can be preserved from disparition. The consequences of the lack of instruction were disastrous indeed: penury, lack of the spirit of enterprise, total absence of welfare, lack of the sense for community. "An educated and instructed nation is in better spiritual and material situation than a nation without instruction . . . The more one is instructed, the higher dignity, respect, higher rights and better condition is he getting." 63 Without the education, there is no community life within the nation64 and its spiritual life which the very essence of a nation is very deficient. 65 An instructed nation is a free nation and a nation composed of ignorant people is a slavish nation. The freedom of a nation is intimately linked to its education and high degree of culture: "an instructed and cultured nation cannot be held in the chains of slavery." 66 So it is understandable that stur considered the right to education and instruction as high as the same right to life. Not unlike was at that time the situation of the Irish nation. stur got into his hands at that time (AD 1847) a number of a Tipperary newspaper wherein the unknown author is requested that "the source of the Irish misfortune must be destroyed, removed and only then there will be SLOVAKIA 45 a hope that the people rise. The cause thereof is the humiliation and oppression of our Irish people which are being born in order to serve only. The oppression of our nationality since the times of the English expansion is the main cause of all the evil." 67 Being similar the conditions in Ireland and Slovakia, similar were also the reactions of the leaders of the peoples. In Ireland Thomas Davis, "the educator of nationality", was preaching: "Educate that you may be free." "Selfhelp and reliance were his cardinal principles for national regeneration." 68 stur was also insinuating the right of the nation to selfdetermination at a time, when this principle was not a common and general idea. He said: "No nation got the right . . . to not allow another nation to follow its own way, the way which is to it the most convenient." 69 And in accordance with this principle he led his nation to an open rebellion against the Magyars and proclaimed the independence of Slovakia in 1848. 3. EPILOGUE The short period of the intellectual activity of stur is full of ideas which have to say many things to this generation and to the future ones. His doctrine of the personality of the nations contains nucleus for the revision of the entire actual international law. If the nations exist as communities independently of the states and are subjects of the rights, thus the actual international law is an interstatal law only, the United Nations Organization is an Organization of the States etc. We are living in a world of confusion originated in the equivocal use of the term "nation" by the Latin and Anglosaxon nations. While, from one side, it is necessary only that an ex-colony, insignificant as may be (Barbados, Trinidad-Tobago etc.), get granted its independence and be recognized as such and immediately is getting the right to be "a nation," member o! UNO, on the other side, the authentic nations i. e. spiritual communities with well formed personality and efficient cultural life like Basks in Spain, a pleiade of authentic nations in India, Slovaks in Central Europe are denied even the designation of nations and all the rights inherent to their condition of authentic nations. There is a danger 46 SLOVAKIA that the diplomacy is moving on a terrain either of ignorantia elenchi or moral perversity. The Stu.r's visions of international brotherhood and a humanity living for the fruits of the Spirit on the basis of a material welfare are distant from the reality yet. FOOTNOTES •) By "ethnical" we understand "related to the life of nations," because the word "nation" got two different acceptions. I.:udovit Stur (1815-1856), the Slovak scholar, Philosopher and revolutionary who declared the independence of Slovakia in 1848. 1) The practical aspects of this activity see by J. Pauco, "The instruction of the People by the followers of Stur" (I.:udovychova u sturovcov, Turc. Sv. Martin, 1943). 2) To the contrary, the Magyar language has been enriched by the Slovak words related to state administration, agriculture, construction etc. 3) Analogically in the modern times, India had to adopt the English as official language due to the existence of many ethnics in that country. There are many other cases in the contemporary world. 4) I:. Stur, Dielo I, 314. In Bratislava appeared five volumes of his works in 1954. All the quotations of Stur are taken from this edition. 5) lb., l , 314. 6) lb. 7) 8) 9) 10) 11) 12) 13) 14) 15) 16) 17) 18) 19) 20) 21) 22) 23) lb., l, 168. lb., l, 170. lb., II, 15, 17. lb., V, 41. lb., V, 12. lb. lb. lb. lb., 15. lb. lb., 15, 16. lb., 16. lb., 13. lb., 13. lb. lb., 100. lb., 101. lb., 105, 106. lb., 40. lb., I, 230. 24) 25) 26) 27) J. Pauco, o. c. 28) lb., l, 127. 29) lb., I, 115. SLOVAKIA 30) 31) 32) 33) 34) 35) 36) 37) 38) 39) 40) 41) 42) 43) 44) 45) 46) 47) 48) 49) 50) 51) 52) 53) 54) 55) 56) 57) 58) 59) 60) 61) 62) 63) 64) 65) 66) 67) 68) 69) 47 Ib., l, 116. lb., l, 114. Ib., I, 125. lb., II, 177. lb., l, 123. lb., II, 182. According to this doctrine, in the History always one nation is the leader of mankind. lb., II, 188. lb., I, 216. Ib., V, 134. lb., l, 212. lb. l, 212, 213. Cfr. lb. l, 215: "Even if the language is not the highest value of a nation, still it is the most important and decisive property as far as its personality and distinction is concerned, and from the fathers holy heritage which if somebody is touching, is touching the most proper possession, even if not the highest one." lb., V, 17. lb., l, 153. lb. Ib., l, 312. lb., I, 313. lb., l, 313, 314. lb., l, 314. lb. lb., l, 317. lb., l, 318, 319. lb., l, 319. S. Polakovic, L'evolution des idees fondamentales de la politique slovaque, Bratislava 1944; S. Polakovic, The Evolution of the Slovak National Philosophy, delivered at the conference in Toronto 1971. Stur, o.c., l, 215. lb., I, 221. lb., l, 216. Manuscript in the Archives of Matica Slovenska, Martin, Slovakia, No. 356a. Stur, o.c., l, 210. lb. lb., l, 211. lb., l, 49. lb., l, 125. lb., I, 154. lb., l, 158. lb., l, 124. lb., l, 334. lb., l, 315-6. We could not identify this Tipperary newspaper. The English quotation is not verbal, because we had to translate it from the Slovak. Dr. Moody in his address to Trinity College, Dublin, on April 20, 1966. Slovo na case, II, 81.  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Ethnical Philosophy of Ľudovít Štúr Description An account of the resource Štefan Polakovič Slovakia, Vol. 23 (No. 46), 1973 pp. 29-47 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Polakovič, Štefan, 1912-1999 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1973 LCNAF https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/4f5f952bb2569787e3329d8bebfee411.pdf eef801728331229dc6d7e84945ffd5a3 PDF Text Text 48 SLOVAKIA Fortieth Anniversary Canadian Slovak League Edward J. B eh u n c i k (The following is the message of Edward J. Behuncik, President of the Slovak League of America, on the occasion of the 40th Anniversary of the Canadian Slovak League at the Marlborough Hotel, Winnipeg, Manitoba, canada, August 5, 197?.) I assure you that the Slovak League of America, with which originally so many of you were officially associated as branch officers and members, is happy with your growth and successful development. Like every good Mother, we in the United States take maternal pride in your accomplishments. And because you are such a good offspring we are even happier. We especially congratulate your wise founders whose foresight made this week's renewal activity possible. We remember in pr ayer and happy memory your departed leaders and officers. In this same spirit, we congratulate you on reaching the 30th year of the successful and productive publication of your excellent weekly, The Canadian Slovak. I think its editorials rate among the finest writings I've come across in any of the many publications I see. It's top notch in any language. You have, on your own, done great things for the Slovak cause because you've so greatly helped the Canadian Slovaks. When you help Slovaks in Canada, you help Slovaks in the United States and everywhere. So also, when we help Slovaks in the United States, then we help Slovaks in Canada and elsewhere. And working together, we help all Slovaks and indirectly all peace-loving and God-fearing people everywhere. Thus, we make our efforts to sooner bring to reality the �SLOVAKIA 49 cherished aspirations for the Brotherhood of Man under the Fatherhood of God. My appreciation has been quickened by the sense that your choice has been determined solely by your unending union-in word, in spirit and in fraternal co-operationwith the great Slovak civic and cultural federation, which I am fortunate to head at this moment of history. I was pleased to note in the minutes of your first organizational session on December 12, 1932, that you _pledged to support and co-operate with the Slovak League of America-the Minutes state: "4. Vyvinula sa dlha debata, v ktorej vedene bratom Karolom Maresom, zhromazdene delegatstvo uist'ovalo brata Jozefa Zemana, ze program a ciele 1. kongresu Slov. Ligy v Kanade su cisto slovenske, ze spolu so Slov. Ligou V Amerike chceme pracovat' za tu nasu slovencinu." I am happy to state that you've kept that commitment and am fully confident that you will continue to do so. I, therefore, beg your indulgence while I set forth for your thoughtful consideration several ideas which I hold to be of paramount importance in the drama which the members of the Slovak League of America and you, the members of the Canadian Slovak League, are enacting through our daily and regular performance of the duties .and privileges of membership in our respective leagues. The dictionary tells us that "a patriot is one whose ruling is the love of his country," and that patriotism is "love and zeal for one's country." We in the United States love our country just as much as you love Canada. But we, like you love and are proud of all that is great and noble in the history of the land of our forefathers - beautiful Slovakia. Otherwise, you would not this evening be in Winnipeg, your birthplace. By taking pride, real lawful pride, in all things Slovak, we become better citizens and patriots of the countries where we live. The flame of Slovak patriotism which had long burned and still burns with a steady flame in all times of stress �50 SLOVAKIA and danger, has enabled the nation to maintain the struggle for its rightful place of distinction as a separate member of the family of nations. It has also sustained all Slovaks in their age-old efforts to carry out their destiny in the face of the most formidable opposition throughout the centuries and thereby, has exorted the admiration and often the envy of foreign observers. This record gives fresh proof even today of the invincible and unbroken vigor and vitality of the Slovak. And meanwhile, it has promoted among the citizens of every land in which this Slovak patriotism has taken root a sense of public duty and the growth of a spirit of self-sacrifice and devotion to country, dominion or commonwealth. But, patriotism must be founded on great principles and supported by great virtues. It involves duties as well as privileges, and these duties arise not only in connection with the domestic relations of the citizens to his native or adopted country. They arise also in all that concerns the attitude of that country towards foreign nations. That is why we must make certain that all countries become cognizant of the legitimate aspirations and aims of the Slovak people. It is the clear duty of true patriotism everywhere to consider this question of the expansion and extension of the Slovak cause in which we seem to be fulfilling the manifest duty of our Slovak heritage. So, you as good Canadians and as good Slovaks have a firm assurance of loyalty and affection of the sons of Slovakia in the United States and wherever else they may be. You are also assured of their readiness to play their part with you in the common cause even to a greater extent than in the past. I have faith in our cause and in our Slovak people. That is why I am happy to have the privilege to lead the Slovak League of America in what I pray will be its most glorious era. That is why I am happy to solicit your continued co-operation in the days to come as we with you and other Slovak groups solidify and coordinate into a true pillar of Slovak unity and solidarity. �SLOVAKIA 51 We now have the structure-The Slovak World Cogress, founded in the headquarters site of the United Nations in June, 1970. I believe that with all the forces and enthusiasm of which the democratic processes alone are capable, we, firmly united, will complete and maintain that splendid edifice of our fraternal and heartfelt love, which commenced under such successful auspices at New York and Toronto. Henceforth, all Slovaks wherever situated enter upon a new epoch of noble union, in this world-wide Slovak Congress. I also believe that the firmness of purpose and strength of will which are necessary to this end shall be supplied by the patriotism which sustains the most strenuous efforts and makes possible the greatest sacrifice. You have the power and, I am confident, the will to fill this patriotic need-to contribute your patriotic share. You still have in full measure the opportunity of continued service until you have achieved, at least, your 100th Anniversary. All this time we can and will do because we are without fear. We are apprehensive, in these trying times, but we Slovaks have a solid, spiritual philosophy of life which will enable us to continue to face the future unafraid. In that spirit, we conduct ourselves in fraternal harmony and cultural and civic friendship. We have always presented throughout the years-you in Canada with us in the United States-the agreeable spectacle of a fraternal harmony and friendly co-operation absolutely united in the best interests of Slovaks and Slovakia. We have differed occasionally, as friends and kin must differ; but, we never had a single quarrel, we have had no factional fights. I think this displays a spirit for which it is worthwhile to continue to make sacrifices. And then as we grow older and the shadows begin to lengthen, we hopefully should be able to look back on �52 SLOVAKIA this period as a happy and fruitful era. We can then, in good conscience, turn over the reins to o~ successors with the feeling of satisfaction that, to the best of ou.rlimited talents, we contributed our small share to the mosaic of a greater Slovak nation, culture, tradition and haven of religious ·and intellectual achievements. And later, after much more time, when other futuregenerations look back on this period-yours and mine -they will see that what we did was but to carry on the work of our great predecessors. When they do so, we hope· they will be inspired to do a greater degree what we, on your Fortieth Anniversary, were and are trying to do for the greater honor and glory of our Heavenly Father-or as we would say in our Mother tongue Za .Boha a narod. Your gatherings are a living testimony of a determination to support the principles I have touched upon. The voice of gratitude and praise for all your contributions is limited to no area-it is. uttered by every Slovak: tongue. So, let us pray God that the day of triumph for Slovaks and Slovakia may soon come and while we pray and press on with unconquerable determination, let us make sure that we preserve the Slovak soul from the corrodinginfluences of injustice, materialism and selfishness. • • • I found the Democratic Convention to be totally undemocratic. At least two major candidates, who had considerable backing, withdrew from the race without a fight. This proves to me insincerity, dishonesty and cowardice on their part. After all, people contributed-and the candidates spent-millions. of dollars for their election. This money now has gone "down the river" simply because these men did not want to fight against certain odds. I admire the candidates who remained in the race to the end, but I lost all confidence in the men who gave up so easily, even though Labor and other powerful political and social elements were behind them. This again proves to me that politics is NOT above the board, that there are underhanded deals, and that the wishes of the people are NOT considered. This is tragic, because it is the people that have been and are footing the bill. - Fr. Louis P. Hohos � 48 SLOVAKIA Fortieth Anniversary Canadian Slovak League Edward J. B eh u n c i k (The following is the message of Edward J. Behuncik, President of the Slovak League of America, on the occasion of the 40th Anniversary of the Canadian Slovak League at the Marlborough Hotel, Winnipeg, Manitoba, canada, August 5, 197?.) I assure you that the Slovak League of America, with which originally so many of you were officially associated as branch officers and members, is happy with your growth and successful development. Like every good Mother, we in the United States take maternal pride in your accomplishments. And because you are such a good offspring we are even happier. We especially congratulate your wise founders whose foresight made this week's renewal activity possible. We remember in pr ayer and happy memory your departed leaders and officers. In this same spirit, we congratulate you on reaching the 30th year of the successful and productive publication of your excellent weekly, The Canadian Slovak. I think its editorials rate among the finest writings I've come across in any of the many publications I see. It's top notch in any language. You have, on your own, done great things for the Slovak cause because you've so greatly helped the Canadian Slovaks. When you help Slovaks in Canada, you help Slovaks in the United States and everywhere. So also, when we help Slovaks in the United States, then we help Slovaks in Canada and elsewhere. And working together, we help all Slovaks and indirectly all peace-loving and God-fearing people everywhere. Thus, we make our efforts to sooner bring to reality the �SLOVAKIA 49 cherished aspirations for the Brotherhood of Man under the Fatherhood of God. My appreciation has been quickened by the sense that your choice has been determined solely by your unending union-in word, in spirit and in fraternal co-operationwith the great Slovak civic and cultural federation, which I am fortunate to head at this moment of history. I was pleased to note in the minutes of your first organizational session on December 12, 1932, that you _pledged to support and co-operate with the Slovak League of America-the Minutes state: "4. Vyvinula sa dlha debata, v ktorej vedene bratom Karolom Maresom, zhromazdene delegatstvo uist'ovalo brata Jozefa Zemana, ze program a ciele 1. kongresu Slov. Ligy v Kanade su cisto slovenske, ze spolu so Slov. Ligou V Amerike chceme pracovat' za tu nasu slovencinu." I am happy to state that you've kept that commitment and am fully confident that you will continue to do so. I, therefore, beg your indulgence while I set forth for your thoughtful consideration several ideas which I hold to be of paramount importance in the drama which the members of the Slovak League of America and you, the members of the Canadian Slovak League, are enacting through our daily and regular performance of the duties .and privileges of membership in our respective leagues. The dictionary tells us that "a patriot is one whose ruling is the love of his country," and that patriotism is "love and zeal for one's country." We in the United States love our country just as much as you love Canada. But we, like you love and are proud of all that is great and noble in the history of the land of our forefathers - beautiful Slovakia. Otherwise, you would not this evening be in Winnipeg, your birthplace. By taking pride, real lawful pride, in all things Slovak, we become better citizens and patriots of the countries where we live. The flame of Slovak patriotism which had long burned and still burns with a steady flame in all times of stress �50 SLOVAKIA and danger, has enabled the nation to maintain the struggle for its rightful place of distinction as a separate member of the family of nations. It has also sustained all Slovaks in their age-old efforts to carry out their destiny in the face of the most formidable opposition throughout the centuries and thereby, has exorted the admiration and often the envy of foreign observers. This record gives fresh proof even today of the invincible and unbroken vigor and vitality of the Slovak. And meanwhile, it has promoted among the citizens of every land in which this Slovak patriotism has taken root a sense of public duty and the growth of a spirit of self-sacrifice and devotion to country, dominion or commonwealth. But, patriotism must be founded on great principles and supported by great virtues. It involves duties as well as privileges, and these duties arise not only in connection with the domestic relations of the citizens to his native or adopted country. They arise also in all that concerns the attitude of that country towards foreign nations. That is why we must make certain that all countries become cognizant of the legitimate aspirations and aims of the Slovak people. It is the clear duty of true patriotism everywhere to consider this question of the expansion and extension of the Slovak cause in which we seem to be fulfilling the manifest duty of our Slovak heritage. So, you as good Canadians and as good Slovaks have a firm assurance of loyalty and affection of the sons of Slovakia in the United States and wherever else they may be. You are also assured of their readiness to play their part with you in the common cause even to a greater extent than in the past. I have faith in our cause and in our Slovak people. That is why I am happy to have the privilege to lead the Slovak League of America in what I pray will be its most glorious era. That is why I am happy to solicit your continued co-operation in the days to come as we with you and other Slovak groups solidify and coordinate into a true pillar of Slovak unity and solidarity. �SLOVAKIA 51 We now have the structure-The Slovak World Cogress, founded in the headquarters site of the United Nations in June, 1970. I believe that with all the forces and enthusiasm of which the democratic processes alone are capable, we, firmly united, will complete and maintain that splendid edifice of our fraternal and heartfelt love, which commenced under such successful auspices at New York and Toronto. Henceforth, all Slovaks wherever situated enter upon a new epoch of noble union, in this world-wide Slovak Congress. I also believe that the firmness of purpose and strength of will which are necessary to this end shall be supplied by the patriotism which sustains the most strenuous efforts and makes possible the greatest sacrifice. You have the power and, I am confident, the will to fill this patriotic need-to contribute your patriotic share. You still have in full measure the opportunity of continued service until you have achieved, at least, your 100th Anniversary. All this time we can and will do because we are without fear. We are apprehensive, in these trying times, but we Slovaks have a solid, spiritual philosophy of life which will enable us to continue to face the future unafraid. In that spirit, we conduct ourselves in fraternal harmony and cultural and civic friendship. We have always presented throughout the years-you in Canada with us in the United States-the agreeable spectacle of a fraternal harmony and friendly co-operation absolutely united in the best interests of Slovaks and Slovakia. We have differed occasionally, as friends and kin must differ; but, we never had a single quarrel, we have had no factional fights. I think this displays a spirit for which it is worthwhile to continue to make sacrifices. And then as we grow older and the shadows begin to lengthen, we hopefully should be able to look back on �52 SLOVAKIA this period as a happy and fruitful era. We can then, in good conscience, turn over the reins to o~ successors with the feeling of satisfaction that, to the best of ou.rlimited talents, we contributed our small share to the mosaic of a greater Slovak nation, culture, tradition and haven of religious ·and intellectual achievements. And later, after much more time, when other futuregenerations look back on this period-yours and mine -they will see that what we did was but to carry on the work of our great predecessors. When they do so, we hope· they will be inspired to do a greater degree what we, on your Fortieth Anniversary, were and are trying to do for the greater honor and glory of our Heavenly Father-or as we would say in our Mother tongue Za .Boha a narod. Your gatherings are a living testimony of a determination to support the principles I have touched upon. The voice of gratitude and praise for all your contributions is limited to no area-it is. uttered by every Slovak: tongue. So, let us pray God that the day of triumph for Slovaks and Slovakia may soon come and while we pray and press on with unconquerable determination, let us make sure that we preserve the Slovak soul from the corrodinginfluences of injustice, materialism and selfishness. • • • I found the Democratic Convention to be totally undemocratic. At least two major candidates, who had considerable backing, withdrew from the race without a fight. This proves to me insincerity, dishonesty and cowardice on their part. After all, people contributed-and the candidates spent-millions. of dollars for their election. This money now has gone "down the river" simply because these men did not want to fight against certain odds. I admire the candidates who remained in the race to the end, but I lost all confidence in the men who gave up so easily, even though Labor and other powerful political and social elements were behind them. This again proves to me that politics is NOT above the board, that there are underhanded deals, and that the wishes of the people are NOT considered. This is tragic, because it is the people that have been and are footing the bill. - Fr. Louis P. Hohos � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1973, Vol. 23 Description An account of the resource Vol. 23 (No. 46), 1973. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1973 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document 48 SLOVAKIA Fortieth Anniversary Canadian Slovak League Edward J. B eh u n c i k (The following is the message of Edward J. Behuncik, President of the Slovak League of America, on the occasion of the 40th Anniversary of the Canadian Slovak League at the Marlborough Hotel, Winnipeg, Manitoba, canada, August 5, 197?.) I assure you that the Slovak League of America, with which originally so many of you were officially associated as branch officers and members, is happy with your growth and successful development. Like every good Mother, we in the United States take maternal pride in your accomplishments. And because you are such a good offspring we are even happier. We especially congratulate your wise founders whose foresight made this week's renewal activity possible. We remember in pr ayer and happy memory your departed leaders and officers. In this same spirit, we congratulate you on reaching the 30th year of the successful and productive publication of your excellent weekly, The Canadian Slovak. I think its editorials rate among the finest writings I've come across in any of the many publications I see. It's top notch in any language. You have, on your own, done great things for the Slovak cause because you've so greatly helped the Canadian Slovaks. When you help Slovaks in Canada, you help Slovaks in the United States and everywhere. So also, when we help Slovaks in the United States, then we help Slovaks in Canada and elsewhere. And working together, we help all Slovaks and indirectly all peace-loving and God-fearing people everywhere. Thus, we make our efforts to sooner bring to reality the SLOVAKIA 49 cherished aspirations for the Brotherhood of Man under the Fatherhood of God. My appreciation has been quickened by the sense that your choice has been determined solely by your unending union-in word, in spirit and in fraternal co-operationwith the great Slovak civic and cultural federation, which I am fortunate to head at this moment of history. I was pleased to note in the minutes of your first organizational session on December 12, 1932, that you _pledged to support and co-operate with the Slovak League of America-the Minutes state: "4. Vyvinula sa dlha debata, v ktorej vedene bratom Karolom Maresom, zhromazdene delegatstvo uist'ovalo brata Jozefa Zemana, ze program a ciele 1. kongresu Slov. Ligy v Kanade su cisto slovenske, ze spolu so Slov. Ligou V Amerike chceme pracovat' za tu nasu slovencinu." I am happy to state that you've kept that commitment and am fully confident that you will continue to do so. I, therefore, beg your indulgence while I set forth for your thoughtful consideration several ideas which I hold to be of paramount importance in the drama which the members of the Slovak League of America and you, the members of the Canadian Slovak League, are enacting through our daily and regular performance of the duties .and privileges of membership in our respective leagues. The dictionary tells us that "a patriot is one whose ruling is the love of his country," and that patriotism is "love and zeal for one's country." We in the United States love our country just as much as you love Canada. But we, like you love and are proud of all that is great and noble in the history of the land of our forefathers - beautiful Slovakia. Otherwise, you would not this evening be in Winnipeg, your birthplace. By taking pride, real lawful pride, in all things Slovak, we become better citizens and patriots of the countries where we live. The flame of Slovak patriotism which had long burned and still burns with a steady flame in all times of stress 50 SLOVAKIA and danger, has enabled the nation to maintain the struggle for its rightful place of distinction as a separate member of the family of nations. It has also sustained all Slovaks in their age-old efforts to carry out their destiny in the face of the most formidable opposition throughout the centuries and thereby, has exorted the admiration and often the envy of foreign observers. This record gives fresh proof even today of the invincible and unbroken vigor and vitality of the Slovak. And meanwhile, it has promoted among the citizens of every land in which this Slovak patriotism has taken root a sense of public duty and the growth of a spirit of self-sacrifice and devotion to country, dominion or commonwealth. But, patriotism must be founded on great principles and supported by great virtues. It involves duties as well as privileges, and these duties arise not only in connection with the domestic relations of the citizens to his native or adopted country. They arise also in all that concerns the attitude of that country towards foreign nations. That is why we must make certain that all countries become cognizant of the legitimate aspirations and aims of the Slovak people. It is the clear duty of true patriotism everywhere to consider this question of the expansion and extension of the Slovak cause in which we seem to be fulfilling the manifest duty of our Slovak heritage. So, you as good Canadians and as good Slovaks have a firm assurance of loyalty and affection of the sons of Slovakia in the United States and wherever else they may be. You are also assured of their readiness to play their part with you in the common cause even to a greater extent than in the past. I have faith in our cause and in our Slovak people. That is why I am happy to have the privilege to lead the Slovak League of America in what I pray will be its most glorious era. That is why I am happy to solicit your continued co-operation in the days to come as we with you and other Slovak groups solidify and coordinate into a true pillar of Slovak unity and solidarity. SLOVAKIA 51 We now have the structure-The Slovak World Cogress, founded in the headquarters site of the United Nations in June, 1970. I believe that with all the forces and enthusiasm of which the democratic processes alone are capable, we, firmly united, will complete and maintain that splendid edifice of our fraternal and heartfelt love, which commenced under such successful auspices at New York and Toronto. Henceforth, all Slovaks wherever situated enter upon a new epoch of noble union, in this world-wide Slovak Congress. I also believe that the firmness of purpose and strength of will which are necessary to this end shall be supplied by the patriotism which sustains the most strenuous efforts and makes possible the greatest sacrifice. You have the power and, I am confident, the will to fill this patriotic need-to contribute your patriotic share. You still have in full measure the opportunity of continued service until you have achieved, at least, your 100th Anniversary. All this time we can and will do because we are without fear. We are apprehensive, in these trying times, but we Slovaks have a solid, spiritual philosophy of life which will enable us to continue to face the future unafraid. In that spirit, we conduct ourselves in fraternal harmony and cultural and civic friendship. We have always presented throughout the years-you in Canada with us in the United States-the agreeable spectacle of a fraternal harmony and friendly co-operation absolutely united in the best interests of Slovaks and Slovakia. We have differed occasionally, as friends and kin must differ; but, we never had a single quarrel, we have had no factional fights. I think this displays a spirit for which it is worthwhile to continue to make sacrifices. And then as we grow older and the shadows begin to lengthen, we hopefully should be able to look back on 52 SLOVAKIA this period as a happy and fruitful era. We can then, in good conscience, turn over the reins to o~ successors with the feeling of satisfaction that, to the best of ou.rlimited talents, we contributed our small share to the mosaic of a greater Slovak nation, culture, tradition and haven of religious ·and intellectual achievements. And later, after much more time, when other futuregenerations look back on this period-yours and mine -they will see that what we did was but to carry on the work of our great predecessors. When they do so, we hope· they will be inspired to do a greater degree what we, on your Fortieth Anniversary, were and are trying to do for the greater honor and glory of our Heavenly Father-or as we would say in our Mother tongue Za .Boha a narod. Your gatherings are a living testimony of a determination to support the principles I have touched upon. The voice of gratitude and praise for all your contributions is limited to no area-it is. uttered by every Slovak: tongue. So, let us pray God that the day of triumph for Slovaks and Slovakia may soon come and while we pray and press on with unconquerable determination, let us make sure that we preserve the Slovak soul from the corrodinginfluences of injustice, materialism and selfishness. • • • I found the Democratic Convention to be totally undemocratic. At least two major candidates, who had considerable backing, withdrew from the race without a fight. This proves to me insincerity, dishonesty and cowardice on their part. After all, people contributed-and the candidates spent-millions. of dollars for their election. This money now has gone "down the river" simply because these men did not want to fight against certain odds. I admire the candidates who remained in the race to the end, but I lost all confidence in the men who gave up so easily, even though Labor and other powerful political and social elements were behind them. This again proves to me that politics is NOT above the board, that there are underhanded deals, and that the wishes of the people are NOT considered. This is tragic, because it is the people that have been and are footing the bill. - Fr. Louis P. Hohos  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Fortieth Anniversary Canadian Slovak League Description An account of the resource Edward J. Behuncik Slovakia, Vol. 23 (No. 46), 1973 pp. 48-52 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Behuncik, Edward J. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1973 name https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/bb502cc7f9fb360bcc24bbdbecb22db0.pdf 15dfe0aa7f47309abbd71a39d67376e8 PDF Text Text SLOVAKIA 53 Youth In Search Of Slovak Identity And Pride Along with other youths, Americans of Slovak descent are seeking their ethnic identity, their pride, and their self-respect. Identity and pride in particular, are words that are menti<;>ned frequently by the college youth, still in search of its place in the world. Certainly, identity with a group that already possesses pride and self-respect enhances these same qualities in the individual who seeks them. But, in turn, self-respect and pride are normally achieved by an individual's own accomplishments, and his own personality, which he brings to the group he belongs to. A youth's identity with an ancestral group, particularly in America today, may be a bit difficult. to obtain. This is due in part to the fact that in our mobil society, children of ethnic oriented parents have tended to lose their ethnic identity and to forget their valuable heritage in order to forge their way that much quicker in American life. By fusing into the melting pot a.s rapidly as possible, the meltable ethnics, and many Slovaks among them, have been lost into the mainstream of American life. This melting away and fusion of the Slovaks with other ethnic groups occurred within the time span of only one generation. Slovaks are a particularly adaptable people. They have been very quick to assimilate to the melting pot and have scored phenomenal success in American life. They have become successful in sports, in the military services, in the professions, in politics, and in every phase of business. This success of the American Slovaks, and of their children, has fomented their personal pride and their self-respect. So successful has the assimilation of the American Slovaks been that many have all but forgotten their ancestral ethnic heritage. Yet, having acquired their pride through personal achievements in a world that was just a few short years ago a big and alien one to them, the families of American youths of Slovak ancestry are �54 SLOVAKIA now seeking their identity with their ancestral Slovak heritage. Though at some time in the past, identity with their ethnic group had been considered by some American youth to be a personal liability, today that identity with ethnic groups seems to be a necessity. The college youth feel this need more than any other in order to "discover their identity." This is only natural, for when the ethnic groups reach a point where they are proud of their own accomplishments, then they begin to lose the sense of inferiority which had plagued them before. With a sense of new pride in their own accomplishments they can look back and consider how long a road they have traveled, since the time that their families left the Old World. This, looking back with pride, is, in a sense, the reason for the tourism to Slovakia of so many children and grandchildren of American Slovak immigrants. They are interested in looking up the Old World homestead, because it proves to them concretely how far they have come. They thus begin to discover their roots, their sense of beginning. It is pride that urges them to seek these roots. With confidence in themselves they can look with joy at the humble beginning that gave shelter to their ancestor's lives. The bank president from Ohio, the chancellor of a university in Pennsylvania, the air force colonel from Virginia, the professor of political science from New York, the dentist from California, the physician from Florida, the restaurant owner from New Jersey, and the countless successful workers in every state who have been able to raise fine families and maintain tidy homes with manicured lawns and neat gardens-all these, with pride seek their ethnic Slovak heritage. Pride in one's own accomplishments and a search of one's identity has instigated much of the American tourism to SlovenskoSlovakia. When one is no longer running from his past, from his ethnic group, he can indeed face his origins and contemplate them with pride. Besides traveling to Slovakia, how else can the American youth of Slovak heritage find his identity and seek out his roots that give him a sense of belonging and security? Many Americans, including those of ethnic ancestry, have turned to antique collecting. In this way they try to identify with a past they have almost lost. But there �SLOVAKIA 55 are other ways of finding one's sense of belonging and identity. First of all, for the Slovak ethnic group there are the great American public libraries like those of Cleveland, Pittsburgh, New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, Los Angeles, to name just a few. These have extensive holdings in Slovak literature, magazines, newspapers, histories, etc. A visit to the public library will reveal to the youth of Slovak heritage a wealth of information to satisfy much of his curiosity about his ethnic ancestry, and it will give him added pride to see what the Slovak people have been able to produce culturally, despite enormous handicaps both in Europe and in the United States. Besides the public libraries, there are the great American university libraries. Most of these also have fine collections of books and histories of and by Slovaks. All state and private colleges and universities, such as Ohio State, Western Reserve, New York, Texas, Kentucky, Harvard, Yale, Pittsburgh, Columbia (the list can be extended to over 2,000 colleges and universities all over the United States), all have some information on the Slovaks. A visit to university libraries will prove very rewarding for the identity seeker of Slovak heritage. Periodical reading rooms in Cleveland, New York, Pittsburgh, etc., provide newspapers both from the heritage country as well as from the organizations of Slovaks here in the United States. Thus, all that one has to do to discover his heritage is to locate the nearest college or university in his region and ask any librarian to help him find material on Slovaks. How else can pride be fostered in the Slovak ethnic heritage? This can be done by American journalists working on Slovak publications, such as the Floridian Slovak, the Ndrodne Noviny, the Jednota, Slovak v Amerike, etc., as well as by various Slovak organizations and the Slovak Institute in Cleveland. The Slovak lodge papers, church papers, almanacs, and magazines can attempt to reflect better the present day life among the Slovaks in America, in their cultural organizations, meetings, playgrounds, picnics, cultural and church affairs. Much of the American youth of Slovak heritage is interested in the Slovakia of today, with its soccer teams, its bustling stores, and market �56 SLOVAKIA places, with its crowded schools, universities, theaters, museums, its teeming railroad stations, its rivers, parks, and national monuments. The Slovak youth is interested not only in the High Tatras, but in life in the cities themselves, where the people are, where they act and react with each other. The Slovak youth is interested in life not only on the Danube and the Tatra.s, but as it is lived in the cities like Bratislava, Kosice, Banska Bystrica, Zvolen, Lucenec, Presov, Rimavska Sobota, etc. There are many things Americans with a Slovak heritage can be proud of, both in the United States and in Slovakia. The American journalists and cultural leaders can help the American youth of Slovak descent find its roots, its identity, pride and sense of belonging, which it so anxiously is trying to achieve. John Lihani, Ph.D. * * • 100th BIRTHDAY Sunday, July 16, 1972, Andrew Bucko, from Pittsburgh, Pa., commemorated his 100th birthday. Mr. Bucko was born in Slovakia, Spis County, on July 16, 1872. He came to this country as a young man in about 1890. Even though a teenager with no higher education, he saw the need of doing something for the bereaved, widowed and impoverished immigrants. Along with a few other thoughtful immigrants he founded St. Anthony's Beneficial Society whose program was to take care of families that had prematurely lost the breadwinner of the house. (In those days there was no Social Security, aid to widows, to orphans, etc.) This local society later on joined the First Catholic Slovak Union and became Branch 50 of the Jednota. This branch is still functioning. In 1903 Mr. Bucko became a co-founder of St. Matthew's Slovak Parish and was among the first to contribute and to lend money to the parish to buy the property on which St. Matthew's Church and Rectory stand to the present day. He is the only survivor of the "original" group of founders. � SLOVAKIA 53 Youth In Search Of Slovak Identity And Pride Along with other youths, Americans of Slovak descent are seeking their ethnic identity, their pride, and their self-respect. Identity and pride in particular, are words that are menti<;>ned frequently by the college youth, still in search of its place in the world. Certainly, identity with a group that already possesses pride and self-respect enhances these same qualities in the individual who seeks them. But, in turn, self-respect and pride are normally achieved by an individual's own accomplishments, and his own personality, which he brings to the group he belongs to. A youth's identity with an ancestral group, particularly in America today, may be a bit difficult. to obtain. This is due in part to the fact that in our mobil society, children of ethnic oriented parents have tended to lose their ethnic identity and to forget their valuable heritage in order to forge their way that much quicker in American life. By fusing into the melting pot a.s rapidly as possible, the meltable ethnics, and many Slovaks among them, have been lost into the mainstream of American life. This melting away and fusion of the Slovaks with other ethnic groups occurred within the time span of only one generation. Slovaks are a particularly adaptable people. They have been very quick to assimilate to the melting pot and have scored phenomenal success in American life. They have become successful in sports, in the military services, in the professions, in politics, and in every phase of business. This success of the American Slovaks, and of their children, has fomented their personal pride and their self-respect. So successful has the assimilation of the American Slovaks been that many have all but forgotten their ancestral ethnic heritage. Yet, having acquired their pride through personal achievements in a world that was just a few short years ago a big and alien one to them, the families of American youths of Slovak ancestry are �54 SLOVAKIA now seeking their identity with their ancestral Slovak heritage. Though at some time in the past, identity with their ethnic group had been considered by some American youth to be a personal liability, today that identity with ethnic groups seems to be a necessity. The college youth feel this need more than any other in order to "discover their identity." This is only natural, for when the ethnic groups reach a point where they are proud of their own accomplishments, then they begin to lose the sense of inferiority which had plagued them before. With a sense of new pride in their own accomplishments they can look back and consider how long a road they have traveled, since the time that their families left the Old World. This, looking back with pride, is, in a sense, the reason for the tourism to Slovakia of so many children and grandchildren of American Slovak immigrants. They are interested in looking up the Old World homestead, because it proves to them concretely how far they have come. They thus begin to discover their roots, their sense of beginning. It is pride that urges them to seek these roots. With confidence in themselves they can look with joy at the humble beginning that gave shelter to their ancestor's lives. The bank president from Ohio, the chancellor of a university in Pennsylvania, the air force colonel from Virginia, the professor of political science from New York, the dentist from California, the physician from Florida, the restaurant owner from New Jersey, and the countless successful workers in every state who have been able to raise fine families and maintain tidy homes with manicured lawns and neat gardens-all these, with pride seek their ethnic Slovak heritage. Pride in one's own accomplishments and a search of one's identity has instigated much of the American tourism to SlovenskoSlovakia. When one is no longer running from his past, from his ethnic group, he can indeed face his origins and contemplate them with pride. Besides traveling to Slovakia, how else can the American youth of Slovak heritage find his identity and seek out his roots that give him a sense of belonging and security? Many Americans, including those of ethnic ancestry, have turned to antique collecting. In this way they try to identify with a past they have almost lost. But there �SLOVAKIA 55 are other ways of finding one's sense of belonging and identity. First of all, for the Slovak ethnic group there are the great American public libraries like those of Cleveland, Pittsburgh, New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, Los Angeles, to name just a few. These have extensive holdings in Slovak literature, magazines, newspapers, histories, etc. A visit to the public library will reveal to the youth of Slovak heritage a wealth of information to satisfy much of his curiosity about his ethnic ancestry, and it will give him added pride to see what the Slovak people have been able to produce culturally, despite enormous handicaps both in Europe and in the United States. Besides the public libraries, there are the great American university libraries. Most of these also have fine collections of books and histories of and by Slovaks. All state and private colleges and universities, such as Ohio State, Western Reserve, New York, Texas, Kentucky, Harvard, Yale, Pittsburgh, Columbia (the list can be extended to over 2,000 colleges and universities all over the United States), all have some information on the Slovaks. A visit to university libraries will prove very rewarding for the identity seeker of Slovak heritage. Periodical reading rooms in Cleveland, New York, Pittsburgh, etc., provide newspapers both from the heritage country as well as from the organizations of Slovaks here in the United States. Thus, all that one has to do to discover his heritage is to locate the nearest college or university in his region and ask any librarian to help him find material on Slovaks. How else can pride be fostered in the Slovak ethnic heritage? This can be done by American journalists working on Slovak publications, such as the Floridian Slovak, the Ndrodne Noviny, the Jednota, Slovak v Amerike, etc., as well as by various Slovak organizations and the Slovak Institute in Cleveland. The Slovak lodge papers, church papers, almanacs, and magazines can attempt to reflect better the present day life among the Slovaks in America, in their cultural organizations, meetings, playgrounds, picnics, cultural and church affairs. Much of the American youth of Slovak heritage is interested in the Slovakia of today, with its soccer teams, its bustling stores, and market �56 SLOVAKIA places, with its crowded schools, universities, theaters, museums, its teeming railroad stations, its rivers, parks, and national monuments. The Slovak youth is interested not only in the High Tatras, but in life in the cities themselves, where the people are, where they act and react with each other. The Slovak youth is interested in life not only on the Danube and the Tatra.s, but as it is lived in the cities like Bratislava, Kosice, Banska Bystrica, Zvolen, Lucenec, Presov, Rimavska Sobota, etc. There are many things Americans with a Slovak heritage can be proud of, both in the United States and in Slovakia. The American journalists and cultural leaders can help the American youth of Slovak descent find its roots, its identity, pride and sense of belonging, which it so anxiously is trying to achieve. John Lihani, Ph.D. * * • 100th BIRTHDAY Sunday, July 16, 1972, Andrew Bucko, from Pittsburgh, Pa., commemorated his 100th birthday. Mr. Bucko was born in Slovakia, Spis County, on July 16, 1872. He came to this country as a young man in about 1890. Even though a teenager with no higher education, he saw the need of doing something for the bereaved, widowed and impoverished immigrants. Along with a few other thoughtful immigrants he founded St. Anthony's Beneficial Society whose program was to take care of families that had prematurely lost the breadwinner of the house. (In those days there was no Social Security, aid to widows, to orphans, etc.) This local society later on joined the First Catholic Slovak Union and became Branch 50 of the Jednota. This branch is still functioning. In 1903 Mr. Bucko became a co-founder of St. Matthew's Slovak Parish and was among the first to contribute and to lend money to the parish to buy the property on which St. Matthew's Church and Rectory stand to the present day. He is the only survivor of the "original" group of founders. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1973, Vol. 23 Description An account of the resource Vol. 23 (No. 46), 1973. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1973 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document SLOVAKIA 53 Youth In Search Of Slovak Identity And Pride Along with other youths, Americans of Slovak descent are seeking their ethnic identity, their pride, and their self-respect. Identity and pride in particular, are words that are menti<;>ned frequently by the college youth, still in search of its place in the world. Certainly, identity with a group that already possesses pride and self-respect enhances these same qualities in the individual who seeks them. But, in turn, self-respect and pride are normally achieved by an individual's own accomplishments, and his own personality, which he brings to the group he belongs to. A youth's identity with an ancestral group, particularly in America today, may be a bit difficult. to obtain. This is due in part to the fact that in our mobil society, children of ethnic oriented parents have tended to lose their ethnic identity and to forget their valuable heritage in order to forge their way that much quicker in American life. By fusing into the melting pot a.s rapidly as possible, the meltable ethnics, and many Slovaks among them, have been lost into the mainstream of American life. This melting away and fusion of the Slovaks with other ethnic groups occurred within the time span of only one generation. Slovaks are a particularly adaptable people. They have been very quick to assimilate to the melting pot and have scored phenomenal success in American life. They have become successful in sports, in the military services, in the professions, in politics, and in every phase of business. This success of the American Slovaks, and of their children, has fomented their personal pride and their self-respect. So successful has the assimilation of the American Slovaks been that many have all but forgotten their ancestral ethnic heritage. Yet, having acquired their pride through personal achievements in a world that was just a few short years ago a big and alien one to them, the families of American youths of Slovak ancestry are 54 SLOVAKIA now seeking their identity with their ancestral Slovak heritage. Though at some time in the past, identity with their ethnic group had been considered by some American youth to be a personal liability, today that identity with ethnic groups seems to be a necessity. The college youth feel this need more than any other in order to "discover their identity." This is only natural, for when the ethnic groups reach a point where they are proud of their own accomplishments, then they begin to lose the sense of inferiority which had plagued them before. With a sense of new pride in their own accomplishments they can look back and consider how long a road they have traveled, since the time that their families left the Old World. This, looking back with pride, is, in a sense, the reason for the tourism to Slovakia of so many children and grandchildren of American Slovak immigrants. They are interested in looking up the Old World homestead, because it proves to them concretely how far they have come. They thus begin to discover their roots, their sense of beginning. It is pride that urges them to seek these roots. With confidence in themselves they can look with joy at the humble beginning that gave shelter to their ancestor's lives. The bank president from Ohio, the chancellor of a university in Pennsylvania, the air force colonel from Virginia, the professor of political science from New York, the dentist from California, the physician from Florida, the restaurant owner from New Jersey, and the countless successful workers in every state who have been able to raise fine families and maintain tidy homes with manicured lawns and neat gardens-all these, with pride seek their ethnic Slovak heritage. Pride in one's own accomplishments and a search of one's identity has instigated much of the American tourism to SlovenskoSlovakia. When one is no longer running from his past, from his ethnic group, he can indeed face his origins and contemplate them with pride. Besides traveling to Slovakia, how else can the American youth of Slovak heritage find his identity and seek out his roots that give him a sense of belonging and security? Many Americans, including those of ethnic ancestry, have turned to antique collecting. In this way they try to identify with a past they have almost lost. But there SLOVAKIA 55 are other ways of finding one's sense of belonging and identity. First of all, for the Slovak ethnic group there are the great American public libraries like those of Cleveland, Pittsburgh, New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, Los Angeles, to name just a few. These have extensive holdings in Slovak literature, magazines, newspapers, histories, etc. A visit to the public library will reveal to the youth of Slovak heritage a wealth of information to satisfy much of his curiosity about his ethnic ancestry, and it will give him added pride to see what the Slovak people have been able to produce culturally, despite enormous handicaps both in Europe and in the United States. Besides the public libraries, there are the great American university libraries. Most of these also have fine collections of books and histories of and by Slovaks. All state and private colleges and universities, such as Ohio State, Western Reserve, New York, Texas, Kentucky, Harvard, Yale, Pittsburgh, Columbia (the list can be extended to over 2,000 colleges and universities all over the United States), all have some information on the Slovaks. A visit to university libraries will prove very rewarding for the identity seeker of Slovak heritage. Periodical reading rooms in Cleveland, New York, Pittsburgh, etc., provide newspapers both from the heritage country as well as from the organizations of Slovaks here in the United States. Thus, all that one has to do to discover his heritage is to locate the nearest college or university in his region and ask any librarian to help him find material on Slovaks. How else can pride be fostered in the Slovak ethnic heritage? This can be done by American journalists working on Slovak publications, such as the Floridian Slovak, the Ndrodne Noviny, the Jednota, Slovak v Amerike, etc., as well as by various Slovak organizations and the Slovak Institute in Cleveland. The Slovak lodge papers, church papers, almanacs, and magazines can attempt to reflect better the present day life among the Slovaks in America, in their cultural organizations, meetings, playgrounds, picnics, cultural and church affairs. Much of the American youth of Slovak heritage is interested in the Slovakia of today, with its soccer teams, its bustling stores, and market 56 SLOVAKIA places, with its crowded schools, universities, theaters, museums, its teeming railroad stations, its rivers, parks, and national monuments. The Slovak youth is interested not only in the High Tatras, but in life in the cities themselves, where the people are, where they act and react with each other. The Slovak youth is interested in life not only on the Danube and the Tatra.s, but as it is lived in the cities like Bratislava, Kosice, Banska Bystrica, Zvolen, Lucenec, Presov, Rimavska Sobota, etc. There are many things Americans with a Slovak heritage can be proud of, both in the United States and in Slovakia. The American journalists and cultural leaders can help the American youth of Slovak descent find its roots, its identity, pride and sense of belonging, which it so anxiously is trying to achieve. John Lihani, Ph.D. * * • 100th BIRTHDAY Sunday, July 16, 1972, Andrew Bucko, from Pittsburgh, Pa., commemorated his 100th birthday. Mr. Bucko was born in Slovakia, Spis County, on July 16, 1872. He came to this country as a young man in about 1890. Even though a teenager with no higher education, he saw the need of doing something for the bereaved, widowed and impoverished immigrants. Along with a few other thoughtful immigrants he founded St. Anthony's Beneficial Society whose program was to take care of families that had prematurely lost the breadwinner of the house. (In those days there was no Social Security, aid to widows, to orphans, etc.) This local society later on joined the First Catholic Slovak Union and became Branch 50 of the Jednota. This branch is still functioning. In 1903 Mr. Bucko became a co-founder of St. Matthew's Slovak Parish and was among the first to contribute and to lend money to the parish to buy the property on which St. Matthew's Church and Rectory stand to the present day. He is the only survivor of the "original" group of founders.  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Youth in Search of Slovak Identity and Pride Description An account of the resource John Lihani, Ph.D. Slovakia, Vol. 23 (No. 46), 1973 pp. 53-56 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Lihani, John Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1973 LCNAF https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/8cca52a70435dc9cd05b6fa2457ec9b1.pdf bf5b53d80710ba34ebda4c8ecae805d9 PDF Text Text SLOVAKIA 57 A New Phase In The Socialist Economic Reform V. J. Hurley I Ever since the famous Liberman debate in 1962 on the reform of the Socialist planned economic system, several Socialist writers have voiced their opinions on the subject. Ideas proposed by Liberman for the Soviet Union were followed by similar ideas for the planned economic system in other European Communist countries. It was primarily 0. Sik1 and others in Czecho-Slovakia, W. Brus2 and others in Poland, as well as others in each Communist country who were economic proponents of the new way of looking at economic planning proposed by Liberman.3 After a heated debate in the Soviet press, especially Pravda, for a general discussion and Voprosy ekonomiki for a more rigorous discussion, there were certain fluctuations in proposing the Liberman ideas in practice or rejecting them. A period of total stagnation set in when N. Khruschev was replaced by Brezhnev and Kosygin. However, soon afterwards a further development of Liberman's ideas was evident in the Soviet press and elsewhere in the Communist countries. The purpose of this paper is to present and briefly analyze the state of the debate of the economic reform in Czecho-Slovakia. It will be noted that after a brief period of "liberalization" in 1968, there followed a complete stop in the discussion of the subject. Latter have there appeared occassional suggestions that the topic is still alive and of paramount importance to the Socialist economic planners. Andrej Lantay, the present director of the Economic Institute of the Slovak Academy of Sciences in Bratislava, has published what may be considered the important �58 SLOVAKIA restatement of the issues involved in the economic reform in the Socialist countries, especially Czecho-Slovakia.4 In his statement, Lantay proposes a new approach to the economic reform in Czecho-Slovakia. Before analyzing the major issues involved, he specifies certain basic criteria which must be observed when discussing the problem of Socialist economic planning. First, he maintains that it is the planned economic system and not price mechanism that is characteristic of any Socialist economy. Second, it is impossible to confuse $ik's model of Socialist economy with the actual purpose of the economic reform. Third, any debate on the economic reform must proceed from the premise that the Communist Party is the leading and actual moving force behind any economic measures proposed. Thus, the supremacy of the Communist Party has been reasserted. II At present, the new phase in the development of Socialist economic reform entails a slow reevaluation of the various instruments of their economic system. After the setback of the reform in 1968, it is clear to the Socialist as well as western analysts that the reform must follow on wholly Socialist lines with a more or less centralized model as suggested by various writers in the past. The Lantay model differs from other models only by its distribution of areas of competent decision making between the central planning authority and the firm. The pre-Liberman models tended to stress the dominance of the central authorities in planning decisions. The post-Liberman models showed the necessity to decentralize the rigid economic system and give the firm enough responsibility to decide on what level the relevant actions were to be taken to achieve higher profitability or productivity of the firm. Most post-Liberman models considered giving a firm a dominant role in decision making. The Socialist and western literature is abundant on that score. The Lantay model, on the other hand, is a slight departure from the two previous approaches to the problem of economic planning in the Socialist countries, especially in Czecho-Slovakia. Lantay proposes that decision making �SLOVAKIA 59 in terms of planning should occur on the first level with an explicit collaboration with the central planning authority. Thus, there should exist a kind of sharing the authority of planning decisions between the individual firms and the center and possibly between some intermediate planning organizations. This model may be an improvement over the pre-Liberman centralized models, but it is doubtful that it will efficiently replace such decentralized models as the one of sik. In general, the Lantay model may be considered as an intermediate model between the two extremes. The Lantay model will have to face the same major problems of rigidity in economic planning in various areas. First, in terms of organization, the firm will have to have enough competence to decide as to the microeconomic variables utilized in its production. If this competence is going to be acknowledged the firm may be free to choose some measuring stick of some kind of optimization. It does not have to be profitability maximization. However, in this respect the Lantay model will have to decide the old problem of what criteria it is going to use to measure :profitability. So far the Lantay model does not suggest any solution to this problem. If the firm will obtain such competence as to decide on its own how to maximize some objective function, some positive results may follow from the Lantay model. Such decentralization of microeconomic decisions of the firm will leave the overall microeconomic decisions to the central planning authority. Then the central planning authority could be given an opportunity to follow the development of individual microeconomic plans as to the level of achievement. Only in this way, i.e. through the division of labor between the center and the firm, may it eliminate the unnecessary overlapping and contradictory decision processes. The details of this have not been specified by Lantay. Second, on measuring the level of performance, the Lantay model will have to solve a problem of measuring the capital productivity and also the above mentioned profitability. In both cases the Socialist literature is negligent in coming to an adequate solution. Although the profitability indicator, one of several, has been recently �60 SLOVAKIA stressed, the actual performance of the firm showed that it was used only as one of many. As long as profitability is not used as the most important indicator, there are likely to be difficulties in the measurement of the efficiency of the firms. Such indicators as quality, assortment, etc., are a necessary part of statistical assessment of the firm's performance, but they should not be given dominance over profitability. A profitable firm is one which earns certain levels of profits, given the product of certain quality, size, shape, etc. Physical assessment of the performance of the firm is crude in some cases and impossible in others. Profits under Socialism are a public property. This was maintained by Liberman and others. Therefore, the Lantay model cannot shy away from it as from the capitalist variable. In terms of investment spending, the same argument follows. To assess it, one should calculate it in terms of monetary values rather than in physical terms. Even if one has to select a less profitable investment project over a more profitable one, one should assess the difference between them. Thus, one should calculate how much value is being lost by choosing a less profitable investment project in order to be able to compare it with the social gain from making such a choice. Capital productivity in monetary values may prove a much more realistic way of measuring it and also much easier. Third, one of the major problems in any previous models was the problem of factor mobility. The planning mechanism did not allow for factor mobility into their optimal uses by differential compensation. Rather, the planning authorities totally disregarded this process o! allocation and have distributed the factors by the stress of certain emphasized industries such as heavy industries under pre-Liberman models. This brought about a tremendous amount of misallocation of resources with an accompanying suboptimal performances on micro- and macro-economic levels. It should be noted at this point that labor mobility exists and is also officially recognized by the central economic planning authorities in Czechoslovakia as well as in other Socialist countries. However, the actual movement of labor has been made very difficult by various restrictions, such as a workbook which has to be presented at the new location before one can obtain �SLOVAKIA 61 a job there. Slackening the institutional restrictions on factor mobility usually brings about a movement of the factors of production into such industries in which their productivity is the highest. Thus, the most profitable firms will attract and be able to pay higher wages to interested labor and become even more profitable through higher productivity, eliminating some of the low productivity labor which would have to transfer into a less profitable firm. With total labor mobility, there would remain only most profitable firms in the industry, the marginal firms being eliminated. Although this is the basic mechanism in a free enterprise economic system, it is also inevitable in a Socialist system if some method of optimization is to be sought after. The planning authority role in the mobility of factors o:! production would be to stay away and not to interfere. Given the free factor mobility, the planning authorities should observe the trends of labor mobility. If the trends observed are with the wishes of the planners, nothing should be done. However, if the labor moves into the most profitable uses and the planners wish to change the trend into the industries which are not so profitable but emphasized some criteria other than the profitability, the planning authority should be able to steer such movement with ease as it has all the necessary instruments of enforcement. What is proposed here is a working mechanism of the allocation of resources to their optimal uses within the planned economic framework. Of course, it is obvious that a free enterprise system which is supposed to be without too many imperfections is likely to solve this problem much faster and more efficiently than the planned economic system. However, this may not be so if the planners will devise such methods of allocation of resources which will outweigh the imperfections of the free enterprise systems. So far this has not been done, and if there is hope of it ever being done, it must be only a case in which the planning authority is a steering agency rather than a commanding one. III Observing the present state of economic reform in any of the Communist countries, one may delineate what may �62 SLOVAKIA be called a new phase of development. This new phase could be briefly described within the planned economic framework as the moderate search for solutions to economic problems as outlined above. Thus, it may be clear by now to the Socialist as well as western analysts that the planned economic system is there to stay. The dominance of the Communist Party in economic decision making has been reasserted. The content of the new phase of economic development in Socialist countries would be the search for such instruments and mechanisms of economic activity which will affect the optimal allocation of resources within the planned economic framework. Such a search has been started by A. Lantay, and his model shows signs of awareness of the above mentioned areas of difficulty. In his study, he mentions the first major problem of economic planning. This is the problem of what role the planning authority should play in the Socialist economic process. It has been pointed out above that Lantay proposes a redistribution of competence between the center and the firms. This is expected to occur in such a way that the firms' interests will be supported by the interests of the central planning authority. Lantay further suggests that sufficient amounts of authority should be delegated to the firms to create an atmosphere in which the firms may be able to operate profitably. This may be actually the strongest point in the Lantay model. In the past, the Socialist reformers had difficulty defending such views, but it seems that Lantay, who is proposing a kind of intermediate model, may have other supporters, as he does ultimately stress the point of reemphasizing the centralized economic planning. This may seem a contradiction in itself. But it does not have to be; it all depends on the content of responsibility of the agents like the firms and the planning authorities at various levels. If, as Lantay suggests, the responsibily of the central planning authority will be to plan an overall economic activity and let the firms operate on their own initiative within the plan, then there should not be much conflict. This could resemble very loosely the concept of "economie dirige" of France. Although the central planning authority �SLOVAKIA 63 is not supposed to interfere with the performance of the firms, it always has an opportunity to check their activities should the need arise. Further, Lantay proposes that the firms should be interested in the collaboration with the central planning authority by striving for higher productivity through innovations and eventually for higher profitability. This may be a new shape of economic reform as other indicators are lacking from Lantay's discussion. It may be remembered that there were other indicators that the planning authority has imposed on the firms as obligatory target figures. The Lantay presentation may be a departure from the older models as it stresses the achievement of productivity and profitability. Since this has also been a major area difficulty in the past, Lantay's version may be a move in the right direction. He does mention that one has to eliminate the mistakes of the past and supply goods of acceptable or prescribed quality. This is, however, assumed as given rather than to present it as a target. If carried trough properly, this may prove one of the most important improvements on all previous economic models without sacrificing any principles of economic planning. One simply maximizes Socialist profits within the planned economic system. It is a question of how the new planning organization will be carried out that will determine whether planning is going to be a supporting variable rather than a constraint. The planning as it was produced in the pre-Liberman models turned out to be a constraint to economic growth rather than a supporting variable. In the Lantay model, there are signs which may prove workable. In a further discussion, Lantay proposes a new structure for wages and tax payments. However, it is only a suggestion without any specific elaboration of the problem. It has been mentioned above what problems are connected in this respect. If one were allowed a guess, Lantay may try to solve the problem of wages by allowing labor mobility and thus base the wage r ates on productivity rather than planned figures. Furthermore, the supply and demand, which are not explicitly stated by Lantay, may take care of itself by the free m obility of labor. Lantay does �64 SLOVAKIA criticize the way in which the firms in the past used bribes to attract more qualified labor. This may show that by eliminating institutional and other restrictions there would be a great mobility of labor in Socialist economics if allowed. In terms of the firm's production, Lantay suggests that one should modernize the present firms by the latest technology in order to increase productivity rather than to expand production by building new plants. Thus, it is a switch from an extensive to an intensive process of production. This kind of approach would be in line with the profit maximization proposal which also takes into consideration the technological aspect of the production function or "the state of arts". This also would be a departure from other Socialist models, as the Socialist producers usually shy away from modernization of their firms. Paradoxical as it may appear at first sight, and subject to a misconception on this issue in the western literature, the Socialist manager has so far tried to avoid the modernization of his firm, although it has been done in many instances. The problem is this; it is true that modern machinery is more productive, and therefore it is expected to produce a larger physical output. This is a simple proposition and to mention it here amounts to a teutology. Because of the higher productivity, the Socialist planners are also interested in introducing the new technology into their firms. The question is, then, why is it that the Socialist manager would not be interested in its introduction to his firm? The answer is this; although it is true that machinery of higher productivity may produce the larger output, the target figures for the manager will also be higher than before when the old machinery was used. This by itself would not create a great problem. If the productivity of a new machine is three times greater than that of the old, then the targets would become three times higher. But the problem starts when the Socialist manager starts to make physical adjustments to meet the increased production. First, it will need larger amounts of raw materials, more workers to handle the increased output; apart from �SLOVAKIA 65 this, the output may increase to such a level that the manager will have to expand any activity that will be affected by such an increase. With larger volumes of production the supply of factors of production by other firms will also increase. Here is the crux of the matter: with higher targets for the production of the firm and with inefficient supplies coming from other firms, the manager may have a more difficult time fulfilling the plan with the consequence of costly penalties imposed for underfulfillment. The Socialist manager, therefore, is better off in terms of fulfilling the plan when he is working with the old and less efficient machinery. If the process of planning and carrying through the set targets for all firms concerned were improved upon, the Socialist manager could be interested in modernization of the firm. Until then, however, he will be satisfied with lower output that is achieved more safely. It is especially in this context that the proposition of Lantay should be considered. The situation in Slovakia and Bohemia may be better in this respect than in the Soviet Union and other Socialist countries, but it is still a matter of future planning rather than the present situation that will allow the "starved for capital" managers to be seriously interested in modernization of their firms. However, if the Lantay model will be carried out as proposed and a situation created in which the managers will be able to maximize profits rather than a host of other indicators and all firms perform efficiently, there may be an interest for modernization on the part of the Socialist managers. It could prove to have a cumulative effect on the various variables which support a higher economic growth. But this is to be seen in the future. FOOTNOTES 1) Sile, Ota, K problematice socialistickych zbozn£ch vztahu, Prague 1965. 2) Brus, W., Modely socialistickeho hospodarstvi, Prague 1964. 3) Liberman, E. G., Planirovanie proizvodstva i normativy dlitelnogo deystviya, in Voprosy ekonomiki, 1962, No. 8; Liberman also wrote a book in 1950 called Plan, pribyl i premiya but it is very seldom quoted in connection with the famous debate. 4) Lantay, A., Uvazene a triezvo rozvijat' ekonomicku reformu, in Pravda (Bratislava), October 19, 21, 22, and 23, 1970. � SLOVAKIA 57 A New Phase In The Socialist Economic Reform V. J. Hurley I Ever since the famous Liberman debate in 1962 on the reform of the Socialist planned economic system, several Socialist writers have voiced their opinions on the subject. Ideas proposed by Liberman for the Soviet Union were followed by similar ideas for the planned economic system in other European Communist countries. It was primarily 0. Sik1 and others in Czecho-Slovakia, W. Brus2 and others in Poland, as well as others in each Communist country who were economic proponents of the new way of looking at economic planning proposed by Liberman.3 After a heated debate in the Soviet press, especially Pravda, for a general discussion and Voprosy ekonomiki for a more rigorous discussion, there were certain fluctuations in proposing the Liberman ideas in practice or rejecting them. A period of total stagnation set in when N. Khruschev was replaced by Brezhnev and Kosygin. However, soon afterwards a further development of Liberman's ideas was evident in the Soviet press and elsewhere in the Communist countries. The purpose of this paper is to present and briefly analyze the state of the debate of the economic reform in Czecho-Slovakia. It will be noted that after a brief period of "liberalization" in 1968, there followed a complete stop in the discussion of the subject. Latter have there appeared occassional suggestions that the topic is still alive and of paramount importance to the Socialist economic planners. Andrej Lantay, the present director of the Economic Institute of the Slovak Academy of Sciences in Bratislava, has published what may be considered the important �58 SLOVAKIA restatement of the issues involved in the economic reform in the Socialist countries, especially Czecho-Slovakia.4 In his statement, Lantay proposes a new approach to the economic reform in Czecho-Slovakia. Before analyzing the major issues involved, he specifies certain basic criteria which must be observed when discussing the problem of Socialist economic planning. First, he maintains that it is the planned economic system and not price mechanism that is characteristic of any Socialist economy. Second, it is impossible to confuse $ik's model of Socialist economy with the actual purpose of the economic reform. Third, any debate on the economic reform must proceed from the premise that the Communist Party is the leading and actual moving force behind any economic measures proposed. Thus, the supremacy of the Communist Party has been reasserted. II At present, the new phase in the development of Socialist economic reform entails a slow reevaluation of the various instruments of their economic system. After the setback of the reform in 1968, it is clear to the Socialist as well as western analysts that the reform must follow on wholly Socialist lines with a more or less centralized model as suggested by various writers in the past. The Lantay model differs from other models only by its distribution of areas of competent decision making between the central planning authority and the firm. The pre-Liberman models tended to stress the dominance of the central authorities in planning decisions. The post-Liberman models showed the necessity to decentralize the rigid economic system and give the firm enough responsibility to decide on what level the relevant actions were to be taken to achieve higher profitability or productivity of the firm. Most post-Liberman models considered giving a firm a dominant role in decision making. The Socialist and western literature is abundant on that score. The Lantay model, on the other hand, is a slight departure from the two previous approaches to the problem of economic planning in the Socialist countries, especially in Czecho-Slovakia. Lantay proposes that decision making �SLOVAKIA 59 in terms of planning should occur on the first level with an explicit collaboration with the central planning authority. Thus, there should exist a kind of sharing the authority of planning decisions between the individual firms and the center and possibly between some intermediate planning organizations. This model may be an improvement over the pre-Liberman centralized models, but it is doubtful that it will efficiently replace such decentralized models as the one of sik. In general, the Lantay model may be considered as an intermediate model between the two extremes. The Lantay model will have to face the same major problems of rigidity in economic planning in various areas. First, in terms of organization, the firm will have to have enough competence to decide as to the microeconomic variables utilized in its production. If this competence is going to be acknowledged the firm may be free to choose some measuring stick of some kind of optimization. It does not have to be profitability maximization. However, in this respect the Lantay model will have to decide the old problem of what criteria it is going to use to measure :profitability. So far the Lantay model does not suggest any solution to this problem. If the firm will obtain such competence as to decide on its own how to maximize some objective function, some positive results may follow from the Lantay model. Such decentralization of microeconomic decisions of the firm will leave the overall microeconomic decisions to the central planning authority. Then the central planning authority could be given an opportunity to follow the development of individual microeconomic plans as to the level of achievement. Only in this way, i.e. through the division of labor between the center and the firm, may it eliminate the unnecessary overlapping and contradictory decision processes. The details of this have not been specified by Lantay. Second, on measuring the level of performance, the Lantay model will have to solve a problem of measuring the capital productivity and also the above mentioned profitability. In both cases the Socialist literature is negligent in coming to an adequate solution. Although the profitability indicator, one of several, has been recently �60 SLOVAKIA stressed, the actual performance of the firm showed that it was used only as one of many. As long as profitability is not used as the most important indicator, there are likely to be difficulties in the measurement of the efficiency of the firms. Such indicators as quality, assortment, etc., are a necessary part of statistical assessment of the firm's performance, but they should not be given dominance over profitability. A profitable firm is one which earns certain levels of profits, given the product of certain quality, size, shape, etc. Physical assessment of the performance of the firm is crude in some cases and impossible in others. Profits under Socialism are a public property. This was maintained by Liberman and others. Therefore, the Lantay model cannot shy away from it as from the capitalist variable. In terms of investment spending, the same argument follows. To assess it, one should calculate it in terms of monetary values rather than in physical terms. Even if one has to select a less profitable investment project over a more profitable one, one should assess the difference between them. Thus, one should calculate how much value is being lost by choosing a less profitable investment project in order to be able to compare it with the social gain from making such a choice. Capital productivity in monetary values may prove a much more realistic way of measuring it and also much easier. Third, one of the major problems in any previous models was the problem of factor mobility. The planning mechanism did not allow for factor mobility into their optimal uses by differential compensation. Rather, the planning authorities totally disregarded this process o! allocation and have distributed the factors by the stress of certain emphasized industries such as heavy industries under pre-Liberman models. This brought about a tremendous amount of misallocation of resources with an accompanying suboptimal performances on micro- and macro-economic levels. It should be noted at this point that labor mobility exists and is also officially recognized by the central economic planning authorities in Czechoslovakia as well as in other Socialist countries. However, the actual movement of labor has been made very difficult by various restrictions, such as a workbook which has to be presented at the new location before one can obtain �SLOVAKIA 61 a job there. Slackening the institutional restrictions on factor mobility usually brings about a movement of the factors of production into such industries in which their productivity is the highest. Thus, the most profitable firms will attract and be able to pay higher wages to interested labor and become even more profitable through higher productivity, eliminating some of the low productivity labor which would have to transfer into a less profitable firm. With total labor mobility, there would remain only most profitable firms in the industry, the marginal firms being eliminated. Although this is the basic mechanism in a free enterprise economic system, it is also inevitable in a Socialist system if some method of optimization is to be sought after. The planning authority role in the mobility of factors o:! production would be to stay away and not to interfere. Given the free factor mobility, the planning authorities should observe the trends of labor mobility. If the trends observed are with the wishes of the planners, nothing should be done. However, if the labor moves into the most profitable uses and the planners wish to change the trend into the industries which are not so profitable but emphasized some criteria other than the profitability, the planning authority should be able to steer such movement with ease as it has all the necessary instruments of enforcement. What is proposed here is a working mechanism of the allocation of resources to their optimal uses within the planned economic framework. Of course, it is obvious that a free enterprise system which is supposed to be without too many imperfections is likely to solve this problem much faster and more efficiently than the planned economic system. However, this may not be so if the planners will devise such methods of allocation of resources which will outweigh the imperfections of the free enterprise systems. So far this has not been done, and if there is hope of it ever being done, it must be only a case in which the planning authority is a steering agency rather than a commanding one. III Observing the present state of economic reform in any of the Communist countries, one may delineate what may �62 SLOVAKIA be called a new phase of development. This new phase could be briefly described within the planned economic framework as the moderate search for solutions to economic problems as outlined above. Thus, it may be clear by now to the Socialist as well as western analysts that the planned economic system is there to stay. The dominance of the Communist Party in economic decision making has been reasserted. The content of the new phase of economic development in Socialist countries would be the search for such instruments and mechanisms of economic activity which will affect the optimal allocation of resources within the planned economic framework. Such a search has been started by A. Lantay, and his model shows signs of awareness of the above mentioned areas of difficulty. In his study, he mentions the first major problem of economic planning. This is the problem of what role the planning authority should play in the Socialist economic process. It has been pointed out above that Lantay proposes a redistribution of competence between the center and the firms. This is expected to occur in such a way that the firms' interests will be supported by the interests of the central planning authority. Lantay further suggests that sufficient amounts of authority should be delegated to the firms to create an atmosphere in which the firms may be able to operate profitably. This may be actually the strongest point in the Lantay model. In the past, the Socialist reformers had difficulty defending such views, but it seems that Lantay, who is proposing a kind of intermediate model, may have other supporters, as he does ultimately stress the point of reemphasizing the centralized economic planning. This may seem a contradiction in itself. But it does not have to be; it all depends on the content of responsibility of the agents like the firms and the planning authorities at various levels. If, as Lantay suggests, the responsibily of the central planning authority will be to plan an overall economic activity and let the firms operate on their own initiative within the plan, then there should not be much conflict. This could resemble very loosely the concept of "economie dirige" of France. Although the central planning authority �SLOVAKIA 63 is not supposed to interfere with the performance of the firms, it always has an opportunity to check their activities should the need arise. Further, Lantay proposes that the firms should be interested in the collaboration with the central planning authority by striving for higher productivity through innovations and eventually for higher profitability. This may be a new shape of economic reform as other indicators are lacking from Lantay's discussion. It may be remembered that there were other indicators that the planning authority has imposed on the firms as obligatory target figures. The Lantay presentation may be a departure from the older models as it stresses the achievement of productivity and profitability. Since this has also been a major area difficulty in the past, Lantay's version may be a move in the right direction. He does mention that one has to eliminate the mistakes of the past and supply goods of acceptable or prescribed quality. This is, however, assumed as given rather than to present it as a target. If carried trough properly, this may prove one of the most important improvements on all previous economic models without sacrificing any principles of economic planning. One simply maximizes Socialist profits within the planned economic system. It is a question of how the new planning organization will be carried out that will determine whether planning is going to be a supporting variable rather than a constraint. The planning as it was produced in the pre-Liberman models turned out to be a constraint to economic growth rather than a supporting variable. In the Lantay model, there are signs which may prove workable. In a further discussion, Lantay proposes a new structure for wages and tax payments. However, it is only a suggestion without any specific elaboration of the problem. It has been mentioned above what problems are connected in this respect. If one were allowed a guess, Lantay may try to solve the problem of wages by allowing labor mobility and thus base the wage r ates on productivity rather than planned figures. Furthermore, the supply and demand, which are not explicitly stated by Lantay, may take care of itself by the free m obility of labor. Lantay does �64 SLOVAKIA criticize the way in which the firms in the past used bribes to attract more qualified labor. This may show that by eliminating institutional and other restrictions there would be a great mobility of labor in Socialist economics if allowed. In terms of the firm's production, Lantay suggests that one should modernize the present firms by the latest technology in order to increase productivity rather than to expand production by building new plants. Thus, it is a switch from an extensive to an intensive process of production. This kind of approach would be in line with the profit maximization proposal which also takes into consideration the technological aspect of the production function or "the state of arts". This also would be a departure from other Socialist models, as the Socialist producers usually shy away from modernization of their firms. Paradoxical as it may appear at first sight, and subject to a misconception on this issue in the western literature, the Socialist manager has so far tried to avoid the modernization of his firm, although it has been done in many instances. The problem is this; it is true that modern machinery is more productive, and therefore it is expected to produce a larger physical output. This is a simple proposition and to mention it here amounts to a teutology. Because of the higher productivity, the Socialist planners are also interested in introducing the new technology into their firms. The question is, then, why is it that the Socialist manager would not be interested in its introduction to his firm? The answer is this; although it is true that machinery of higher productivity may produce the larger output, the target figures for the manager will also be higher than before when the old machinery was used. This by itself would not create a great problem. If the productivity of a new machine is three times greater than that of the old, then the targets would become three times higher. But the problem starts when the Socialist manager starts to make physical adjustments to meet the increased production. First, it will need larger amounts of raw materials, more workers to handle the increased output; apart from �SLOVAKIA 65 this, the output may increase to such a level that the manager will have to expand any activity that will be affected by such an increase. With larger volumes of production the supply of factors of production by other firms will also increase. Here is the crux of the matter: with higher targets for the production of the firm and with inefficient supplies coming from other firms, the manager may have a more difficult time fulfilling the plan with the consequence of costly penalties imposed for underfulfillment. The Socialist manager, therefore, is better off in terms of fulfilling the plan when he is working with the old and less efficient machinery. If the process of planning and carrying through the set targets for all firms concerned were improved upon, the Socialist manager could be interested in modernization of the firm. Until then, however, he will be satisfied with lower output that is achieved more safely. It is especially in this context that the proposition of Lantay should be considered. The situation in Slovakia and Bohemia may be better in this respect than in the Soviet Union and other Socialist countries, but it is still a matter of future planning rather than the present situation that will allow the "starved for capital" managers to be seriously interested in modernization of their firms. However, if the Lantay model will be carried out as proposed and a situation created in which the managers will be able to maximize profits rather than a host of other indicators and all firms perform efficiently, there may be an interest for modernization on the part of the Socialist managers. It could prove to have a cumulative effect on the various variables which support a higher economic growth. But this is to be seen in the future. FOOTNOTES 1) Sile, Ota, K problematice socialistickych zbozn£ch vztahu, Prague 1965. 2) Brus, W., Modely socialistickeho hospodarstvi, Prague 1964. 3) Liberman, E. G., Planirovanie proizvodstva i normativy dlitelnogo deystviya, in Voprosy ekonomiki, 1962, No. 8; Liberman also wrote a book in 1950 called Plan, pribyl i premiya but it is very seldom quoted in connection with the famous debate. 4) Lantay, A., Uvazene a triezvo rozvijat' ekonomicku reformu, in Pravda (Bratislava), October 19, 21, 22, and 23, 1970. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1973, Vol. 23 Description An account of the resource Vol. 23 (No. 46), 1973. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1973 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document SLOVAKIA 57 A New Phase In The Socialist Economic Reform V. J. Hurley I Ever since the famous Liberman debate in 1962 on the reform of the Socialist planned economic system, several Socialist writers have voiced their opinions on the subject. Ideas proposed by Liberman for the Soviet Union were followed by similar ideas for the planned economic system in other European Communist countries. It was primarily 0. Sik1 and others in Czecho-Slovakia, W. Brus2 and others in Poland, as well as others in each Communist country who were economic proponents of the new way of looking at economic planning proposed by Liberman.3 After a heated debate in the Soviet press, especially Pravda, for a general discussion and Voprosy ekonomiki for a more rigorous discussion, there were certain fluctuations in proposing the Liberman ideas in practice or rejecting them. A period of total stagnation set in when N. Khruschev was replaced by Brezhnev and Kosygin. However, soon afterwards a further development of Liberman's ideas was evident in the Soviet press and elsewhere in the Communist countries. The purpose of this paper is to present and briefly analyze the state of the debate of the economic reform in Czecho-Slovakia. It will be noted that after a brief period of "liberalization" in 1968, there followed a complete stop in the discussion of the subject. Latter have there appeared occassional suggestions that the topic is still alive and of paramount importance to the Socialist economic planners. Andrej Lantay, the present director of the Economic Institute of the Slovak Academy of Sciences in Bratislava, has published what may be considered the important 58 SLOVAKIA restatement of the issues involved in the economic reform in the Socialist countries, especially Czecho-Slovakia.4 In his statement, Lantay proposes a new approach to the economic reform in Czecho-Slovakia. Before analyzing the major issues involved, he specifies certain basic criteria which must be observed when discussing the problem of Socialist economic planning. First, he maintains that it is the planned economic system and not price mechanism that is characteristic of any Socialist economy. Second, it is impossible to confuse $ik's model of Socialist economy with the actual purpose of the economic reform. Third, any debate on the economic reform must proceed from the premise that the Communist Party is the leading and actual moving force behind any economic measures proposed. Thus, the supremacy of the Communist Party has been reasserted. II At present, the new phase in the development of Socialist economic reform entails a slow reevaluation of the various instruments of their economic system. After the setback of the reform in 1968, it is clear to the Socialist as well as western analysts that the reform must follow on wholly Socialist lines with a more or less centralized model as suggested by various writers in the past. The Lantay model differs from other models only by its distribution of areas of competent decision making between the central planning authority and the firm. The pre-Liberman models tended to stress the dominance of the central authorities in planning decisions. The post-Liberman models showed the necessity to decentralize the rigid economic system and give the firm enough responsibility to decide on what level the relevant actions were to be taken to achieve higher profitability or productivity of the firm. Most post-Liberman models considered giving a firm a dominant role in decision making. The Socialist and western literature is abundant on that score. The Lantay model, on the other hand, is a slight departure from the two previous approaches to the problem of economic planning in the Socialist countries, especially in Czecho-Slovakia. Lantay proposes that decision making SLOVAKIA 59 in terms of planning should occur on the first level with an explicit collaboration with the central planning authority. Thus, there should exist a kind of sharing the authority of planning decisions between the individual firms and the center and possibly between some intermediate planning organizations. This model may be an improvement over the pre-Liberman centralized models, but it is doubtful that it will efficiently replace such decentralized models as the one of sik. In general, the Lantay model may be considered as an intermediate model between the two extremes. The Lantay model will have to face the same major problems of rigidity in economic planning in various areas. First, in terms of organization, the firm will have to have enough competence to decide as to the microeconomic variables utilized in its production. If this competence is going to be acknowledged the firm may be free to choose some measuring stick of some kind of optimization. It does not have to be profitability maximization. However, in this respect the Lantay model will have to decide the old problem of what criteria it is going to use to measure :profitability. So far the Lantay model does not suggest any solution to this problem. If the firm will obtain such competence as to decide on its own how to maximize some objective function, some positive results may follow from the Lantay model. Such decentralization of microeconomic decisions of the firm will leave the overall microeconomic decisions to the central planning authority. Then the central planning authority could be given an opportunity to follow the development of individual microeconomic plans as to the level of achievement. Only in this way, i.e. through the division of labor between the center and the firm, may it eliminate the unnecessary overlapping and contradictory decision processes. The details of this have not been specified by Lantay. Second, on measuring the level of performance, the Lantay model will have to solve a problem of measuring the capital productivity and also the above mentioned profitability. In both cases the Socialist literature is negligent in coming to an adequate solution. Although the profitability indicator, one of several, has been recently 60 SLOVAKIA stressed, the actual performance of the firm showed that it was used only as one of many. As long as profitability is not used as the most important indicator, there are likely to be difficulties in the measurement of the efficiency of the firms. Such indicators as quality, assortment, etc., are a necessary part of statistical assessment of the firm's performance, but they should not be given dominance over profitability. A profitable firm is one which earns certain levels of profits, given the product of certain quality, size, shape, etc. Physical assessment of the performance of the firm is crude in some cases and impossible in others. Profits under Socialism are a public property. This was maintained by Liberman and others. Therefore, the Lantay model cannot shy away from it as from the capitalist variable. In terms of investment spending, the same argument follows. To assess it, one should calculate it in terms of monetary values rather than in physical terms. Even if one has to select a less profitable investment project over a more profitable one, one should assess the difference between them. Thus, one should calculate how much value is being lost by choosing a less profitable investment project in order to be able to compare it with the social gain from making such a choice. Capital productivity in monetary values may prove a much more realistic way of measuring it and also much easier. Third, one of the major problems in any previous models was the problem of factor mobility. The planning mechanism did not allow for factor mobility into their optimal uses by differential compensation. Rather, the planning authorities totally disregarded this process o! allocation and have distributed the factors by the stress of certain emphasized industries such as heavy industries under pre-Liberman models. This brought about a tremendous amount of misallocation of resources with an accompanying suboptimal performances on micro- and macro-economic levels. It should be noted at this point that labor mobility exists and is also officially recognized by the central economic planning authorities in Czechoslovakia as well as in other Socialist countries. However, the actual movement of labor has been made very difficult by various restrictions, such as a workbook which has to be presented at the new location before one can obtain SLOVAKIA 61 a job there. Slackening the institutional restrictions on factor mobility usually brings about a movement of the factors of production into such industries in which their productivity is the highest. Thus, the most profitable firms will attract and be able to pay higher wages to interested labor and become even more profitable through higher productivity, eliminating some of the low productivity labor which would have to transfer into a less profitable firm. With total labor mobility, there would remain only most profitable firms in the industry, the marginal firms being eliminated. Although this is the basic mechanism in a free enterprise economic system, it is also inevitable in a Socialist system if some method of optimization is to be sought after. The planning authority role in the mobility of factors o:! production would be to stay away and not to interfere. Given the free factor mobility, the planning authorities should observe the trends of labor mobility. If the trends observed are with the wishes of the planners, nothing should be done. However, if the labor moves into the most profitable uses and the planners wish to change the trend into the industries which are not so profitable but emphasized some criteria other than the profitability, the planning authority should be able to steer such movement with ease as it has all the necessary instruments of enforcement. What is proposed here is a working mechanism of the allocation of resources to their optimal uses within the planned economic framework. Of course, it is obvious that a free enterprise system which is supposed to be without too many imperfections is likely to solve this problem much faster and more efficiently than the planned economic system. However, this may not be so if the planners will devise such methods of allocation of resources which will outweigh the imperfections of the free enterprise systems. So far this has not been done, and if there is hope of it ever being done, it must be only a case in which the planning authority is a steering agency rather than a commanding one. III Observing the present state of economic reform in any of the Communist countries, one may delineate what may 62 SLOVAKIA be called a new phase of development. This new phase could be briefly described within the planned economic framework as the moderate search for solutions to economic problems as outlined above. Thus, it may be clear by now to the Socialist as well as western analysts that the planned economic system is there to stay. The dominance of the Communist Party in economic decision making has been reasserted. The content of the new phase of economic development in Socialist countries would be the search for such instruments and mechanisms of economic activity which will affect the optimal allocation of resources within the planned economic framework. Such a search has been started by A. Lantay, and his model shows signs of awareness of the above mentioned areas of difficulty. In his study, he mentions the first major problem of economic planning. This is the problem of what role the planning authority should play in the Socialist economic process. It has been pointed out above that Lantay proposes a redistribution of competence between the center and the firms. This is expected to occur in such a way that the firms' interests will be supported by the interests of the central planning authority. Lantay further suggests that sufficient amounts of authority should be delegated to the firms to create an atmosphere in which the firms may be able to operate profitably. This may be actually the strongest point in the Lantay model. In the past, the Socialist reformers had difficulty defending such views, but it seems that Lantay, who is proposing a kind of intermediate model, may have other supporters, as he does ultimately stress the point of reemphasizing the centralized economic planning. This may seem a contradiction in itself. But it does not have to be; it all depends on the content of responsibility of the agents like the firms and the planning authorities at various levels. If, as Lantay suggests, the responsibily of the central planning authority will be to plan an overall economic activity and let the firms operate on their own initiative within the plan, then there should not be much conflict. This could resemble very loosely the concept of "economie dirige" of France. Although the central planning authority SLOVAKIA 63 is not supposed to interfere with the performance of the firms, it always has an opportunity to check their activities should the need arise. Further, Lantay proposes that the firms should be interested in the collaboration with the central planning authority by striving for higher productivity through innovations and eventually for higher profitability. This may be a new shape of economic reform as other indicators are lacking from Lantay's discussion. It may be remembered that there were other indicators that the planning authority has imposed on the firms as obligatory target figures. The Lantay presentation may be a departure from the older models as it stresses the achievement of productivity and profitability. Since this has also been a major area difficulty in the past, Lantay's version may be a move in the right direction. He does mention that one has to eliminate the mistakes of the past and supply goods of acceptable or prescribed quality. This is, however, assumed as given rather than to present it as a target. If carried trough properly, this may prove one of the most important improvements on all previous economic models without sacrificing any principles of economic planning. One simply maximizes Socialist profits within the planned economic system. It is a question of how the new planning organization will be carried out that will determine whether planning is going to be a supporting variable rather than a constraint. The planning as it was produced in the pre-Liberman models turned out to be a constraint to economic growth rather than a supporting variable. In the Lantay model, there are signs which may prove workable. In a further discussion, Lantay proposes a new structure for wages and tax payments. However, it is only a suggestion without any specific elaboration of the problem. It has been mentioned above what problems are connected in this respect. If one were allowed a guess, Lantay may try to solve the problem of wages by allowing labor mobility and thus base the wage r ates on productivity rather than planned figures. Furthermore, the supply and demand, which are not explicitly stated by Lantay, may take care of itself by the free m obility of labor. Lantay does 64 SLOVAKIA criticize the way in which the firms in the past used bribes to attract more qualified labor. This may show that by eliminating institutional and other restrictions there would be a great mobility of labor in Socialist economics if allowed. In terms of the firm's production, Lantay suggests that one should modernize the present firms by the latest technology in order to increase productivity rather than to expand production by building new plants. Thus, it is a switch from an extensive to an intensive process of production. This kind of approach would be in line with the profit maximization proposal which also takes into consideration the technological aspect of the production function or "the state of arts". This also would be a departure from other Socialist models, as the Socialist producers usually shy away from modernization of their firms. Paradoxical as it may appear at first sight, and subject to a misconception on this issue in the western literature, the Socialist manager has so far tried to avoid the modernization of his firm, although it has been done in many instances. The problem is this; it is true that modern machinery is more productive, and therefore it is expected to produce a larger physical output. This is a simple proposition and to mention it here amounts to a teutology. Because of the higher productivity, the Socialist planners are also interested in introducing the new technology into their firms. The question is, then, why is it that the Socialist manager would not be interested in its introduction to his firm? The answer is this; although it is true that machinery of higher productivity may produce the larger output, the target figures for the manager will also be higher than before when the old machinery was used. This by itself would not create a great problem. If the productivity of a new machine is three times greater than that of the old, then the targets would become three times higher. But the problem starts when the Socialist manager starts to make physical adjustments to meet the increased production. First, it will need larger amounts of raw materials, more workers to handle the increased output; apart from SLOVAKIA 65 this, the output may increase to such a level that the manager will have to expand any activity that will be affected by such an increase. With larger volumes of production the supply of factors of production by other firms will also increase. Here is the crux of the matter: with higher targets for the production of the firm and with inefficient supplies coming from other firms, the manager may have a more difficult time fulfilling the plan with the consequence of costly penalties imposed for underfulfillment. The Socialist manager, therefore, is better off in terms of fulfilling the plan when he is working with the old and less efficient machinery. If the process of planning and carrying through the set targets for all firms concerned were improved upon, the Socialist manager could be interested in modernization of the firm. Until then, however, he will be satisfied with lower output that is achieved more safely. It is especially in this context that the proposition of Lantay should be considered. The situation in Slovakia and Bohemia may be better in this respect than in the Soviet Union and other Socialist countries, but it is still a matter of future planning rather than the present situation that will allow the "starved for capital" managers to be seriously interested in modernization of their firms. However, if the Lantay model will be carried out as proposed and a situation created in which the managers will be able to maximize profits rather than a host of other indicators and all firms perform efficiently, there may be an interest for modernization on the part of the Socialist managers. It could prove to have a cumulative effect on the various variables which support a higher economic growth. But this is to be seen in the future. FOOTNOTES 1) Sile, Ota, K problematice socialistickych zbozn£ch vztahu, Prague 1965. 2) Brus, W., Modely socialistickeho hospodarstvi, Prague 1964. 3) Liberman, E. G., Planirovanie proizvodstva i normativy dlitelnogo deystviya, in Voprosy ekonomiki, 1962, No. 8; Liberman also wrote a book in 1950 called Plan, pribyl i premiya but it is very seldom quoted in connection with the famous debate. 4) Lantay, A., Uvazene a triezvo rozvijat' ekonomicku reformu, in Pravda (Bratislava), October 19, 21, 22, and 23, 1970.  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A New Phase in the Socialist Economic Reform Description An account of the resource V. J. Hurley Slovakia, Vol. 23 (No. 46), 1973 pp. 57-65 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hurley, V. J. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1973 name https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/061d9750edea294dfb8e9ea0bd059782.pdf e5a874d77c8265b86711e154b433cd50 PDF Text Text 66 SLOVAKIA The Renaissance of the Slovak American Literature I The Americans of Slovak origin coming to the free shores of this country centuries ago and did not stop coming until the present day, have shown a tremendous energy and efficiency in bettering their material welfare. They worked, earned incomes, spent it, and enjoyed all the material affluence that the country offered them. Out of meager beginnings they have created considerable wealth by buying houses, establishing businesses, banks and fraternal organizations. On the spiritual level they were quite successful in building numerous churches, schools, and publishing an unprecedented number of newspapers and periodicals. In terms of serious literary endeavors, there were several authors who wrote novels, travelogues, short stories and especially poetry. Among the most recent ones, it was the late Msgr. Milos Mlynarovic. If we don't include such prominent newcomers as Mikulas sprinc, Karol Strmen, Karol Sidor, Jozef C. Hronsky and others, some of them living in America and others only publishing, it would be wrong. I refer here to the exquisite edition of books by the Slovak Defense Press in the fifties. Among the translators of Slovak poetry were Ivan Kramoris and Jaroslav Vajda (The Bloody Sonnets of Hviezdoslav). II There is a new literary star on the horizon of the Slovak American heaven of arts and letters. In Danville, Pennsylvania is located a beautiful Slovak academy of St. Cyril with the adjacent mother house of the Slovak Sisters. Among them lives Sister M. Martina Tybor who is currently engaged in cataloguing Slovakiana at Jankola Library and in teaching at the novitiate teacher-training institute at Villa Sacred Heart. Sister M. Martina is not only a diligent �SLOVAKIA 67 bibliographer, but also an exquisite poet in English. Her poetry is mostly scattered in the issues of Fialky and other periodicals. Apart from that, she has translated several books and studies by Msgr. John Rekem and Dr. Joseph Kirschbaum, but you would hardly find any sign of this and other work mostly because of Sister M. Martina's modesty. The end result is that in our midst lives an unassuming literary personality who has outgrown any living American-Slovak writer without anyone realizing her presence and tremendous potential. A somewhat more careful attention to such seemingly unimportant matters would make us realize the extent of M. Martina's contribution to the American-Slovak letters. Her most recent literary work entails two volumes of poetry by Rudolf Dilong translated into English. The first one is I Offer Bread and Salt, published in an exquisite form by the Slovak Jesuits in Galt, Ontario. It has been translated by M. Martina Tybor. The translation is a very good one, not only because of difficulty to translate Dilong, but also because of the inherent difficulty to translate into English from any language. The rhyme, rhytm, the sound, and other attributes of the language are so different from Slovak that it takes extraordinary skill to master this task. M. Martina Tybor has lived up to this task. The Marshall McLuhanistic style of Dilong which follows like this: V horach je dost' vidno, i ked' sa hajnici uvzali proti svetlu a nepustia ho do Mstin. (p. 17) sounds in Tybor's language in the following way; There is light enough in the mountains even though all the rangers had conspired against the light and outlawed it from the thickets. (p. 16) Although Dilong's two lines are without rhyme, they show a clear example of a symbolic presentation of his ideas. The only difference between Dilong and McLuhan is that while McLuhan shows the negative side of the world and tends to see its coming destruction, Dilong shows the helplessness of the world and at the same time �68 SLOVAKIA gives the hopeful answer to the seering problems of our generation. The following two lines Jestvovali uz vel'ki l'udia, pral'udia a ich katastr6fy. A nase prahory ostali po ich civilizaciach. (p. 23) which in Tybor's words sounds as follows: There have been great people--ancients and their catastrophic demise. And our hoary hills survived their civilization. (p. 22) are an example of Dilong's and Tybor's solution. The present day major dilemma of the human search for integrity is symbolized by Dilong's statement Na kamenny oltar nalial Elias vody a prosil Boha, aby ohen z neba spalil oltar pred tvarou pohanov, aby sa mu uverilo. (p. 31) and in Tybor's language; Elias poured water upon the stone altar and begged God to let fire from heaven consume the sacrifice in the presence of the pagans so that he would be believed. (p. 30) In fact, this book is full of such philosophical statements and it does belong to the most mature and well thought out poetry of Dilong. Dilong has been considered as an important Slovak surrealist, but this book of poetry surpasses the national limitations and should be considered a major contribution to the state of poetic arts in general. It is unique in its kind in the United States. As a man of spiritual endeavors, Dilong is most qualified to say about love the following lines: Laska sa vie udrzat' i na malom priestore. Laska nehl'ada nikdy vel'ke miesto pre seba, ale vel'ky pokoj. (p. 33) When M. Martina Tybor puts it in succint lines; Love can support itself even in little space. Love never seeks a great place for itself, just deep tranquility. (p. 32) it shows not only a great mastery on the part of Tybor's style, but it also shows a kinship to the spiritual world of Dilong. In fact, verses like these make the English translation equivalent in value to the Slovak original. The poet Dilong is an exile in several senses. He is an exile from his native Slovakia. As such, he knows the hardships of assimilation to the new life on this continent. In the second sense, he is an exile in terms of his religious order, which in a certain sense distinguishes him from the rest of the world. And thirdly, he is an exile of thought, only a select few understanding him and his plight for a more human world. All this pain and sorrow is con- �SLOVAKIA 69 centrated in one man alone and he expresses his alpha and omega as an axile in a brief and succinct statement which could not be imitated even by such genial minds as that of Strmefl and sprinc. The lines in Slovak: Pri ceste t'a caka medznik, ako tvoj domov. Batoh vzdychov k nemu prinesies. (p. 45) and in M. Martina Tybor's translation: There is a landmark at the roadside, awaiting your coming as surely as your home does. Here you will set down your pack of sights. (p. 44) The tremendous sensitivity of Dilong appears through all of his poetry in which he portrays his fellow travelers through this world of rushing to nowhere in which the misunderstanding of individual human beings is the order of the day. He very humbly says: 0, Boze, bud' pri cloveku, co ide s kyjakom k nam, lebo sme vel'mi citlivi. Pomaly ide, ale isto. (p. 47) and M. Tybor understandingly and compassionately shows the exact meaning when she reflects his ideas in her own poetic language: 0 God, be with the man who comes at us with a cudgel, for we are very sensitive. Slowly he come but surely. (p. 46) Dilong's vision of the human soul, in which there is a combination of our life here on earth with a special view of the eternal life into which all of us are supposed to tend to aspire is expressed again in simple phrase coached in metaphysical symbolism like the following: Stal som pri potoku a videl som na jeho dne nebo. Ale do neba tu vstupit' nemozno. (p. 57) and in M. Tybor's words: I stood at the brookside and saw heaven in the depth of its bed. But it is not possible to enter heaven here. One could follow through the whole book and show the tremendous power of vision of the poet as well as the translator. The symbolism of the Slovak verses of Dilong are excellently matched by equal value of M. Tybor's translations. Thus, two great minds have complimented each other in original production as well as creation in the translation. It is in this sense that M. Tybor's translation should be considered very creative. The two great minds show their potential in the second �70 SLOVAKIA volume of poetry by R. Dilong, also translated by M. Tybor, Wi th Christ in His Passi on. Here we find the creed of our poet of his whole life as a priest and poet of the highest of gifts when he humbly offers himself to his Lord God whose servant he has been all his life. M. Tybor, also a servant and follower of the works of the Lord has understood the poet's dedication and translates him in clear and simple language: Christ, I fall to my knees in the hour of your death. Look, my sin-bound sleep bordered on smug tranquility and all too long it did not change to tears following upon a bad dream. Out of my heart I tell you this: the cracked amphora will be removed and where the flowers had been steeped you will fill the air of the room with a tumbler of water that you will offer me; I , too, am your flower . (p. 7) The whole book is an excellent material for religious meditation in the time of Passion. The author has poured out his whole heart to the Lord in such a way that it could be any of us kneeling in front of the crucifix and telling the Lord of all our grief and sorrow. Of course, we could not say it with the angel's tongue like R. Dilong and M. Tybor. The most difficult of thoughts and plights are expressed here in a language both original Slovak and the English translation, that it looks almost like it is beautiful to suffer. In its metaphysical sense, it is exactly what Dilong and Tybor are trying to tell us. This book, unlike the other should be read by people who have been exposed to some religious meditation, or at least understanding the meaning of Christ's Passion. It is not going to be readily understood by the atheists of our time. On the other hand, the other book is a must for every person who considers himself intelligent enough to be able to read in depth the meaning of the problems of our times. �SLOVAKIA 71 III The two books of R. Dilong in an excellent translation of M. Tybor are sufficient to show that we are presented here with ideas of extraordinary dimensions unprecedented in the Slovak American cultural life. Two exquisite minds have presented us with an excellent feat for our spiritual well-being. Every American of Slovak descent should not miss reading these works. In fact they should be read by others who are interested in the present day spiritual problems of this country. However, it is one thing what one should do and another what one will actually do. If one should judge by the trends in such matters in the past, the translations will be forgotten next year and there will be no more creative work coming from either Dilong or Tybor. Of course, knowing both of them will prove that they are not easily discouraged. And rightly so. They may expect that after they are both long death, the younger generation of Americans of Slovak descent, coming fresh from their colleges, will ask their parents for the literary works of their ancestors. Some of them may not even know about such trivial matters but the young generation will find themselves. At that time, poets like Dilong and Tybor will get full appreciation. But of course, this does not have to happen this way. There are other Slovak intellectuals who came to these shores and who proved to be prominent writers. For instance, M. sprinc's book, To the Free Shores of America, is a classic. It would be good to do a research and find out how many honors were bestowed on sprinc because of this book. (He vrote others which can be considered classic, especially his essays, Letters from Coral). And Strmefl, the contemporary Dante in Slovak poetry; he received his Academic Palms from the French government for his outstanding contribution to the state of poetic arts. This honor should be considered as next in importance to the Nobel Prize. P. O'Reilly � 66 SLOVAKIA The Renaissance of the Slovak American Literature I The Americans of Slovak origin coming to the free shores of this country centuries ago and did not stop coming until the present day, have shown a tremendous energy and efficiency in bettering their material welfare. They worked, earned incomes, spent it, and enjoyed all the material affluence that the country offered them. Out of meager beginnings they have created considerable wealth by buying houses, establishing businesses, banks and fraternal organizations. On the spiritual level they were quite successful in building numerous churches, schools, and publishing an unprecedented number of newspapers and periodicals. In terms of serious literary endeavors, there were several authors who wrote novels, travelogues, short stories and especially poetry. Among the most recent ones, it was the late Msgr. Milos Mlynarovic. If we don't include such prominent newcomers as Mikulas sprinc, Karol Strmen, Karol Sidor, Jozef C. Hronsky and others, some of them living in America and others only publishing, it would be wrong. I refer here to the exquisite edition of books by the Slovak Defense Press in the fifties. Among the translators of Slovak poetry were Ivan Kramoris and Jaroslav Vajda (The Bloody Sonnets of Hviezdoslav). II There is a new literary star on the horizon of the Slovak American heaven of arts and letters. In Danville, Pennsylvania is located a beautiful Slovak academy of St. Cyril with the adjacent mother house of the Slovak Sisters. Among them lives Sister M. Martina Tybor who is currently engaged in cataloguing Slovakiana at Jankola Library and in teaching at the novitiate teacher-training institute at Villa Sacred Heart. Sister M. Martina is not only a diligent �SLOVAKIA 67 bibliographer, but also an exquisite poet in English. Her poetry is mostly scattered in the issues of Fialky and other periodicals. Apart from that, she has translated several books and studies by Msgr. John Rekem and Dr. Joseph Kirschbaum, but you would hardly find any sign of this and other work mostly because of Sister M. Martina's modesty. The end result is that in our midst lives an unassuming literary personality who has outgrown any living American-Slovak writer without anyone realizing her presence and tremendous potential. A somewhat more careful attention to such seemingly unimportant matters would make us realize the extent of M. Martina's contribution to the American-Slovak letters. Her most recent literary work entails two volumes of poetry by Rudolf Dilong translated into English. The first one is I Offer Bread and Salt, published in an exquisite form by the Slovak Jesuits in Galt, Ontario. It has been translated by M. Martina Tybor. The translation is a very good one, not only because of difficulty to translate Dilong, but also because of the inherent difficulty to translate into English from any language. The rhyme, rhytm, the sound, and other attributes of the language are so different from Slovak that it takes extraordinary skill to master this task. M. Martina Tybor has lived up to this task. The Marshall McLuhanistic style of Dilong which follows like this: V horach je dost' vidno, i ked' sa hajnici uvzali proti svetlu a nepustia ho do Mstin. (p. 17) sounds in Tybor's language in the following way; There is light enough in the mountains even though all the rangers had conspired against the light and outlawed it from the thickets. (p. 16) Although Dilong's two lines are without rhyme, they show a clear example of a symbolic presentation of his ideas. The only difference between Dilong and McLuhan is that while McLuhan shows the negative side of the world and tends to see its coming destruction, Dilong shows the helplessness of the world and at the same time �68 SLOVAKIA gives the hopeful answer to the seering problems of our generation. The following two lines Jestvovali uz vel'ki l'udia, pral'udia a ich katastr6fy. A nase prahory ostali po ich civilizaciach. (p. 23) which in Tybor's words sounds as follows: There have been great people--ancients and their catastrophic demise. And our hoary hills survived their civilization. (p. 22) are an example of Dilong's and Tybor's solution. The present day major dilemma of the human search for integrity is symbolized by Dilong's statement Na kamenny oltar nalial Elias vody a prosil Boha, aby ohen z neba spalil oltar pred tvarou pohanov, aby sa mu uverilo. (p. 31) and in Tybor's language; Elias poured water upon the stone altar and begged God to let fire from heaven consume the sacrifice in the presence of the pagans so that he would be believed. (p. 30) In fact, this book is full of such philosophical statements and it does belong to the most mature and well thought out poetry of Dilong. Dilong has been considered as an important Slovak surrealist, but this book of poetry surpasses the national limitations and should be considered a major contribution to the state of poetic arts in general. It is unique in its kind in the United States. As a man of spiritual endeavors, Dilong is most qualified to say about love the following lines: Laska sa vie udrzat' i na malom priestore. Laska nehl'ada nikdy vel'ke miesto pre seba, ale vel'ky pokoj. (p. 33) When M. Martina Tybor puts it in succint lines; Love can support itself even in little space. Love never seeks a great place for itself, just deep tranquility. (p. 32) it shows not only a great mastery on the part of Tybor's style, but it also shows a kinship to the spiritual world of Dilong. In fact, verses like these make the English translation equivalent in value to the Slovak original. The poet Dilong is an exile in several senses. He is an exile from his native Slovakia. As such, he knows the hardships of assimilation to the new life on this continent. In the second sense, he is an exile in terms of his religious order, which in a certain sense distinguishes him from the rest of the world. And thirdly, he is an exile of thought, only a select few understanding him and his plight for a more human world. All this pain and sorrow is con- �SLOVAKIA 69 centrated in one man alone and he expresses his alpha and omega as an axile in a brief and succinct statement which could not be imitated even by such genial minds as that of Strmefl and sprinc. The lines in Slovak: Pri ceste t'a caka medznik, ako tvoj domov. Batoh vzdychov k nemu prinesies. (p. 45) and in M. Martina Tybor's translation: There is a landmark at the roadside, awaiting your coming as surely as your home does. Here you will set down your pack of sights. (p. 44) The tremendous sensitivity of Dilong appears through all of his poetry in which he portrays his fellow travelers through this world of rushing to nowhere in which the misunderstanding of individual human beings is the order of the day. He very humbly says: 0, Boze, bud' pri cloveku, co ide s kyjakom k nam, lebo sme vel'mi citlivi. Pomaly ide, ale isto. (p. 47) and M. Tybor understandingly and compassionately shows the exact meaning when she reflects his ideas in her own poetic language: 0 God, be with the man who comes at us with a cudgel, for we are very sensitive. Slowly he come but surely. (p. 46) Dilong's vision of the human soul, in which there is a combination of our life here on earth with a special view of the eternal life into which all of us are supposed to tend to aspire is expressed again in simple phrase coached in metaphysical symbolism like the following: Stal som pri potoku a videl som na jeho dne nebo. Ale do neba tu vstupit' nemozno. (p. 57) and in M. Tybor's words: I stood at the brookside and saw heaven in the depth of its bed. But it is not possible to enter heaven here. One could follow through the whole book and show the tremendous power of vision of the poet as well as the translator. The symbolism of the Slovak verses of Dilong are excellently matched by equal value of M. Tybor's translations. Thus, two great minds have complimented each other in original production as well as creation in the translation. It is in this sense that M. Tybor's translation should be considered very creative. The two great minds show their potential in the second �70 SLOVAKIA volume of poetry by R. Dilong, also translated by M. Tybor, Wi th Christ in His Passi on. Here we find the creed of our poet of his whole life as a priest and poet of the highest of gifts when he humbly offers himself to his Lord God whose servant he has been all his life. M. Tybor, also a servant and follower of the works of the Lord has understood the poet's dedication and translates him in clear and simple language: Christ, I fall to my knees in the hour of your death. Look, my sin-bound sleep bordered on smug tranquility and all too long it did not change to tears following upon a bad dream. Out of my heart I tell you this: the cracked amphora will be removed and where the flowers had been steeped you will fill the air of the room with a tumbler of water that you will offer me; I , too, am your flower . (p. 7) The whole book is an excellent material for religious meditation in the time of Passion. The author has poured out his whole heart to the Lord in such a way that it could be any of us kneeling in front of the crucifix and telling the Lord of all our grief and sorrow. Of course, we could not say it with the angel's tongue like R. Dilong and M. Tybor. The most difficult of thoughts and plights are expressed here in a language both original Slovak and the English translation, that it looks almost like it is beautiful to suffer. In its metaphysical sense, it is exactly what Dilong and Tybor are trying to tell us. This book, unlike the other should be read by people who have been exposed to some religious meditation, or at least understanding the meaning of Christ's Passion. It is not going to be readily understood by the atheists of our time. On the other hand, the other book is a must for every person who considers himself intelligent enough to be able to read in depth the meaning of the problems of our times. �SLOVAKIA 71 III The two books of R. Dilong in an excellent translation of M. Tybor are sufficient to show that we are presented here with ideas of extraordinary dimensions unprecedented in the Slovak American cultural life. Two exquisite minds have presented us with an excellent feat for our spiritual well-being. Every American of Slovak descent should not miss reading these works. In fact they should be read by others who are interested in the present day spiritual problems of this country. However, it is one thing what one should do and another what one will actually do. If one should judge by the trends in such matters in the past, the translations will be forgotten next year and there will be no more creative work coming from either Dilong or Tybor. Of course, knowing both of them will prove that they are not easily discouraged. And rightly so. They may expect that after they are both long death, the younger generation of Americans of Slovak descent, coming fresh from their colleges, will ask their parents for the literary works of their ancestors. Some of them may not even know about such trivial matters but the young generation will find themselves. At that time, poets like Dilong and Tybor will get full appreciation. But of course, this does not have to happen this way. There are other Slovak intellectuals who came to these shores and who proved to be prominent writers. For instance, M. sprinc's book, To the Free Shores of America, is a classic. It would be good to do a research and find out how many honors were bestowed on sprinc because of this book. (He vrote others which can be considered classic, especially his essays, Letters from Coral). And Strmefl, the contemporary Dante in Slovak poetry; he received his Academic Palms from the French government for his outstanding contribution to the state of poetic arts. This honor should be considered as next in importance to the Nobel Prize. P. O'Reilly � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1973, Vol. 23 Description An account of the resource Vol. 23 (No. 46), 1973. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1973 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document 66 SLOVAKIA The Renaissance of the Slovak American Literature I The Americans of Slovak origin coming to the free shores of this country centuries ago and did not stop coming until the present day, have shown a tremendous energy and efficiency in bettering their material welfare. They worked, earned incomes, spent it, and enjoyed all the material affluence that the country offered them. Out of meager beginnings they have created considerable wealth by buying houses, establishing businesses, banks and fraternal organizations. On the spiritual level they were quite successful in building numerous churches, schools, and publishing an unprecedented number of newspapers and periodicals. In terms of serious literary endeavors, there were several authors who wrote novels, travelogues, short stories and especially poetry. Among the most recent ones, it was the late Msgr. Milos Mlynarovic. If we don't include such prominent newcomers as Mikulas sprinc, Karol Strmen, Karol Sidor, Jozef C. Hronsky and others, some of them living in America and others only publishing, it would be wrong. I refer here to the exquisite edition of books by the Slovak Defense Press in the fifties. Among the translators of Slovak poetry were Ivan Kramoris and Jaroslav Vajda (The Bloody Sonnets of Hviezdoslav). II There is a new literary star on the horizon of the Slovak American heaven of arts and letters. In Danville, Pennsylvania is located a beautiful Slovak academy of St. Cyril with the adjacent mother house of the Slovak Sisters. Among them lives Sister M. Martina Tybor who is currently engaged in cataloguing Slovakiana at Jankola Library and in teaching at the novitiate teacher-training institute at Villa Sacred Heart. Sister M. Martina is not only a diligent SLOVAKIA 67 bibliographer, but also an exquisite poet in English. Her poetry is mostly scattered in the issues of Fialky and other periodicals. Apart from that, she has translated several books and studies by Msgr. John Rekem and Dr. Joseph Kirschbaum, but you would hardly find any sign of this and other work mostly because of Sister M. Martina's modesty. The end result is that in our midst lives an unassuming literary personality who has outgrown any living American-Slovak writer without anyone realizing her presence and tremendous potential. A somewhat more careful attention to such seemingly unimportant matters would make us realize the extent of M. Martina's contribution to the American-Slovak letters. Her most recent literary work entails two volumes of poetry by Rudolf Dilong translated into English. The first one is I Offer Bread and Salt, published in an exquisite form by the Slovak Jesuits in Galt, Ontario. It has been translated by M. Martina Tybor. The translation is a very good one, not only because of difficulty to translate Dilong, but also because of the inherent difficulty to translate into English from any language. The rhyme, rhytm, the sound, and other attributes of the language are so different from Slovak that it takes extraordinary skill to master this task. M. Martina Tybor has lived up to this task. The Marshall McLuhanistic style of Dilong which follows like this: V horach je dost' vidno, i ked' sa hajnici uvzali proti svetlu a nepustia ho do Mstin. (p. 17) sounds in Tybor's language in the following way; There is light enough in the mountains even though all the rangers had conspired against the light and outlawed it from the thickets. (p. 16) Although Dilong's two lines are without rhyme, they show a clear example of a symbolic presentation of his ideas. The only difference between Dilong and McLuhan is that while McLuhan shows the negative side of the world and tends to see its coming destruction, Dilong shows the helplessness of the world and at the same time 68 SLOVAKIA gives the hopeful answer to the seering problems of our generation. The following two lines Jestvovali uz vel'ki l'udia, pral'udia a ich katastr6fy. A nase prahory ostali po ich civilizaciach. (p. 23) which in Tybor's words sounds as follows: There have been great people--ancients and their catastrophic demise. And our hoary hills survived their civilization. (p. 22) are an example of Dilong's and Tybor's solution. The present day major dilemma of the human search for integrity is symbolized by Dilong's statement Na kamenny oltar nalial Elias vody a prosil Boha, aby ohen z neba spalil oltar pred tvarou pohanov, aby sa mu uverilo. (p. 31) and in Tybor's language; Elias poured water upon the stone altar and begged God to let fire from heaven consume the sacrifice in the presence of the pagans so that he would be believed. (p. 30) In fact, this book is full of such philosophical statements and it does belong to the most mature and well thought out poetry of Dilong. Dilong has been considered as an important Slovak surrealist, but this book of poetry surpasses the national limitations and should be considered a major contribution to the state of poetic arts in general. It is unique in its kind in the United States. As a man of spiritual endeavors, Dilong is most qualified to say about love the following lines: Laska sa vie udrzat' i na malom priestore. Laska nehl'ada nikdy vel'ke miesto pre seba, ale vel'ky pokoj. (p. 33) When M. Martina Tybor puts it in succint lines; Love can support itself even in little space. Love never seeks a great place for itself, just deep tranquility. (p. 32) it shows not only a great mastery on the part of Tybor's style, but it also shows a kinship to the spiritual world of Dilong. In fact, verses like these make the English translation equivalent in value to the Slovak original. The poet Dilong is an exile in several senses. He is an exile from his native Slovakia. As such, he knows the hardships of assimilation to the new life on this continent. In the second sense, he is an exile in terms of his religious order, which in a certain sense distinguishes him from the rest of the world. And thirdly, he is an exile of thought, only a select few understanding him and his plight for a more human world. All this pain and sorrow is con- SLOVAKIA 69 centrated in one man alone and he expresses his alpha and omega as an axile in a brief and succinct statement which could not be imitated even by such genial minds as that of Strmefl and sprinc. The lines in Slovak: Pri ceste t'a caka medznik, ako tvoj domov. Batoh vzdychov k nemu prinesies. (p. 45) and in M. Martina Tybor's translation: There is a landmark at the roadside, awaiting your coming as surely as your home does. Here you will set down your pack of sights. (p. 44) The tremendous sensitivity of Dilong appears through all of his poetry in which he portrays his fellow travelers through this world of rushing to nowhere in which the misunderstanding of individual human beings is the order of the day. He very humbly says: 0, Boze, bud' pri cloveku, co ide s kyjakom k nam, lebo sme vel'mi citlivi. Pomaly ide, ale isto. (p. 47) and M. Tybor understandingly and compassionately shows the exact meaning when she reflects his ideas in her own poetic language: 0 God, be with the man who comes at us with a cudgel, for we are very sensitive. Slowly he come but surely. (p. 46) Dilong's vision of the human soul, in which there is a combination of our life here on earth with a special view of the eternal life into which all of us are supposed to tend to aspire is expressed again in simple phrase coached in metaphysical symbolism like the following: Stal som pri potoku a videl som na jeho dne nebo. Ale do neba tu vstupit' nemozno. (p. 57) and in M. Tybor's words: I stood at the brookside and saw heaven in the depth of its bed. But it is not possible to enter heaven here. One could follow through the whole book and show the tremendous power of vision of the poet as well as the translator. The symbolism of the Slovak verses of Dilong are excellently matched by equal value of M. Tybor's translations. Thus, two great minds have complimented each other in original production as well as creation in the translation. It is in this sense that M. Tybor's translation should be considered very creative. The two great minds show their potential in the second 70 SLOVAKIA volume of poetry by R. Dilong, also translated by M. Tybor, Wi th Christ in His Passi on. Here we find the creed of our poet of his whole life as a priest and poet of the highest of gifts when he humbly offers himself to his Lord God whose servant he has been all his life. M. Tybor, also a servant and follower of the works of the Lord has understood the poet's dedication and translates him in clear and simple language: Christ, I fall to my knees in the hour of your death. Look, my sin-bound sleep bordered on smug tranquility and all too long it did not change to tears following upon a bad dream. Out of my heart I tell you this: the cracked amphora will be removed and where the flowers had been steeped you will fill the air of the room with a tumbler of water that you will offer me; I , too, am your flower . (p. 7) The whole book is an excellent material for religious meditation in the time of Passion. The author has poured out his whole heart to the Lord in such a way that it could be any of us kneeling in front of the crucifix and telling the Lord of all our grief and sorrow. Of course, we could not say it with the angel's tongue like R. Dilong and M. Tybor. The most difficult of thoughts and plights are expressed here in a language both original Slovak and the English translation, that it looks almost like it is beautiful to suffer. In its metaphysical sense, it is exactly what Dilong and Tybor are trying to tell us. This book, unlike the other should be read by people who have been exposed to some religious meditation, or at least understanding the meaning of Christ's Passion. It is not going to be readily understood by the atheists of our time. On the other hand, the other book is a must for every person who considers himself intelligent enough to be able to read in depth the meaning of the problems of our times. SLOVAKIA 71 III The two books of R. Dilong in an excellent translation of M. Tybor are sufficient to show that we are presented here with ideas of extraordinary dimensions unprecedented in the Slovak American cultural life. Two exquisite minds have presented us with an excellent feat for our spiritual well-being. Every American of Slovak descent should not miss reading these works. In fact they should be read by others who are interested in the present day spiritual problems of this country. However, it is one thing what one should do and another what one will actually do. If one should judge by the trends in such matters in the past, the translations will be forgotten next year and there will be no more creative work coming from either Dilong or Tybor. Of course, knowing both of them will prove that they are not easily discouraged. And rightly so. They may expect that after they are both long death, the younger generation of Americans of Slovak descent, coming fresh from their colleges, will ask their parents for the literary works of their ancestors. Some of them may not even know about such trivial matters but the young generation will find themselves. At that time, poets like Dilong and Tybor will get full appreciation. But of course, this does not have to happen this way. There are other Slovak intellectuals who came to these shores and who proved to be prominent writers. For instance, M. sprinc's book, To the Free Shores of America, is a classic. It would be good to do a research and find out how many honors were bestowed on sprinc because of this book. (He vrote others which can be considered classic, especially his essays, Letters from Coral). And Strmefl, the contemporary Dante in Slovak poetry; he received his Academic Palms from the French government for his outstanding contribution to the state of poetic arts. This honor should be considered as next in importance to the Nobel Prize. P. O'Reilly  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Renaissance of the Slovak American Literature Description An account of the resource P. O'Reilly Slovakia, Vol. 23 (No. 46), 1973 pp. 66-71 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource O'Reilly, P. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1973 name https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/a82b96779fc5c05abaf1f3ffcb4e80b0.pdf 1a1ed88603749b8b9ef7a5c67a745482 PDF Text Text 72 SLOVAKIA Cultural Revival of American And Canadian Slovaks Jozef Pa u co, Ph.D. I. During the past ten years, American and Canadian Slovaks are living a cultural revival. There are many instances to indicate this. Above all, they received support from many intellectuals who emigrated from Slovakia after the second world war. A firm collaboration was created in the cultural field, primarily through the Slovak League of America, the Canadian Slovak League, and the Slovak Institute in Cleveland-Rome. The 1100 centennial of the arrival of SS. Cyril and Methodius to Slovakia, which was celebrated auspiciously by the free Slovaks, inspired many scientific and cultural workers and awakened an interest in the past and present culture among a great number. Finally, a wave of national and cultural rebirth swept over American soil, in all aspects. During the first years of revival, preparation was quite slow, but since 1960 there was a complete flourishing in practically all educational and scientific disciplines. When at first an attempt was made to discuss cultural revival it was doubtful as to its success. The results were amazing because the third and fourth generation of American Slovaks did not yet sink in the sea of anonymity. This appears from the fact that American and Canadian Slovaks not only read but are active in Slovak life and activities. Scholarships are available sponsored by practically every Slovak organization in America. It is not extraordinary for students to receive awards for outstanding work. If a student seeks for ethnical news where scholarships are published, it is a sign of his Slovak interest. Of course all applicants must belong to the organization concerned. Amidst approximately 450,000 organized American Slovaks rnmrly 1/ 3 belong to a youth branch. 1 �SLOVAKIA 73 II. Slovak cultural educators published and sold a great number of books about Slovakia and its people and that not only in Slovak but also in English and to a certain extent French. Two goals were aimed at: 1) to bring Slovakia to the youngest Americans of Slovak extraction; 2) to inform the non-Slovak public with objective information which was, until recently, rare, .because only those spoke and wrote about Slovaks, who through various reasons were not favorable towards and did not recognize the Slovaks as a nation. In this respect it must be admitted that Slovak knowledge and publicity took a step forward. HISTORICAL WORKS Several noteworthy volumes dealing with the history of the Slovak nation, incidently the American and Canadian Slovaks, were published. Professor Gilbert L. Oddo is the author of the first complete English history of the Slovak people in which he partially despicts the history of American Slovaks.2 The work was published in three editions and is still in demand by Slovak as well as American educators. Professor Jozef M. Kirschbaum published a remarkable book3 in which he portrays important incidents of the Slovak people. Professor Jozef A. Mikus devoted his well documented treatise to the events from 1918 to 1950.4 Professor Frantisek Vnuk wrote a detailed account of the evolvement of Slovakia from autonomy to independent statehood.5 These works form the basic orientation of Slovak history. The supplement in Slovak Studies, Slovakia, and Jednota Annual Furdek, 6 provides the reader with a great deal of material, which in America concentrates and objectively casts light on Slovakian past. The hi~tory of American and Canadian Slovaks is grasped as well. The complete history in English is found in Canada. It was written on the basis of a dissertation and strictly according to scientific form by Professor Jozef M. Kirschbaum. 7 Canada and ethnic critics accepted this work with highest honors. �74 SLOVAKIA The First Catholic Slovak Union published a detailed history about its organization.8 Even though it concerns the history of one organization, this book contains such material touching upon all phases of American Slovaks in-as-much as the First Catholic Slovak Union played an exceptionally significant role in their lives. A history of the Slovak League of America was published in English. 9 To this work we must add a meaningful chapter about the Pittsburgh Pact written by Peter P. Hletko. 10 Both publications offer the students o! American Slovak life adequate research material for the study of attitudes towards Slovakia. Practically every American Slovak organization has a chronicle review in its calendars or memoirs. Even the American Slovak parishes brief chronicles or histories of their parishes, at first in Slovak, later bi-lingual, and finally just English. In the United States and later in Canada, Slovak religious orders played and are playing an important role. The history of all the Slovak religious orders was compiled by Professor Francis Hrusovsky. 11 The accomplishment was of high quality and well documented. The congregation of the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius which began in America in 1909 has its own history; 12 so do the Slovak Franciscan Fathers.13 Both works were written by members of the respective religious orders. In addition, it is well to mention a miriad of books or periodicals containing biographies of leading American Slovaks particularly of pioneer days. The greater number were printed in Slovak.14 These and other works as well as those of the Slovak Institute and other cultural Slovak-American Institutes developed an interest in students of Slovak origin, about the past of the Slovak nation, its culture and politics. Upon this basis many academic thesis developed. The author of this article receives at least five inquiries annually for suggestions of topics regarding Slovak life. The Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius wrote more than twenty thesis many of which undergo severe departmental criticism. 15 Particular emphasis is placed upon the historical era of SS. Cyril and Methodius. To attain this goal Slovak Studies aided greatly by publishing many technical con- �SLOVAKIA 75 tribution in one volume. 16 A well known historian of the Cyrilo-Methodian era, Michal Lacko, wrote the biography of the Apostles and the Slavonic nations, in general. 17 Sister M. Martina Tybor wrote the Junior and Senior edition of SS. Cyril and Methodius, who are the patrons of her congregation.18 Most 1963 presented an expanded appraisal of the SS. Cyril and Methodius traditions among Slovaks. The history of the persecution of the church under communism was very well written by Father Teodorik J. Zubek, 0. F. M. in a documentary volume and other opportune studies.19 Sister Cecilia revealed the unbearable conditions, as she beheld and lived through them under the Communist regime. 20 Further attempts were made to enlighten this tragic period of the church, hierarchy, priesthood, religious orders, and the people of God. 21 In western Europe and South America free Slovaks published books in other languages, principally German , French, Italian and Spanish in which they dealt with the Slovak tragedy after 1945 as well as specific problems which painfully were incorporated in the history of the Slovak nation. In this regard the most valuable works were edited by Bishop Paul Hnilica, Msgr. Stefan Nahalka, Msgr. Jozef Tomko, Rev. Stanislav :C>urica and Rev. Michal Lacko in Italy; Rev. Vojtech Bucko, Dr. Ferdinand :C>urcansky and Kristof Greiner in West Germany; P. G. Dobis in Austria; Dr. Arved Grebert in Switzerland; Dr. Stefan Glejdura in Spain; Dr. Stanislav Meciar, Dr. Ernest zatko and Alojz Macek in Argentina. 22 LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE While the history of the Slovak nation and AmericanCanadian Slovaks have a sufficient representation in English, the history of Slovak Literature and language awaits further elaboration. Basic studies emanated in single, particularly cited annuals or individual articles. Most attention to those themes was devoted by Professor Jozef M. Kirschbaum, Msgr. Jan Rekem , and professor Frantisek Vnuk. While Dr. Kirschbaum and Dr. Rekem occupied themselves with individual periods of Slovak literature and development of the language of the past, Vnuk concentrated upon strengthening Slovak literature. 23 �76 SLOVAKIA Language studies of a practical nature are properly represented. Modern textbooks in Slovak language were compiled by Mother M. Emerencia, SS.C.M., S. E. Bue, Filip A. Hrobak and Konus. 24 Among the best dictionaries are those of Hrobak and Konus.25 NEWSPAPERS AND ALMANACS Editors and co-workers of American and Canadian Slovak newspapers in Slovak and in the past few years in English are returning to the problem concerned with preservation of national consciousness, cultural, ethnical awareness, enlightening the public with various phases of Slovak life. Representative voices of the third generation of Slovaks in the news methods and articles are not lacking. Emphasis, however, is placed upon the preservation of Slovak cultural inheritance. In this regard the Jednota, Katolicky Sokol, Narodne Noviny, zivena and Kanadsk?} Slovak are performing a great work in the English language. The technical and representative review Most, Literdrny Almanach, Slovak v Amerike, and other newspapers are returning to the all-Slovak problems exclusively in the Slovak language.26 Literarny Almanach, Slovak v Amerike and Slovak Studies published an outlook upon the events of the cultural activities of Slovak writers, leaders, poets, artists, and news editors. The reports are not complete, but they are sufficient evidence to assure the unprejudiced reader that in the revival of Slovak cultural life in America are intellectuals who do not want to stifle the development of Americanization, but they do not want to speed it up . They strive to evolve in this field as much as other ethnic groups. It is not coincidental that in the preparation of ethnic cultural centers, American Slovaks wish to enkindle appropriate roles equal to their number and missions. 27 In the United States and Canada, after the Second Vatican Council, Slovak liturgy is heard in practically every Slovak Roman Catholic parish. Even in churches of Lutheran denomination, the liturgy is Slovak. As we shall see in next chapter the sale of prayer books in the Slovak language is widespread. At Slovak picnics, which are held by the hundreds, �SLOVAKIA 77 every summer, in the United States and Canada, Slovak music and songs are heard. In like manner, these are heard at weddings, even to the third and fourth generation. Slovak songs and music binds and deepens Slovak consciousness more than enything else. Slovak records are being made in practically every city where Slovaks live and at least one musician versed in Slovak folk songs and dances is found. In the past few years professional Slovak singing and dance groups were organized. The leading ones are in Toronto and Montreal, followed by Detroit, Chicago, and New York. At conventions of American-Slovak and Canadian-Slovak organizations the Slovak language is still used, even though less than the English. Official reports and minutes are written bi-lingually in spite of the fact that the pioneer generation of Slovak immigrants, especially in America, bas no representation at the conventions. III Another indication of cultural awakening among American and Canadian Slovaks is the sale of books. During the past five years, 113,755 Slovak books and 450,000 pamphlets were sold in North America. This number includes 61,215 scientific, popular science, and novels; 65,000 pamphlets; 52,540 religious books and 385,000 religious pamphlets. The number of English books about the Slovaks 31,248; Slovak-English and English-Slovak dictionaries and textbooks sold amounted to 14,195. Altogether during the past five years 159,198 books in English or Slovak about Slovaks were sold, in addition to 450,000 pamphlets. The greatest number of books were sold by the First Catholic Slovak Union: 49,008. The greatest number of religious books, 32,000, were sold by the Slovak Franciscan Fathers. Books were sold by the Slovak Institute of SS. Cyril and Methodius, Slovak Jesuit Fathers, Sisters of St. Dominic (Oxford, Mich.), Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius, and �78 SLOVAKIA other smaller publishers, namely Slovak v Amerike, Slovenskd Obrana, Rev. Frantisek Fuga and others.28 During the past five years 5,200 maps of Slovakia29 were sold and 45,400 Slovak records were distributed. 30 IV It is difficult to estim8.te how many Slovaks live in America and what per cent of American inhabitants consist of Slovak immigrants and their descendants. It is generally admitted that the people of ethnic groups number not less than 30,000,000. How many Americans are of Slovak ancestry? The statistics of the Slovak Academy of Science in Bratislava report that up to 1921 when mass emigration ceased, 867,720 Slovaks emigrated to America. 31 It is true that some of these retlirned to their homeland. However, approximately 500,000 remained in America. Today there are three generations of Slovak origin in the United States. If we calculated that each family has at least four children, then emphasising that three million Slovaks live in America is a conservative number. The question is, to what extent do these American citizens of Slovak ancestry feel their Slovak heritage. We can judge this through the aid of organizations and newspapers. Slovak-American organizations have more than 450,000 members; newspapers around 150,000 subscribers. This does not include various parish societies and clubs of all sects. There are over 400 Slovak parishes. All organized American-Slovaks with their families create at least 2,000,000 citizens who can be included to a greater or lesser extent as conscious Slovaks. There are about 70,000 Slovaks in Canada.32 Since practically all Slovak emigrees came to Canada after the first world war, we do not exaggerate when we emphasize that the Slovak spirit lives on not only in the first but also in the second and third generation of Canadian Slovaks. FOOTNOTES 1) Slovakia, Middletown, Pa.: Slovak League of America, XX, Ne. 43, pp. 105-121; XXI, No. 44, pp. 109-144. �SLOVAKIA 79 2) Gilbert L. Oddo, Slovakia and Its People, New York: Robert Speller and Sons, 1960. 3) J. M. Kirschbaum, Slovakia: Nation at the Crossroads of Central Europe, New York: Robert Speller and Sons, 1960. 4) Joseph A. Mikus, Slovakia-A Political History, Milwaukee, Wis. : Marquette University Press, 1964. The same work is in French: La Slovaquie dans le drame de L 'Europe, Paris: Les Iles d'or, 1955. 5) F. Vnuk, Slovakia's Six Eventful Months (October 1938-March 1939) . Rome: Slovak Institute, Cleveland-Rome, 1964. He devoted much attention to Communistic politics. The following work is very important: Historical Outline of the Communist Party of Slovakia, Middletown, Pa.: Slovak v Amerike, 1968. Another important work is that of F rantisek Vnuk, Neuveritel'ne sprisahanie: vojenske a politicke akcie proti Slovenskej republike v roku 1944 (English resume), Middletown, Pa.: Slovak v Amerike, 1964. 6) Slovak Studies, Rome, Italy: Slovak Institute, Cleveland-Rome, 19611967, VII Volumes. Slovakia, Middletown, Pa.: Slovak League of America, 1951-1971, XXI Volumes. Jednota Annual Furdek, Middletown, Pa.: First Catholic Slovak Union, 1962-1971, X Vol. 7) J. M. Kirschbaum, Slovaks in Canada, Toronto, Canada: Canadian Ethnic Press Association of Ontario, Toronto, Canada, 1967. 8) Jozef Pauco, Ph.D., 75 rokov Prvej Katolickej Slovenskej Jednoty, Cleveland, Ohio: First Catholic Slovak Union, 1965. 9) Joseph Pauco, Ph.D., (Ed.) 60 Years of the Slovak League of America, Middletown, Pa.: Slovak League of America, 1967. 10) Peter P. IDetko, M.D., The Slovaks and the Pittsburgh Pact, Slovakia, XVIII, No. 41, pp. 5-54. 11) Frantisek Hru~ovsky, Ph.D., Slovenske rehole v Amerike, Cleveland, Ohio: Slovak Institute at the abbey of St. Andrew-Svorad, 1955. 12) Mother M. Emerentia Petrasek, Brief History of the Congregation of the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius, Danville, Pa. , 1959. 13) Richard Portasik, O.F.M., Slovak Franciscans in America, History of the Most Holy Savior Commissariate, 1926-1966, Pittsburgh, Pa.: Franciscan Fathers, 1966. 14) Here are for instance: Jozef Pauco, Stefan Furdek a slovenske prist'ahovalectvo, Middletown, Pa., J ednota, 1955. Jozef Pauco, MatitS Jankola, knaz a narodovec, Danville, Pa., Congregation of the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius, 1959. A host of other contributions by the same author about the Slovak pioneers in America in the newspaper JEDNOTA, Middletown, Pa., The annual Furdek contributed English articles about the Slovak peoples in almost every edition. �SLOVAKIA 80 15) The well known are: Sister M. Consuela Gregorovich, Contribution of Rev. Matthew Jankola to Slovak Education in the United States, 1944. Sister M. Delphine Opet, SS.C.M., Political Views of Dudovit Stur, Slovakia, XXI, No. 44, pp. 20-78. S. E. Bue, Slovak Nationalism, Middletown, Pa.: Slovak League of America, 1960. M. G. Woytko, Slovakia's Road to Statehood, Whiting, Indiana, Lach Publications, 1956. 16) Slovak Studies, Vol. III, Cyrilomethodiana, Rome, Italy, 1963. 17) M. Lacko, The Life of Saints Cyril and Methodius, Rome: Slovak Institute, Cleveland-Rome, 1963. Second Edition, 1970. Here is an additionally important work: Smrzik, The Glagolitic or Roman-Slavonic Liturgy, Cleveland, Ohio: Slovak Institute, 1959. 18) Sister Martina Tybor, Saints Cyril and Methodius, Milwaukee, Wis ., Bruce Publishing Co., Senior and Junior edition. 19) Theodoric J. Zubek, O.F.M., S.T.D., The Church of Silence in Slovakia, Whiting, Indiana, Lach Publications, 1956.: Slovak BishopsMartyrs of Christ, Toronto, Ontario, Canadian Slovak League, 1963.; Slovak Clergy in History and Culture, Middletown, Pa., First Catholic Slovak Union, 1970. 20) Sister Cecilia, The Deliverance of Sister Cecilia, New York, New York, Farrar, Straus and Young, First Printing, 1954. 21) For example: Jozef Pauco, Unconquerables, New York, Vantage Press, 1958.; Christian Slovakia under Communism, Valparaiso , Indiana, Slovak Catholic Federation of America, 1953. 22) More accurate facts in the Literarny Almanach Slovaka v Amerike, "Predstavitelia slovenskej kulturnej tvorby," 1967, pp. 113-252 and Slovak Studies, Vol. VII, Bibliography, Rome, Italy: Slovak Institute, Cleveland-Rome, 1967. 23) J.M. Kirschbaum, nudovit Stur and His Place in the Slav-tc World, Cleveland, Ohio.: Slovak Institute, 1953.: Pavel Jozef Safarik and His Contribution to Slavic Studies, Cleveland-Winnipeg, Slavistica No. 43, 1962. Literature of the Cyrilo-Methodian Period and Slova,. kia, Cleveland, Ohio.: Slovak Institute, 1964.; Anton Bernolak, the First Codifier of the Slovak Language, Winnipeg-Cleveland, Ohio: Slavistica No. 52, 1964. Jan Kollar-Slovak Poet of Panslavism, Winnipeg-Toronto: Slavistica No. LVI, 1966. J. Rekem, The Origin and Development of the Slovak Language, Middletown, Pa.: Jednota, 1962. Slovak Litcratiire and National Consciousness Before Anton Bernolak (1762-1813), Cleveland, Ohio, Slovak Institute, 1965. Frantisek Vnuk, Sedemnast' neurodnych rokov (excerpts from the history of Slovak literature, 1945-1962) , Middletown, Pa.; Slovak v Amerike, English resume, 1965. 24) Mother M. Emerentia, Steps in Elementary Slovak, Hazleton, Pa., Sisters of Saints Cyril and Methodius, I, II, III, 1959.; Rev. Bonaventure S. Bue, O.F.M., Ph.D., Slovak Language Laboratory Course, Cleveland, Ohio: The First Catholic Slovak Union, 1968.; Philip A. �SLOVAKIA 81 Hrobak, Slovak Lessons, Middletown, Pa., 1949.; Let's Learn Slovak, Middletown, Pa., 1959.; Slovak for Beginners, Middletown, Pa., I, IT, III, 1963.; J. Konus, Practical Slovak Grammar, Pittsburgh, Pa., 1939. A good service was rendered in the work of Henrich Bartek, Slovensky pravopis s gramatickymi pouckami a slovnikom, Whiting, Ind., Rev. John Lach, 1956. A textbook in the Slovak language was prepared also by Sister M. Gabriel, SS.C.M. and Stefan Blasko. 25) Hrobak's English-Slovak Dictionary, Middletown, Pa., 1944. Second Printing, New York, N.Y.; Robert Speller and Sons, 1965. J. J.Konus, Slov ensko-anglicky slovnik, Slovak-English Dictionary, Federation of Slovak Catholics in America, 1930.; Slovak-English Dictionary, Passaic, N. J.: Slovak Catholic Sokol, 1970. 26) Jednota, Middletown, Pa., Official Organ of the First Catholic Slovak Union. Katolicky Sokol, Passaic, N. J., Official Organ of the Slovak Catholic Sokol. Narodne Noviny, Pittsburgh, Pa., Official Organ of the National Slovak Society. Zivena, Pittsburgh, Pa., Official Organ of the 2ivena Beneficial Society. Kanadsky Slovak, Toronto, Ont., Canada, Official Organ of the Canadian Slovak League. Most, Cleveland, Ohio. Literarny Almanach Slovaka v Amerike, Middletown, Pa. Slovak v Amerike, Middletown, Pa. Details of Slovak newspapers in America are presented by Konstantin Culen in:Slovenske casopisy v Amerike, Cleveland, Ohio: First Catholic Slovak Union, 1970. 27) The Slovak League of America worked with American Slovaks within 31 states regarding the bill S23 sponsored by U. S. Senator Richard S. Schweiker (R.-Pa.). 28) The author of this paper personally ascertained the number of books sold by various publishers. 29) The map was printed by the Slovak Institute, Cleveland. 30) Books, with the exception of dictionaries and textbooks, sent by the Communist regime in Slovakia are sold in very small numbers. However, the records made by the singing group SL'UK are in great demand. 31) J. M. Kirschbaum, The Assimilation Process of American Slovaks, Slovakia XII, No. 44, pp. 79-84. 32) J . M. Kirschbaum, Slovaks in Canada, p. 4. * * * THE SLOVAK LEAGUE OF AMERICA represents an overwhelming majority of organized Americans of Slovak descent; actively affiliated with it are the large5t Slova k traternals, religious organizations, Slovak Clubs and Slovak civic organizations in the United States . � 72 SLOVAKIA Cultural Revival of American And Canadian Slovaks Jozef Pa u co, Ph.D. I. During the past ten years, American and Canadian Slovaks are living a cultural revival. There are many instances to indicate this. Above all, they received support from many intellectuals who emigrated from Slovakia after the second world war. A firm collaboration was created in the cultural field, primarily through the Slovak League of America, the Canadian Slovak League, and the Slovak Institute in Cleveland-Rome. The 1100 centennial of the arrival of SS. Cyril and Methodius to Slovakia, which was celebrated auspiciously by the free Slovaks, inspired many scientific and cultural workers and awakened an interest in the past and present culture among a great number. Finally, a wave of national and cultural rebirth swept over American soil, in all aspects. During the first years of revival, preparation was quite slow, but since 1960 there was a complete flourishing in practically all educational and scientific disciplines. When at first an attempt was made to discuss cultural revival it was doubtful as to its success. The results were amazing because the third and fourth generation of American Slovaks did not yet sink in the sea of anonymity. This appears from the fact that American and Canadian Slovaks not only read but are active in Slovak life and activities. Scholarships are available sponsored by practically every Slovak organization in America. It is not extraordinary for students to receive awards for outstanding work. If a student seeks for ethnical news where scholarships are published, it is a sign of his Slovak interest. Of course all applicants must belong to the organization concerned. Amidst approximately 450,000 organized American Slovaks rnmrly 1/ 3 belong to a youth branch. 1 �SLOVAKIA 73 II. Slovak cultural educators published and sold a great number of books about Slovakia and its people and that not only in Slovak but also in English and to a certain extent French. Two goals were aimed at: 1) to bring Slovakia to the youngest Americans of Slovak extraction; 2) to inform the non-Slovak public with objective information which was, until recently, rare, .because only those spoke and wrote about Slovaks, who through various reasons were not favorable towards and did not recognize the Slovaks as a nation. In this respect it must be admitted that Slovak knowledge and publicity took a step forward. HISTORICAL WORKS Several noteworthy volumes dealing with the history of the Slovak nation, incidently the American and Canadian Slovaks, were published. Professor Gilbert L. Oddo is the author of the first complete English history of the Slovak people in which he partially despicts the history of American Slovaks.2 The work was published in three editions and is still in demand by Slovak as well as American educators. Professor Jozef M. Kirschbaum published a remarkable book3 in which he portrays important incidents of the Slovak people. Professor Jozef A. Mikus devoted his well documented treatise to the events from 1918 to 1950.4 Professor Frantisek Vnuk wrote a detailed account of the evolvement of Slovakia from autonomy to independent statehood.5 These works form the basic orientation of Slovak history. The supplement in Slovak Studies, Slovakia, and Jednota Annual Furdek, 6 provides the reader with a great deal of material, which in America concentrates and objectively casts light on Slovakian past. The hi~tory of American and Canadian Slovaks is grasped as well. The complete history in English is found in Canada. It was written on the basis of a dissertation and strictly according to scientific form by Professor Jozef M. Kirschbaum. 7 Canada and ethnic critics accepted this work with highest honors. �74 SLOVAKIA The First Catholic Slovak Union published a detailed history about its organization.8 Even though it concerns the history of one organization, this book contains such material touching upon all phases of American Slovaks in-as-much as the First Catholic Slovak Union played an exceptionally significant role in their lives. A history of the Slovak League of America was published in English. 9 To this work we must add a meaningful chapter about the Pittsburgh Pact written by Peter P. Hletko. 10 Both publications offer the students o! American Slovak life adequate research material for the study of attitudes towards Slovakia. Practically every American Slovak organization has a chronicle review in its calendars or memoirs. Even the American Slovak parishes brief chronicles or histories of their parishes, at first in Slovak, later bi-lingual, and finally just English. In the United States and later in Canada, Slovak religious orders played and are playing an important role. The history of all the Slovak religious orders was compiled by Professor Francis Hrusovsky. 11 The accomplishment was of high quality and well documented. The congregation of the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius which began in America in 1909 has its own history; 12 so do the Slovak Franciscan Fathers.13 Both works were written by members of the respective religious orders. In addition, it is well to mention a miriad of books or periodicals containing biographies of leading American Slovaks particularly of pioneer days. The greater number were printed in Slovak.14 These and other works as well as those of the Slovak Institute and other cultural Slovak-American Institutes developed an interest in students of Slovak origin, about the past of the Slovak nation, its culture and politics. Upon this basis many academic thesis developed. The author of this article receives at least five inquiries annually for suggestions of topics regarding Slovak life. The Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius wrote more than twenty thesis many of which undergo severe departmental criticism. 15 Particular emphasis is placed upon the historical era of SS. Cyril and Methodius. To attain this goal Slovak Studies aided greatly by publishing many technical con- �SLOVAKIA 75 tribution in one volume. 16 A well known historian of the Cyrilo-Methodian era, Michal Lacko, wrote the biography of the Apostles and the Slavonic nations, in general. 17 Sister M. Martina Tybor wrote the Junior and Senior edition of SS. Cyril and Methodius, who are the patrons of her congregation.18 Most 1963 presented an expanded appraisal of the SS. Cyril and Methodius traditions among Slovaks. The history of the persecution of the church under communism was very well written by Father Teodorik J. Zubek, 0. F. M. in a documentary volume and other opportune studies.19 Sister Cecilia revealed the unbearable conditions, as she beheld and lived through them under the Communist regime. 20 Further attempts were made to enlighten this tragic period of the church, hierarchy, priesthood, religious orders, and the people of God. 21 In western Europe and South America free Slovaks published books in other languages, principally German , French, Italian and Spanish in which they dealt with the Slovak tragedy after 1945 as well as specific problems which painfully were incorporated in the history of the Slovak nation. In this regard the most valuable works were edited by Bishop Paul Hnilica, Msgr. Stefan Nahalka, Msgr. Jozef Tomko, Rev. Stanislav :C>urica and Rev. Michal Lacko in Italy; Rev. Vojtech Bucko, Dr. Ferdinand :C>urcansky and Kristof Greiner in West Germany; P. G. Dobis in Austria; Dr. Arved Grebert in Switzerland; Dr. Stefan Glejdura in Spain; Dr. Stanislav Meciar, Dr. Ernest zatko and Alojz Macek in Argentina. 22 LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE While the history of the Slovak nation and AmericanCanadian Slovaks have a sufficient representation in English, the history of Slovak Literature and language awaits further elaboration. Basic studies emanated in single, particularly cited annuals or individual articles. Most attention to those themes was devoted by Professor Jozef M. Kirschbaum, Msgr. Jan Rekem , and professor Frantisek Vnuk. While Dr. Kirschbaum and Dr. Rekem occupied themselves with individual periods of Slovak literature and development of the language of the past, Vnuk concentrated upon strengthening Slovak literature. 23 �76 SLOVAKIA Language studies of a practical nature are properly represented. Modern textbooks in Slovak language were compiled by Mother M. Emerencia, SS.C.M., S. E. Bue, Filip A. Hrobak and Konus. 24 Among the best dictionaries are those of Hrobak and Konus.25 NEWSPAPERS AND ALMANACS Editors and co-workers of American and Canadian Slovak newspapers in Slovak and in the past few years in English are returning to the problem concerned with preservation of national consciousness, cultural, ethnical awareness, enlightening the public with various phases of Slovak life. Representative voices of the third generation of Slovaks in the news methods and articles are not lacking. Emphasis, however, is placed upon the preservation of Slovak cultural inheritance. In this regard the Jednota, Katolicky Sokol, Narodne Noviny, zivena and Kanadsk?} Slovak are performing a great work in the English language. The technical and representative review Most, Literdrny Almanach, Slovak v Amerike, and other newspapers are returning to the all-Slovak problems exclusively in the Slovak language.26 Literarny Almanach, Slovak v Amerike and Slovak Studies published an outlook upon the events of the cultural activities of Slovak writers, leaders, poets, artists, and news editors. The reports are not complete, but they are sufficient evidence to assure the unprejudiced reader that in the revival of Slovak cultural life in America are intellectuals who do not want to stifle the development of Americanization, but they do not want to speed it up . They strive to evolve in this field as much as other ethnic groups. It is not coincidental that in the preparation of ethnic cultural centers, American Slovaks wish to enkindle appropriate roles equal to their number and missions. 27 In the United States and Canada, after the Second Vatican Council, Slovak liturgy is heard in practically every Slovak Roman Catholic parish. Even in churches of Lutheran denomination, the liturgy is Slovak. As we shall see in next chapter the sale of prayer books in the Slovak language is widespread. At Slovak picnics, which are held by the hundreds, �SLOVAKIA 77 every summer, in the United States and Canada, Slovak music and songs are heard. In like manner, these are heard at weddings, even to the third and fourth generation. Slovak songs and music binds and deepens Slovak consciousness more than enything else. Slovak records are being made in practically every city where Slovaks live and at least one musician versed in Slovak folk songs and dances is found. In the past few years professional Slovak singing and dance groups were organized. The leading ones are in Toronto and Montreal, followed by Detroit, Chicago, and New York. At conventions of American-Slovak and Canadian-Slovak organizations the Slovak language is still used, even though less than the English. Official reports and minutes are written bi-lingually in spite of the fact that the pioneer generation of Slovak immigrants, especially in America, bas no representation at the conventions. III Another indication of cultural awakening among American and Canadian Slovaks is the sale of books. During the past five years, 113,755 Slovak books and 450,000 pamphlets were sold in North America. This number includes 61,215 scientific, popular science, and novels; 65,000 pamphlets; 52,540 religious books and 385,000 religious pamphlets. The number of English books about the Slovaks 31,248; Slovak-English and English-Slovak dictionaries and textbooks sold amounted to 14,195. Altogether during the past five years 159,198 books in English or Slovak about Slovaks were sold, in addition to 450,000 pamphlets. The greatest number of books were sold by the First Catholic Slovak Union: 49,008. The greatest number of religious books, 32,000, were sold by the Slovak Franciscan Fathers. Books were sold by the Slovak Institute of SS. Cyril and Methodius, Slovak Jesuit Fathers, Sisters of St. Dominic (Oxford, Mich.), Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius, and �78 SLOVAKIA other smaller publishers, namely Slovak v Amerike, Slovenskd Obrana, Rev. Frantisek Fuga and others.28 During the past five years 5,200 maps of Slovakia29 were sold and 45,400 Slovak records were distributed. 30 IV It is difficult to estim8.te how many Slovaks live in America and what per cent of American inhabitants consist of Slovak immigrants and their descendants. It is generally admitted that the people of ethnic groups number not less than 30,000,000. How many Americans are of Slovak ancestry? The statistics of the Slovak Academy of Science in Bratislava report that up to 1921 when mass emigration ceased, 867,720 Slovaks emigrated to America. 31 It is true that some of these retlirned to their homeland. However, approximately 500,000 remained in America. Today there are three generations of Slovak origin in the United States. If we calculated that each family has at least four children, then emphasising that three million Slovaks live in America is a conservative number. The question is, to what extent do these American citizens of Slovak ancestry feel their Slovak heritage. We can judge this through the aid of organizations and newspapers. Slovak-American organizations have more than 450,000 members; newspapers around 150,000 subscribers. This does not include various parish societies and clubs of all sects. There are over 400 Slovak parishes. All organized American-Slovaks with their families create at least 2,000,000 citizens who can be included to a greater or lesser extent as conscious Slovaks. There are about 70,000 Slovaks in Canada.32 Since practically all Slovak emigrees came to Canada after the first world war, we do not exaggerate when we emphasize that the Slovak spirit lives on not only in the first but also in the second and third generation of Canadian Slovaks. FOOTNOTES 1) Slovakia, Middletown, Pa.: Slovak League of America, XX, Ne. 43, pp. 105-121; XXI, No. 44, pp. 109-144. �SLOVAKIA 79 2) Gilbert L. Oddo, Slovakia and Its People, New York: Robert Speller and Sons, 1960. 3) J. M. Kirschbaum, Slovakia: Nation at the Crossroads of Central Europe, New York: Robert Speller and Sons, 1960. 4) Joseph A. Mikus, Slovakia-A Political History, Milwaukee, Wis. : Marquette University Press, 1964. The same work is in French: La Slovaquie dans le drame de L 'Europe, Paris: Les Iles d'or, 1955. 5) F. Vnuk, Slovakia's Six Eventful Months (October 1938-March 1939) . Rome: Slovak Institute, Cleveland-Rome, 1964. He devoted much attention to Communistic politics. The following work is very important: Historical Outline of the Communist Party of Slovakia, Middletown, Pa.: Slovak v Amerike, 1968. Another important work is that of F rantisek Vnuk, Neuveritel'ne sprisahanie: vojenske a politicke akcie proti Slovenskej republike v roku 1944 (English resume), Middletown, Pa.: Slovak v Amerike, 1964. 6) Slovak Studies, Rome, Italy: Slovak Institute, Cleveland-Rome, 19611967, VII Volumes. Slovakia, Middletown, Pa.: Slovak League of America, 1951-1971, XXI Volumes. Jednota Annual Furdek, Middletown, Pa.: First Catholic Slovak Union, 1962-1971, X Vol. 7) J. M. Kirschbaum, Slovaks in Canada, Toronto, Canada: Canadian Ethnic Press Association of Ontario, Toronto, Canada, 1967. 8) Jozef Pauco, Ph.D., 75 rokov Prvej Katolickej Slovenskej Jednoty, Cleveland, Ohio: First Catholic Slovak Union, 1965. 9) Joseph Pauco, Ph.D., (Ed.) 60 Years of the Slovak League of America, Middletown, Pa.: Slovak League of America, 1967. 10) Peter P. IDetko, M.D., The Slovaks and the Pittsburgh Pact, Slovakia, XVIII, No. 41, pp. 5-54. 11) Frantisek Hru~ovsky, Ph.D., Slovenske rehole v Amerike, Cleveland, Ohio: Slovak Institute at the abbey of St. Andrew-Svorad, 1955. 12) Mother M. Emerentia Petrasek, Brief History of the Congregation of the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius, Danville, Pa. , 1959. 13) Richard Portasik, O.F.M., Slovak Franciscans in America, History of the Most Holy Savior Commissariate, 1926-1966, Pittsburgh, Pa.: Franciscan Fathers, 1966. 14) Here are for instance: Jozef Pauco, Stefan Furdek a slovenske prist'ahovalectvo, Middletown, Pa., J ednota, 1955. Jozef Pauco, MatitS Jankola, knaz a narodovec, Danville, Pa., Congregation of the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius, 1959. A host of other contributions by the same author about the Slovak pioneers in America in the newspaper JEDNOTA, Middletown, Pa., The annual Furdek contributed English articles about the Slovak peoples in almost every edition. �SLOVAKIA 80 15) The well known are: Sister M. Consuela Gregorovich, Contribution of Rev. Matthew Jankola to Slovak Education in the United States, 1944. Sister M. Delphine Opet, SS.C.M., Political Views of Dudovit Stur, Slovakia, XXI, No. 44, pp. 20-78. S. E. Bue, Slovak Nationalism, Middletown, Pa.: Slovak League of America, 1960. M. G. Woytko, Slovakia's Road to Statehood, Whiting, Indiana, Lach Publications, 1956. 16) Slovak Studies, Vol. III, Cyrilomethodiana, Rome, Italy, 1963. 17) M. Lacko, The Life of Saints Cyril and Methodius, Rome: Slovak Institute, Cleveland-Rome, 1963. Second Edition, 1970. Here is an additionally important work: Smrzik, The Glagolitic or Roman-Slavonic Liturgy, Cleveland, Ohio: Slovak Institute, 1959. 18) Sister Martina Tybor, Saints Cyril and Methodius, Milwaukee, Wis ., Bruce Publishing Co., Senior and Junior edition. 19) Theodoric J. Zubek, O.F.M., S.T.D., The Church of Silence in Slovakia, Whiting, Indiana, Lach Publications, 1956.: Slovak BishopsMartyrs of Christ, Toronto, Ontario, Canadian Slovak League, 1963.; Slovak Clergy in History and Culture, Middletown, Pa., First Catholic Slovak Union, 1970. 20) Sister Cecilia, The Deliverance of Sister Cecilia, New York, New York, Farrar, Straus and Young, First Printing, 1954. 21) For example: Jozef Pauco, Unconquerables, New York, Vantage Press, 1958.; Christian Slovakia under Communism, Valparaiso , Indiana, Slovak Catholic Federation of America, 1953. 22) More accurate facts in the Literarny Almanach Slovaka v Amerike, "Predstavitelia slovenskej kulturnej tvorby," 1967, pp. 113-252 and Slovak Studies, Vol. VII, Bibliography, Rome, Italy: Slovak Institute, Cleveland-Rome, 1967. 23) J.M. Kirschbaum, nudovit Stur and His Place in the Slav-tc World, Cleveland, Ohio.: Slovak Institute, 1953.: Pavel Jozef Safarik and His Contribution to Slavic Studies, Cleveland-Winnipeg, Slavistica No. 43, 1962. Literature of the Cyrilo-Methodian Period and Slova,. kia, Cleveland, Ohio.: Slovak Institute, 1964.; Anton Bernolak, the First Codifier of the Slovak Language, Winnipeg-Cleveland, Ohio: Slavistica No. 52, 1964. Jan Kollar-Slovak Poet of Panslavism, Winnipeg-Toronto: Slavistica No. LVI, 1966. J. Rekem, The Origin and Development of the Slovak Language, Middletown, Pa.: Jednota, 1962. Slovak Litcratiire and National Consciousness Before Anton Bernolak (1762-1813), Cleveland, Ohio, Slovak Institute, 1965. Frantisek Vnuk, Sedemnast' neurodnych rokov (excerpts from the history of Slovak literature, 1945-1962) , Middletown, Pa.; Slovak v Amerike, English resume, 1965. 24) Mother M. Emerentia, Steps in Elementary Slovak, Hazleton, Pa., Sisters of Saints Cyril and Methodius, I, II, III, 1959.; Rev. Bonaventure S. Bue, O.F.M., Ph.D., Slovak Language Laboratory Course, Cleveland, Ohio: The First Catholic Slovak Union, 1968.; Philip A. �SLOVAKIA 81 Hrobak, Slovak Lessons, Middletown, Pa., 1949.; Let's Learn Slovak, Middletown, Pa., 1959.; Slovak for Beginners, Middletown, Pa., I, IT, III, 1963.; J. Konus, Practical Slovak Grammar, Pittsburgh, Pa., 1939. A good service was rendered in the work of Henrich Bartek, Slovensky pravopis s gramatickymi pouckami a slovnikom, Whiting, Ind., Rev. John Lach, 1956. A textbook in the Slovak language was prepared also by Sister M. Gabriel, SS.C.M. and Stefan Blasko. 25) Hrobak's English-Slovak Dictionary, Middletown, Pa., 1944. Second Printing, New York, N.Y.; Robert Speller and Sons, 1965. J. J.Konus, Slov ensko-anglicky slovnik, Slovak-English Dictionary, Federation of Slovak Catholics in America, 1930.; Slovak-English Dictionary, Passaic, N. J.: Slovak Catholic Sokol, 1970. 26) Jednota, Middletown, Pa., Official Organ of the First Catholic Slovak Union. Katolicky Sokol, Passaic, N. J., Official Organ of the Slovak Catholic Sokol. Narodne Noviny, Pittsburgh, Pa., Official Organ of the National Slovak Society. Zivena, Pittsburgh, Pa., Official Organ of the 2ivena Beneficial Society. Kanadsky Slovak, Toronto, Ont., Canada, Official Organ of the Canadian Slovak League. Most, Cleveland, Ohio. Literarny Almanach Slovaka v Amerike, Middletown, Pa. Slovak v Amerike, Middletown, Pa. Details of Slovak newspapers in America are presented by Konstantin Culen in:Slovenske casopisy v Amerike, Cleveland, Ohio: First Catholic Slovak Union, 1970. 27) The Slovak League of America worked with American Slovaks within 31 states regarding the bill S23 sponsored by U. S. Senator Richard S. Schweiker (R.-Pa.). 28) The author of this paper personally ascertained the number of books sold by various publishers. 29) The map was printed by the Slovak Institute, Cleveland. 30) Books, with the exception of dictionaries and textbooks, sent by the Communist regime in Slovakia are sold in very small numbers. However, the records made by the singing group SL'UK are in great demand. 31) J. M. Kirschbaum, The Assimilation Process of American Slovaks, Slovakia XII, No. 44, pp. 79-84. 32) J . M. Kirschbaum, Slovaks in Canada, p. 4. * * * THE SLOVAK LEAGUE OF AMERICA represents an overwhelming majority of organized Americans of Slovak descent; actively affiliated with it are the large5t Slova k traternals, religious organizations, Slovak Clubs and Slovak civic organizations in the United States . � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1973, Vol. 23 Description An account of the resource Vol. 23 (No. 46), 1973. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1973 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document 72 SLOVAKIA Cultural Revival of American And Canadian Slovaks Jozef Pa u co, Ph.D. I. During the past ten years, American and Canadian Slovaks are living a cultural revival. There are many instances to indicate this. Above all, they received support from many intellectuals who emigrated from Slovakia after the second world war. A firm collaboration was created in the cultural field, primarily through the Slovak League of America, the Canadian Slovak League, and the Slovak Institute in Cleveland-Rome. The 1100 centennial of the arrival of SS. Cyril and Methodius to Slovakia, which was celebrated auspiciously by the free Slovaks, inspired many scientific and cultural workers and awakened an interest in the past and present culture among a great number. Finally, a wave of national and cultural rebirth swept over American soil, in all aspects. During the first years of revival, preparation was quite slow, but since 1960 there was a complete flourishing in practically all educational and scientific disciplines. When at first an attempt was made to discuss cultural revival it was doubtful as to its success. The results were amazing because the third and fourth generation of American Slovaks did not yet sink in the sea of anonymity. This appears from the fact that American and Canadian Slovaks not only read but are active in Slovak life and activities. Scholarships are available sponsored by practically every Slovak organization in America. It is not extraordinary for students to receive awards for outstanding work. If a student seeks for ethnical news where scholarships are published, it is a sign of his Slovak interest. Of course all applicants must belong to the organization concerned. Amidst approximately 450,000 organized American Slovaks rnmrly 1/ 3 belong to a youth branch. 1 SLOVAKIA 73 II. Slovak cultural educators published and sold a great number of books about Slovakia and its people and that not only in Slovak but also in English and to a certain extent French. Two goals were aimed at: 1) to bring Slovakia to the youngest Americans of Slovak extraction; 2) to inform the non-Slovak public with objective information which was, until recently, rare, .because only those spoke and wrote about Slovaks, who through various reasons were not favorable towards and did not recognize the Slovaks as a nation. In this respect it must be admitted that Slovak knowledge and publicity took a step forward. HISTORICAL WORKS Several noteworthy volumes dealing with the history of the Slovak nation, incidently the American and Canadian Slovaks, were published. Professor Gilbert L. Oddo is the author of the first complete English history of the Slovak people in which he partially despicts the history of American Slovaks.2 The work was published in three editions and is still in demand by Slovak as well as American educators. Professor Jozef M. Kirschbaum published a remarkable book3 in which he portrays important incidents of the Slovak people. Professor Jozef A. Mikus devoted his well documented treatise to the events from 1918 to 1950.4 Professor Frantisek Vnuk wrote a detailed account of the evolvement of Slovakia from autonomy to independent statehood.5 These works form the basic orientation of Slovak history. The supplement in Slovak Studies, Slovakia, and Jednota Annual Furdek, 6 provides the reader with a great deal of material, which in America concentrates and objectively casts light on Slovakian past. The hi~tory of American and Canadian Slovaks is grasped as well. The complete history in English is found in Canada. It was written on the basis of a dissertation and strictly according to scientific form by Professor Jozef M. Kirschbaum. 7 Canada and ethnic critics accepted this work with highest honors. 74 SLOVAKIA The First Catholic Slovak Union published a detailed history about its organization.8 Even though it concerns the history of one organization, this book contains such material touching upon all phases of American Slovaks in-as-much as the First Catholic Slovak Union played an exceptionally significant role in their lives. A history of the Slovak League of America was published in English. 9 To this work we must add a meaningful chapter about the Pittsburgh Pact written by Peter P. Hletko. 10 Both publications offer the students o! American Slovak life adequate research material for the study of attitudes towards Slovakia. Practically every American Slovak organization has a chronicle review in its calendars or memoirs. Even the American Slovak parishes brief chronicles or histories of their parishes, at first in Slovak, later bi-lingual, and finally just English. In the United States and later in Canada, Slovak religious orders played and are playing an important role. The history of all the Slovak religious orders was compiled by Professor Francis Hrusovsky. 11 The accomplishment was of high quality and well documented. The congregation of the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius which began in America in 1909 has its own history; 12 so do the Slovak Franciscan Fathers.13 Both works were written by members of the respective religious orders. In addition, it is well to mention a miriad of books or periodicals containing biographies of leading American Slovaks particularly of pioneer days. The greater number were printed in Slovak.14 These and other works as well as those of the Slovak Institute and other cultural Slovak-American Institutes developed an interest in students of Slovak origin, about the past of the Slovak nation, its culture and politics. Upon this basis many academic thesis developed. The author of this article receives at least five inquiries annually for suggestions of topics regarding Slovak life. The Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius wrote more than twenty thesis many of which undergo severe departmental criticism. 15 Particular emphasis is placed upon the historical era of SS. Cyril and Methodius. To attain this goal Slovak Studies aided greatly by publishing many technical con- SLOVAKIA 75 tribution in one volume. 16 A well known historian of the Cyrilo-Methodian era, Michal Lacko, wrote the biography of the Apostles and the Slavonic nations, in general. 17 Sister M. Martina Tybor wrote the Junior and Senior edition of SS. Cyril and Methodius, who are the patrons of her congregation.18 Most 1963 presented an expanded appraisal of the SS. Cyril and Methodius traditions among Slovaks. The history of the persecution of the church under communism was very well written by Father Teodorik J. Zubek, 0. F. M. in a documentary volume and other opportune studies.19 Sister Cecilia revealed the unbearable conditions, as she beheld and lived through them under the Communist regime. 20 Further attempts were made to enlighten this tragic period of the church, hierarchy, priesthood, religious orders, and the people of God. 21 In western Europe and South America free Slovaks published books in other languages, principally German , French, Italian and Spanish in which they dealt with the Slovak tragedy after 1945 as well as specific problems which painfully were incorporated in the history of the Slovak nation. In this regard the most valuable works were edited by Bishop Paul Hnilica, Msgr. Stefan Nahalka, Msgr. Jozef Tomko, Rev. Stanislav :C>urica and Rev. Michal Lacko in Italy; Rev. Vojtech Bucko, Dr. Ferdinand :C>urcansky and Kristof Greiner in West Germany; P. G. Dobis in Austria; Dr. Arved Grebert in Switzerland; Dr. Stefan Glejdura in Spain; Dr. Stanislav Meciar, Dr. Ernest zatko and Alojz Macek in Argentina. 22 LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE While the history of the Slovak nation and AmericanCanadian Slovaks have a sufficient representation in English, the history of Slovak Literature and language awaits further elaboration. Basic studies emanated in single, particularly cited annuals or individual articles. Most attention to those themes was devoted by Professor Jozef M. Kirschbaum, Msgr. Jan Rekem , and professor Frantisek Vnuk. While Dr. Kirschbaum and Dr. Rekem occupied themselves with individual periods of Slovak literature and development of the language of the past, Vnuk concentrated upon strengthening Slovak literature. 23 76 SLOVAKIA Language studies of a practical nature are properly represented. Modern textbooks in Slovak language were compiled by Mother M. Emerencia, SS.C.M., S. E. Bue, Filip A. Hrobak and Konus. 24 Among the best dictionaries are those of Hrobak and Konus.25 NEWSPAPERS AND ALMANACS Editors and co-workers of American and Canadian Slovak newspapers in Slovak and in the past few years in English are returning to the problem concerned with preservation of national consciousness, cultural, ethnical awareness, enlightening the public with various phases of Slovak life. Representative voices of the third generation of Slovaks in the news methods and articles are not lacking. Emphasis, however, is placed upon the preservation of Slovak cultural inheritance. In this regard the Jednota, Katolicky Sokol, Narodne Noviny, zivena and Kanadsk?} Slovak are performing a great work in the English language. The technical and representative review Most, Literdrny Almanach, Slovak v Amerike, and other newspapers are returning to the all-Slovak problems exclusively in the Slovak language.26 Literarny Almanach, Slovak v Amerike and Slovak Studies published an outlook upon the events of the cultural activities of Slovak writers, leaders, poets, artists, and news editors. The reports are not complete, but they are sufficient evidence to assure the unprejudiced reader that in the revival of Slovak cultural life in America are intellectuals who do not want to stifle the development of Americanization, but they do not want to speed it up . They strive to evolve in this field as much as other ethnic groups. It is not coincidental that in the preparation of ethnic cultural centers, American Slovaks wish to enkindle appropriate roles equal to their number and missions. 27 In the United States and Canada, after the Second Vatican Council, Slovak liturgy is heard in practically every Slovak Roman Catholic parish. Even in churches of Lutheran denomination, the liturgy is Slovak. As we shall see in next chapter the sale of prayer books in the Slovak language is widespread. At Slovak picnics, which are held by the hundreds, SLOVAKIA 77 every summer, in the United States and Canada, Slovak music and songs are heard. In like manner, these are heard at weddings, even to the third and fourth generation. Slovak songs and music binds and deepens Slovak consciousness more than enything else. Slovak records are being made in practically every city where Slovaks live and at least one musician versed in Slovak folk songs and dances is found. In the past few years professional Slovak singing and dance groups were organized. The leading ones are in Toronto and Montreal, followed by Detroit, Chicago, and New York. At conventions of American-Slovak and Canadian-Slovak organizations the Slovak language is still used, even though less than the English. Official reports and minutes are written bi-lingually in spite of the fact that the pioneer generation of Slovak immigrants, especially in America, bas no representation at the conventions. III Another indication of cultural awakening among American and Canadian Slovaks is the sale of books. During the past five years, 113,755 Slovak books and 450,000 pamphlets were sold in North America. This number includes 61,215 scientific, popular science, and novels; 65,000 pamphlets; 52,540 religious books and 385,000 religious pamphlets. The number of English books about the Slovaks 31,248; Slovak-English and English-Slovak dictionaries and textbooks sold amounted to 14,195. Altogether during the past five years 159,198 books in English or Slovak about Slovaks were sold, in addition to 450,000 pamphlets. The greatest number of books were sold by the First Catholic Slovak Union: 49,008. The greatest number of religious books, 32,000, were sold by the Slovak Franciscan Fathers. Books were sold by the Slovak Institute of SS. Cyril and Methodius, Slovak Jesuit Fathers, Sisters of St. Dominic (Oxford, Mich.), Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius, and 78 SLOVAKIA other smaller publishers, namely Slovak v Amerike, Slovenskd Obrana, Rev. Frantisek Fuga and others.28 During the past five years 5,200 maps of Slovakia29 were sold and 45,400 Slovak records were distributed. 30 IV It is difficult to estim8.te how many Slovaks live in America and what per cent of American inhabitants consist of Slovak immigrants and their descendants. It is generally admitted that the people of ethnic groups number not less than 30,000,000. How many Americans are of Slovak ancestry? The statistics of the Slovak Academy of Science in Bratislava report that up to 1921 when mass emigration ceased, 867,720 Slovaks emigrated to America. 31 It is true that some of these retlirned to their homeland. However, approximately 500,000 remained in America. Today there are three generations of Slovak origin in the United States. If we calculated that each family has at least four children, then emphasising that three million Slovaks live in America is a conservative number. The question is, to what extent do these American citizens of Slovak ancestry feel their Slovak heritage. We can judge this through the aid of organizations and newspapers. Slovak-American organizations have more than 450,000 members; newspapers around 150,000 subscribers. This does not include various parish societies and clubs of all sects. There are over 400 Slovak parishes. All organized American-Slovaks with their families create at least 2,000,000 citizens who can be included to a greater or lesser extent as conscious Slovaks. There are about 70,000 Slovaks in Canada.32 Since practically all Slovak emigrees came to Canada after the first world war, we do not exaggerate when we emphasize that the Slovak spirit lives on not only in the first but also in the second and third generation of Canadian Slovaks. FOOTNOTES 1) Slovakia, Middletown, Pa.: Slovak League of America, XX, Ne. 43, pp. 105-121; XXI, No. 44, pp. 109-144. SLOVAKIA 79 2) Gilbert L. Oddo, Slovakia and Its People, New York: Robert Speller and Sons, 1960. 3) J. M. Kirschbaum, Slovakia: Nation at the Crossroads of Central Europe, New York: Robert Speller and Sons, 1960. 4) Joseph A. Mikus, Slovakia-A Political History, Milwaukee, Wis. : Marquette University Press, 1964. The same work is in French: La Slovaquie dans le drame de L 'Europe, Paris: Les Iles d'or, 1955. 5) F. Vnuk, Slovakia's Six Eventful Months (October 1938-March 1939) . Rome: Slovak Institute, Cleveland-Rome, 1964. He devoted much attention to Communistic politics. The following work is very important: Historical Outline of the Communist Party of Slovakia, Middletown, Pa.: Slovak v Amerike, 1968. Another important work is that of F rantisek Vnuk, Neuveritel'ne sprisahanie: vojenske a politicke akcie proti Slovenskej republike v roku 1944 (English resume), Middletown, Pa.: Slovak v Amerike, 1964. 6) Slovak Studies, Rome, Italy: Slovak Institute, Cleveland-Rome, 19611967, VII Volumes. Slovakia, Middletown, Pa.: Slovak League of America, 1951-1971, XXI Volumes. Jednota Annual Furdek, Middletown, Pa.: First Catholic Slovak Union, 1962-1971, X Vol. 7) J. M. Kirschbaum, Slovaks in Canada, Toronto, Canada: Canadian Ethnic Press Association of Ontario, Toronto, Canada, 1967. 8) Jozef Pauco, Ph.D., 75 rokov Prvej Katolickej Slovenskej Jednoty, Cleveland, Ohio: First Catholic Slovak Union, 1965. 9) Joseph Pauco, Ph.D., (Ed.) 60 Years of the Slovak League of America, Middletown, Pa.: Slovak League of America, 1967. 10) Peter P. IDetko, M.D., The Slovaks and the Pittsburgh Pact, Slovakia, XVIII, No. 41, pp. 5-54. 11) Frantisek Hru~ovsky, Ph.D., Slovenske rehole v Amerike, Cleveland, Ohio: Slovak Institute at the abbey of St. Andrew-Svorad, 1955. 12) Mother M. Emerentia Petrasek, Brief History of the Congregation of the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius, Danville, Pa. , 1959. 13) Richard Portasik, O.F.M., Slovak Franciscans in America, History of the Most Holy Savior Commissariate, 1926-1966, Pittsburgh, Pa.: Franciscan Fathers, 1966. 14) Here are for instance: Jozef Pauco, Stefan Furdek a slovenske prist'ahovalectvo, Middletown, Pa., J ednota, 1955. Jozef Pauco, MatitS Jankola, knaz a narodovec, Danville, Pa., Congregation of the Sisters of SS. Cyril and Methodius, 1959. A host of other contributions by the same author about the Slovak pioneers in America in the newspaper JEDNOTA, Middletown, Pa., The annual Furdek contributed English articles about the Slovak peoples in almost every edition. SLOVAKIA 80 15) The well known are: Sister M. Consuela Gregorovich, Contribution of Rev. Matthew Jankola to Slovak Education in the United States, 1944. Sister M. Delphine Opet, SS.C.M., Political Views of Dudovit Stur, Slovakia, XXI, No. 44, pp. 20-78. S. E. Bue, Slovak Nationalism, Middletown, Pa.: Slovak League of America, 1960. M. G. Woytko, Slovakia's Road to Statehood, Whiting, Indiana, Lach Publications, 1956. 16) Slovak Studies, Vol. III, Cyrilomethodiana, Rome, Italy, 1963. 17) M. Lacko, The Life of Saints Cyril and Methodius, Rome: Slovak Institute, Cleveland-Rome, 1963. Second Edition, 1970. Here is an additionally important work: Smrzik, The Glagolitic or Roman-Slavonic Liturgy, Cleveland, Ohio: Slovak Institute, 1959. 18) Sister Martina Tybor, Saints Cyril and Methodius, Milwaukee, Wis ., Bruce Publishing Co., Senior and Junior edition. 19) Theodoric J. Zubek, O.F.M., S.T.D., The Church of Silence in Slovakia, Whiting, Indiana, Lach Publications, 1956.: Slovak BishopsMartyrs of Christ, Toronto, Ontario, Canadian Slovak League, 1963.; Slovak Clergy in History and Culture, Middletown, Pa., First Catholic Slovak Union, 1970. 20) Sister Cecilia, The Deliverance of Sister Cecilia, New York, New York, Farrar, Straus and Young, First Printing, 1954. 21) For example: Jozef Pauco, Unconquerables, New York, Vantage Press, 1958.; Christian Slovakia under Communism, Valparaiso , Indiana, Slovak Catholic Federation of America, 1953. 22) More accurate facts in the Literarny Almanach Slovaka v Amerike, "Predstavitelia slovenskej kulturnej tvorby," 1967, pp. 113-252 and Slovak Studies, Vol. VII, Bibliography, Rome, Italy: Slovak Institute, Cleveland-Rome, 1967. 23) J.M. Kirschbaum, nudovit Stur and His Place in the Slav-tc World, Cleveland, Ohio.: Slovak Institute, 1953.: Pavel Jozef Safarik and His Contribution to Slavic Studies, Cleveland-Winnipeg, Slavistica No. 43, 1962. Literature of the Cyrilo-Methodian Period and Slova,. kia, Cleveland, Ohio.: Slovak Institute, 1964.; Anton Bernolak, the First Codifier of the Slovak Language, Winnipeg-Cleveland, Ohio: Slavistica No. 52, 1964. Jan Kollar-Slovak Poet of Panslavism, Winnipeg-Toronto: Slavistica No. LVI, 1966. J. Rekem, The Origin and Development of the Slovak Language, Middletown, Pa.: Jednota, 1962. Slovak Litcratiire and National Consciousness Before Anton Bernolak (1762-1813), Cleveland, Ohio, Slovak Institute, 1965. Frantisek Vnuk, Sedemnast' neurodnych rokov (excerpts from the history of Slovak literature, 1945-1962) , Middletown, Pa.; Slovak v Amerike, English resume, 1965. 24) Mother M. Emerentia, Steps in Elementary Slovak, Hazleton, Pa., Sisters of Saints Cyril and Methodius, I, II, III, 1959.; Rev. Bonaventure S. Bue, O.F.M., Ph.D., Slovak Language Laboratory Course, Cleveland, Ohio: The First Catholic Slovak Union, 1968.; Philip A. SLOVAKIA 81 Hrobak, Slovak Lessons, Middletown, Pa., 1949.; Let's Learn Slovak, Middletown, Pa., 1959.; Slovak for Beginners, Middletown, Pa., I, IT, III, 1963.; J. Konus, Practical Slovak Grammar, Pittsburgh, Pa., 1939. A good service was rendered in the work of Henrich Bartek, Slovensky pravopis s gramatickymi pouckami a slovnikom, Whiting, Ind., Rev. John Lach, 1956. A textbook in the Slovak language was prepared also by Sister M. Gabriel, SS.C.M. and Stefan Blasko. 25) Hrobak's English-Slovak Dictionary, Middletown, Pa., 1944. Second Printing, New York, N.Y.; Robert Speller and Sons, 1965. J. J.Konus, Slov ensko-anglicky slovnik, Slovak-English Dictionary, Federation of Slovak Catholics in America, 1930.; Slovak-English Dictionary, Passaic, N. J.: Slovak Catholic Sokol, 1970. 26) Jednota, Middletown, Pa., Official Organ of the First Catholic Slovak Union. Katolicky Sokol, Passaic, N. J., Official Organ of the Slovak Catholic Sokol. Narodne Noviny, Pittsburgh, Pa., Official Organ of the National Slovak Society. Zivena, Pittsburgh, Pa., Official Organ of the 2ivena Beneficial Society. Kanadsky Slovak, Toronto, Ont., Canada, Official Organ of the Canadian Slovak League. Most, Cleveland, Ohio. Literarny Almanach Slovaka v Amerike, Middletown, Pa. Slovak v Amerike, Middletown, Pa. Details of Slovak newspapers in America are presented by Konstantin Culen in:Slovenske casopisy v Amerike, Cleveland, Ohio: First Catholic Slovak Union, 1970. 27) The Slovak League of America worked with American Slovaks within 31 states regarding the bill S23 sponsored by U. S. Senator Richard S. Schweiker (R.-Pa.). 28) The author of this paper personally ascertained the number of books sold by various publishers. 29) The map was printed by the Slovak Institute, Cleveland. 30) Books, with the exception of dictionaries and textbooks, sent by the Communist regime in Slovakia are sold in very small numbers. However, the records made by the singing group SL'UK are in great demand. 31) J. M. Kirschbaum, The Assimilation Process of American Slovaks, Slovakia XII, No. 44, pp. 79-84. 32) J . M. Kirschbaum, Slovaks in Canada, p. 4. * * * THE SLOVAK LEAGUE OF AMERICA represents an overwhelming majority of organized Americans of Slovak descent; actively affiliated with it are the large5t Slova k traternals, religious organizations, Slovak Clubs and Slovak civic organizations in the United States .  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Cultural Revival of American and Canadian Slovaks Description An account of the resource Jozef Paučo, Ph.D. Slovakia, Vol. 23 (No. 46), 1973 pp. 72-81 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Paučo, Jozef, 1914-1975 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1973 SNK https://slovakia.wordsofpassage.net/files/original/059505bcecbc9634e3e95e4d84db947b.pdf 52881f07457f6b0188c03df90b9f30c9 PDF Text Text 82 SLOVAKIA Dr. J. M. Kirschbaum A BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH ON THE OCCASION OF HIS SIXTIETH BIRTHDAY It is next to impossible to condense into a short biographical essay a life of such many-sided activity, so rich in events and experiences as that of Dr. J.M. Kirschbaum. It can be said of him and many of his contemporaries that their lives epitomise the Slovak history of the past half century in both its triumphant and tragic aspects. But nowhere is this symbolism so obvious and so clearly reflected as in the work and achievements of Dr. J. M. Kirschbaum. All his adult life has been spent in a dedicated service of the Slovak cause which, in turn, has in him its most ardent and articulate advocate. He was born on March 25th, 1913 in Dolne Vestenice, a well-known fruit-growing district of Central Slovakia. His father fought for the liberation of Slovakia in the Czecho-Slovak Legion during the First World War and returned from Siberia only in 1920. The years of fighting and deprivation sapped his health and he died in 1923 when the boy was ten years old. As a student of great promise and intellectual ability young Jozef Kirschbaum was sent to continue his schooling at the Lyceum (High School) in Nitra. I may add that at that time it was unusual for a village boy to pursue higher studies since the course was quite costly and demanding. Straight from the beginning J. Kirschbaum was an outstanding student whether at the Nitra Lyceum (1923-25) or later at the famous Jesuit college "Stanislavov" in Ruzomberok. In the days of Kirschbaum's stay at Ruzomberok the town had in the minds of most of the Slovak countryfolk the aura of a true capital city of Slovakia. Here resided as parish priest Fr. Andrej Hlinka, the leader of the Slovak People's Party and a fearless tribune of his people. Not even young students could escape the political atmosphere �SLOVAKIA 83 and the powerful influence of Hlinka's dynamic personality. For a young idealistic Slovak man Hlinka's political aims in their forceful simplicity must have been an irresistible attraction. There is no doubt that there and then was planted the seed of his future political commitments and involvements. After completion of his high school studies (at Kosice in 1933) Jozef Kirschbaum enrolled in the Law Faculty of the Bratislava University. Here he found himself right from the start in the thick of feverish political activities. The University halls and colleges were recruiting grounds and battle arenas where the new generation of political leaders were testing their skills and sharpening their tools. Kirschbaum and his contemporaries represented the first generation which grew up and was educated in the post-war Slovakia and was not exposed to the humiliating experiences of magyarization. They were the proud products of their teachers and professors (largely the Czechs) but in one respect they were to disappoint their tutors. They boldly asserted their Slovak nationality and refused to accept the hints and insinuations that they should consider themselves as a new breed of "Czechoslovaks". The youth of Slovakia (e.g. at their massive gathering at Trencianske Teplice in summer of 1932) even more vigorously than their fathers claimed for the Slovak nation those rights and privileges which every free nation should enjoy and which the Slovaks were once promised but since denied. In particular they demanded a fair deal for themselves and their countrymen: that the country's economy would pass into Slovak hands; that the Slovaks would get a proportional number of jobs in the Army, in the State and Public Service; that the Slovak language would be recognized and respected as the official language in Slovakia, etc. In the forefront of this struggle was the Slovak People's Party and one of its most energetic detachments was the academic youth where J. Kirschbaum was soon to play a leading role. His extensive involvement in politics-which inevitably had anti-Czech connotations-was frowned upon his Czech professors and the University authorities who would not allow him to graduate even though he had fulfilled all the �84 SLOVAKIA academic requirements with great distinction. Eventually he was awarded his Doctor of Law degree at a private ceremony in the summer of 1938. By this time Dr. J. Kirschbaum was already a wellknown public figure. His name frequently appeared in the Slovak press not only in connection with his activities but also as that of author of many articles, comments and penetrating observations. He was a regular contributor to several dailies and periodical of the time. The years 1938-39 passed into Slovak national history as the year of Slovakia's encounter with destiny. The evergrowing determination of the Slovak nation to be master in its own house manifested itself so patently that the further denial of political justice was no longer possible. The artificial edifice of "czechoslovakism " crumbled and the rigid centralist form of government was replaced by a federalist system. The post-Munich Czecho-Slovakia became a federated state and within its framework Slovakia obtained its overdue autonomy. The Slovak People's Party as the biggest political party in Slovakia and the most consistent advocate of autonomy assumed political responsibility for the future development of Slovakia. The first Slovak autonomous government formed in October 1938 consisted of two Hlinka followers (Dr. Jozef Tiso and Dr. Ferdinand !>urcansky), two Agrarians (Jan Lichner and Pavo! Teplansky) and one Nationalist (Matus cernak). These three parties represented-acco rding to the 1935 election results-almost two thirds of the Slovak electorate. The subsequent political activity of Dr. J. Kirschbaum must be viewed against this background. From the University lecture rooms he stepped straight into the turmoil of high-level politics. The situation facing the Slovak leaders was critical and very demanding. The People's Party had just lost its leader (Andrej Hlinka died in August 1938). Immediately after it had been granted autonomy Slovakia had to fight for its survival. Its greedy neighbors staked their territorial claims and Slovakia was forced to cede large portions of its territory to Hungary and 5maller ones to Poland and Germany. Truncated and harassed the country was even more determined to prove its vitality in spite of all threats and �SLOVAKIA 85 drawbacks. To achieve this, national unity was necessary. The political leaders thought that such a unity could be accomplished ( and convincingly demonstrated to outsiders) by the formation of a united political party for all Slovaks. This coalition-like party was formed in November 1938. It bore the dual name, Hlinka Slovak People's Party-The Party of Slovak National Unity and soon it was to be the real testing ground of the young Kirschbaum's abilities. But before this happened Dr. Kirschbaum had to prove his skill elsewhere. In the first months of Slovak autonomy he served as secretary of Minister f>urcansky (at the Ministry of Transport), and at the same time was the commandant of the Academic Hlinka Guards and the Editor-in-Chief of the radical fortnightly, "Nastup". In addition he was frequently seen and heard at many public meetings and demonstrations and his articles-which appeared regularly in "Nastup" and the daily press-were widely read. In the historic days of March 1939 when the Czechs by a military 'putsch' tried to quash Slovak autonomy and the future of Slovakia again hung in the balance, Dr. J. Kirschbaum-like his chief Dr. !>urcansky-considered the declaration of independence as the only viable solution. With fearless courage (the Czech military authorities issued an order for his arrest) he commuted between Dr. t>ucansky in Vienna and the Slovak political leaders in Bratislava (Karol Sidor and the deposed Prime Minister Dr. Jozef Tiso) in an attempt to arrange some coordinated political action. In these days of uncertainties he calmly organized-in defiance of Czech military orders--an impressive and welldisciplined march of University students through the streets of Bratislava. The authorities did not dare interfere and the demonstration turned out to be a significant moral booster for the suspense-packed hours preceding the declaration of independence. It is not surprising that in spite of his youth (he was barely 26) he figured on the list of the first Slovak government as proposed by Dr. t>urcansky, where he was allotted the Transport portfolio. But when-in the wake of the Slovak declaration of independence--the new government of Slovakia was an- �86 SLOVAKIA nounced, Kirschbaum's name was not included. But it was not because of his age. It is more probable that Dr. J. Tiso-the new Prime Minister and the leader of the Party of the Slovak National Unity - had for him a more challenging and exacting task. He appointed Dr. J . Kirschbaum the Secretary-General of the Party. The work imposed on his young shoulders by this appointment was enormous. The Slovak People's Party of the pre-1938 period was administered very haphazardly. Fr. Hlinka as the undisputed leader of a widespread popular movement did not see any great need and hence paid little attention to the organizational and bureaucratic details of the Party's day-to-day existence. This could do while the Party was in opposition and Hlinka's word was law. But after Hlinka's death the Party became the dominating influence in the government of the country and in addition was swelled by the influx of new members (including former members of those parties which united with it in November 1938) it was necessary for the Party to have its own statutes, modern organizational structure and an effective administrative machinery. By the Constitutional Law of July 1939 the Party was assigned a new and important role in the political, cultural and social life of independent Slovakia. The constructive implementation of this role was the job of the General Secretariat where Dr. J. Kirschbaum and an able team of dedicated and enthusiastic helpers were hard at work. At the Party Congress in Trencin (September 30thOctober 1st, 1939) Dr. J. Kirschbaum presented the new proposals for the organizational changes in the structure and administration of the Party. They were unanimously approved by the Congress and even his jealous critics had to admit that Dr. Kirschbaum and his team had done a thorough and creditable job. The Congress confirmed (also unanimously) Dr. Kirschbaum in the position of the Party's Secretary-General. As the Secretary-General of the Party Dr. J. Kirschbaum displayed not only zeal and agility but also a vision and sense of judgment so important in such a responsible job. Under his able administration the rejuvenated Party was launched on its new course under the new social and political conditions. �SLOVAKIA 87 Unfortunately Dr. Kirschbaum did not stay long in his Party post. In the first half of 1940 Slovak political life underwent dramatic changes due to the polarization of political thinking among the leaders of Slovakia. There were some who claimed that the present, as well as the future, of Slovakia must be linked with that of Germany in all respects. These close ties would postulate even the ideological remoulding of the Slovak life and outlook in the National Socialist pattern. This group, headed by Prime Minister Dr. Vojtech Tuka and the Commandant of the Hlinka Guards Alexander Mach, was resolutely opposed not only by President Dr. Tiso and the rest of the ministers but also by the overwhelming majority of ranli::. and file Party members and the people. The Party Secretariat stood solidly behind the President who insisted that Slovak politics must not slavishly imitate foreign examples but should be rooted in native traditions. Tuk.a and his followers called for German assistance which was soon forthcoming in the shape of the notorious "Salzburg consultations". In August 1940 Hitler and Ribbentrop forced President Tiso to dismiss from their positions of power the two men whom they considered as the chief trouble-makers and major obstructions to the spread of the Nazi ideology in Slovakia, namely Dr. F. nurcansky (Foreign and Interior Minister) and Dr. J. Kirschbaum (Secretary-General of the Party). After his dismissal from the Party job Dr. J. Kirschbaum was called up to do his military service in the Slovak Army (1940-41). A ban was imposed on his further participation in the domestic politics of Slovakia. And so after completion of his military duties he entered the Slovak diplomatic service. He started his diplomatic career as the Legation Counsellor at the Slovak Legation in Rome. After a short apprenticeship in Rome he assumed (in 1942) the position of Slovak Charge d'Affaires in Bern, where he stayed till the end of World War II. On the soil of neutral Switzerland he did his utmost to safeguard Slovak interests in the realm of international politics. Through personal contacts -both official and unofficial-and by all means available �88 SLOVAKIA to him he defended Slovakia's case for independence in the post-war territorial rearrangement of Central Europe. But the enemies of Slovak independence had at their side the victorious Western Powers and the Soviet Union and again it was the case of the "might-is-right" solution. With total disregard for the wishes of the small indigenous peoples it was decided to reimpose the discredited Versailles settlement on the nations of Central Europe. The Slovaks found themselves in an unwilling partnership with the Czechs in the reconstituted Czecho-Slovakia. As a result Dr. J. Kirschbaum like thousands of his countrymen stood face to face with the bitter reality of life in exile. The first years of his life as a political exile he spent in Switzerland where he worked for a short period ( 19461948) as an accredited representative of the Slovak League to the International Refugee Organization in Geneva. He was in continuous contact with the Slovak political leaders in exile and with Slovak organizations in America and elsewhere. It was obvious to them that the struggle for the restoration of Slovak independence must start there and then, no matter how hopeless the situation might look. To assure the maximum effectiveness of this struggle an organized and coordinated action was required. Thus in the summer of 1948 the foundations were laid for a Slovak political representation-The Slovak National Council A· broad-which took upon itself to carry on the struggle for the just and inalienable demands of the Slovak nation. Dr. Jozef Kirschbaum was one of the principal architects of this organization. It included such well-known personalities as Sidor, Pridavok, Culen, Mondok, Cieker, Pauco, Mikus, etc., but-most regretably-not Dr. F. !>urcansky. Dr. J. Kirschbaum stood at the head of the Committee in charge of foreign affairs. For this task he was indeed suitably prepared and equipped. He had the background of diplomatic experience and a deep and intimate knowledge of Slovak politics. His knowledge of the Western world was based on close observations and supplemented by his studies at several Western universities: Paris (Political Science, 1938), Rome (Political Science, 1941-42), Geneva (International Relations, 1946-48) and Montreal (1951-54). �SLOVAKIA 89 In 1949 he emigrated with his family (he married Magdalena Danihel in 1941 and by this time they had three children) to Montreal in Canada. In spite of the difficulties which are the lot of every immigrant in a new country he quickly settled down and resumed his work where he had left off in Europe, including his university studies. In 1952 he obtained an M.A. and in 1954 a Ph.D. degree at the Universite de Montreal. But even at this time his involvement in university activities went far deeper than a simple studentship. In 1951 he started to give a course of lectures at the Universite de Montreal and later at the Universite d'Ottawa and the University of Toronto. His lectures dealt with the broad spectrum of the history of the Western Slavs ('Slavia Occidentalis') and also with specific Slovak topics. As time went by he became even more deeply concerned with Slovak emigre politics. After 1950 the centre of Slovak p olitical activities shifted from Europe across the Atlantic and Montreal became their focal point. Here resided K . Sidor, K. culen, F. Tiso, F. Mondok, K. Murin and J . Kirschbaum who in 1952 was elected the chairman of the Political Committee of the Slovak National Council Abroad. One worrying feature of the Slovak political life in exile was its bifurcation into two organizations struggling for the same aims but in bitter rivalry against each other. For a man like Dr. J. Kirschbaum it was a particularly heart-breaking experience since the rival organization was led by his former chief and friend, Dr. F. !>urcansky. I t took many years of patience and endurance to heal this split. Major credit for this achievement should go to Dr. J. Kirschbaum. It was largely through his effort that in 1960 the Slovak community both at home and abroad learned with satisfaction about the formation of a joint organization-The Slovak Liberation Council. Dr. !>urcansky became the President of the Council's E xecutive Committee and Dr. J . Kirschbaum became the President of its Assembly. On purpose I have not said anything about the journalistic and literary activities of Dr. J . Kirschbaum. They would form an extensive chapter all by themselves and one cannot do them justice within the framework of this �90 SLOVAKIA brief biographical sketch. I only wish to remind the reader that on top of all the accomplishments recorded in the preceding paragraphs he should superimpose an impressive literary and journalistic output. This activity began when Dr. J. Kirschbaum was 14 years old and it is still continuing. In the period of the past 45 years Dr. Kirschbaum wrote (by a modest estimate) something like 1200 articles on a wide variety of topics (political commentaries, editorials. literary criticism and history, Slavic studies, linguistics. political science) in five languages (Slovak, French, English, German, Spanish) as well as four scholarly books, two of them in English ('Slovakia: Nation at the Crossroads of Central Europe', 1960, and 'Slovaks in Canada', 1967). In the last few years Dr. Kirschbaum has expended much of his time and energy in organizing and promoting the work of the Slovak World Congress. This relatively new body (founded in 1970) embraces all Slovak political, cultural, fraternal and other organizations and societies to speak on their behalf for the Slovak cause in the free world. Dr. J. Kirschbaum is one of the Vice Presidents of the Slovak World Congress and at the moment is putting the finishing editorial touches to a Symposium on Slovak history and culture. The book will contain the lectures and discussions which were delivered at the special conference successfully arranged by Dr. Kirschbaum to coincide with the General Assembly of the Slovak World Congress in Toronto (June 1971). Karl Marx who knew vastly more about life in exile than he knew about world revolution once wrote that emigre life is "a school of scandal and of meanness". Dr. Kirschbaum would probably agree with him. More than once he became an innocent victim of vicious attacks, intrigues and malicious gossip from the enemies of Slovak independence (who wanted to eliminate him from Slovak politics for obvious reasons) as well as from jealous and frustrated compatriots (who had no obvious reasons at all). But all this "sound and fury"-unpleasant and distractful as it must have been-did not sway Dr. Kirschbaum from his firm determination to work selflessly and untiringly for the just Slovak cause. Which only confirms my personal conviction about life in exile, namely that �91 SLOVAKIA exile brings out the best in a noble and purposeful man and the worst in those who are weak and insecure. Dr. Jozef Kirschbaum can look back on his past years, and in particular the years in exile, with contentment and satisfaction. We who watched his efforts and striving at a close distance and followed them with good wishes and admiration, we know he tried his utmost and did his best. His achievements when measured against a background of harrowing and unfavorable circumstances will irritate his detractors but will inspire many of his countrymen both at home and abroad, at present and in the future. AD MULTOS ANNOS! F. V n u k, Australia • • • SLOVAK LEAGUE OF AMERICA - - - supports freedom and independence of Slovakia; promotes a better understanding and appreciation of the Slovak nation, its history, culture, traditions, and desires; makes America better known to Slovakia and Slovakia better known to America in the interest of world peace, freedom and security; has a scholarship program for college and university students; promotes cooperation among all American-Slovak organizations and publications for the promulgations of Slovak ethnic heritage. is a charter member of the Slovak World Congress. Life membership: $100.00 For further information, write to: Slovak League of America 313 Ridge Avenue Middletown, Pa. 17057 � 82 SLOVAKIA Dr. J. M. Kirschbaum A BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH ON THE OCCASION OF HIS SIXTIETH BIRTHDAY It is next to impossible to condense into a short biographical essay a life of such many-sided activity, so rich in events and experiences as that of Dr. J.M. Kirschbaum. It can be said of him and many of his contemporaries that their lives epitomise the Slovak history of the past half century in both its triumphant and tragic aspects. But nowhere is this symbolism so obvious and so clearly reflected as in the work and achievements of Dr. J. M. Kirschbaum. All his adult life has been spent in a dedicated service of the Slovak cause which, in turn, has in him its most ardent and articulate advocate. He was born on March 25th, 1913 in Dolne Vestenice, a well-known fruit-growing district of Central Slovakia. His father fought for the liberation of Slovakia in the Czecho-Slovak Legion during the First World War and returned from Siberia only in 1920. The years of fighting and deprivation sapped his health and he died in 1923 when the boy was ten years old. As a student of great promise and intellectual ability young Jozef Kirschbaum was sent to continue his schooling at the Lyceum (High School) in Nitra. I may add that at that time it was unusual for a village boy to pursue higher studies since the course was quite costly and demanding. Straight from the beginning J. Kirschbaum was an outstanding student whether at the Nitra Lyceum (1923-25) or later at the famous Jesuit college "Stanislavov" in Ruzomberok. In the days of Kirschbaum's stay at Ruzomberok the town had in the minds of most of the Slovak countryfolk the aura of a true capital city of Slovakia. Here resided as parish priest Fr. Andrej Hlinka, the leader of the Slovak People's Party and a fearless tribune of his people. Not even young students could escape the political atmosphere �SLOVAKIA 83 and the powerful influence of Hlinka's dynamic personality. For a young idealistic Slovak man Hlinka's political aims in their forceful simplicity must have been an irresistible attraction. There is no doubt that there and then was planted the seed of his future political commitments and involvements. After completion of his high school studies (at Kosice in 1933) Jozef Kirschbaum enrolled in the Law Faculty of the Bratislava University. Here he found himself right from the start in the thick of feverish political activities. The University halls and colleges were recruiting grounds and battle arenas where the new generation of political leaders were testing their skills and sharpening their tools. Kirschbaum and his contemporaries represented the first generation which grew up and was educated in the post-war Slovakia and was not exposed to the humiliating experiences of magyarization. They were the proud products of their teachers and professors (largely the Czechs) but in one respect they were to disappoint their tutors. They boldly asserted their Slovak nationality and refused to accept the hints and insinuations that they should consider themselves as a new breed of "Czechoslovaks". The youth of Slovakia (e.g. at their massive gathering at Trencianske Teplice in summer of 1932) even more vigorously than their fathers claimed for the Slovak nation those rights and privileges which every free nation should enjoy and which the Slovaks were once promised but since denied. In particular they demanded a fair deal for themselves and their countrymen: that the country's economy would pass into Slovak hands; that the Slovaks would get a proportional number of jobs in the Army, in the State and Public Service; that the Slovak language would be recognized and respected as the official language in Slovakia, etc. In the forefront of this struggle was the Slovak People's Party and one of its most energetic detachments was the academic youth where J. Kirschbaum was soon to play a leading role. His extensive involvement in politics-which inevitably had anti-Czech connotations-was frowned upon his Czech professors and the University authorities who would not allow him to graduate even though he had fulfilled all the �84 SLOVAKIA academic requirements with great distinction. Eventually he was awarded his Doctor of Law degree at a private ceremony in the summer of 1938. By this time Dr. J. Kirschbaum was already a wellknown public figure. His name frequently appeared in the Slovak press not only in connection with his activities but also as that of author of many articles, comments and penetrating observations. He was a regular contributor to several dailies and periodical of the time. The years 1938-39 passed into Slovak national history as the year of Slovakia's encounter with destiny. The evergrowing determination of the Slovak nation to be master in its own house manifested itself so patently that the further denial of political justice was no longer possible. The artificial edifice of "czechoslovakism " crumbled and the rigid centralist form of government was replaced by a federalist system. The post-Munich Czecho-Slovakia became a federated state and within its framework Slovakia obtained its overdue autonomy. The Slovak People's Party as the biggest political party in Slovakia and the most consistent advocate of autonomy assumed political responsibility for the future development of Slovakia. The first Slovak autonomous government formed in October 1938 consisted of two Hlinka followers (Dr. Jozef Tiso and Dr. Ferdinand !>urcansky), two Agrarians (Jan Lichner and Pavo! Teplansky) and one Nationalist (Matus cernak). These three parties represented-acco rding to the 1935 election results-almost two thirds of the Slovak electorate. The subsequent political activity of Dr. J. Kirschbaum must be viewed against this background. From the University lecture rooms he stepped straight into the turmoil of high-level politics. The situation facing the Slovak leaders was critical and very demanding. The People's Party had just lost its leader (Andrej Hlinka died in August 1938). Immediately after it had been granted autonomy Slovakia had to fight for its survival. Its greedy neighbors staked their territorial claims and Slovakia was forced to cede large portions of its territory to Hungary and 5maller ones to Poland and Germany. Truncated and harassed the country was even more determined to prove its vitality in spite of all threats and �SLOVAKIA 85 drawbacks. To achieve this, national unity was necessary. The political leaders thought that such a unity could be accomplished ( and convincingly demonstrated to outsiders) by the formation of a united political party for all Slovaks. This coalition-like party was formed in November 1938. It bore the dual name, Hlinka Slovak People's Party-The Party of Slovak National Unity and soon it was to be the real testing ground of the young Kirschbaum's abilities. But before this happened Dr. Kirschbaum had to prove his skill elsewhere. In the first months of Slovak autonomy he served as secretary of Minister f>urcansky (at the Ministry of Transport), and at the same time was the commandant of the Academic Hlinka Guards and the Editor-in-Chief of the radical fortnightly, "Nastup". In addition he was frequently seen and heard at many public meetings and demonstrations and his articles-which appeared regularly in "Nastup" and the daily press-were widely read. In the historic days of March 1939 when the Czechs by a military 'putsch' tried to quash Slovak autonomy and the future of Slovakia again hung in the balance, Dr. J. Kirschbaum-like his chief Dr. !>urcansky-considered the declaration of independence as the only viable solution. With fearless courage (the Czech military authorities issued an order for his arrest) he commuted between Dr. t>ucansky in Vienna and the Slovak political leaders in Bratislava (Karol Sidor and the deposed Prime Minister Dr. Jozef Tiso) in an attempt to arrange some coordinated political action. In these days of uncertainties he calmly organized-in defiance of Czech military orders--an impressive and welldisciplined march of University students through the streets of Bratislava. The authorities did not dare interfere and the demonstration turned out to be a significant moral booster for the suspense-packed hours preceding the declaration of independence. It is not surprising that in spite of his youth (he was barely 26) he figured on the list of the first Slovak government as proposed by Dr. t>urcansky, where he was allotted the Transport portfolio. But when-in the wake of the Slovak declaration of independence--the new government of Slovakia was an- �86 SLOVAKIA nounced, Kirschbaum's name was not included. But it was not because of his age. It is more probable that Dr. J. Tiso-the new Prime Minister and the leader of the Party of the Slovak National Unity - had for him a more challenging and exacting task. He appointed Dr. J . Kirschbaum the Secretary-General of the Party. The work imposed on his young shoulders by this appointment was enormous. The Slovak People's Party of the pre-1938 period was administered very haphazardly. Fr. Hlinka as the undisputed leader of a widespread popular movement did not see any great need and hence paid little attention to the organizational and bureaucratic details of the Party's day-to-day existence. This could do while the Party was in opposition and Hlinka's word was law. But after Hlinka's death the Party became the dominating influence in the government of the country and in addition was swelled by the influx of new members (including former members of those parties which united with it in November 1938) it was necessary for the Party to have its own statutes, modern organizational structure and an effective administrative machinery. By the Constitutional Law of July 1939 the Party was assigned a new and important role in the political, cultural and social life of independent Slovakia. The constructive implementation of this role was the job of the General Secretariat where Dr. J. Kirschbaum and an able team of dedicated and enthusiastic helpers were hard at work. At the Party Congress in Trencin (September 30thOctober 1st, 1939) Dr. J. Kirschbaum presented the new proposals for the organizational changes in the structure and administration of the Party. They were unanimously approved by the Congress and even his jealous critics had to admit that Dr. Kirschbaum and his team had done a thorough and creditable job. The Congress confirmed (also unanimously) Dr. Kirschbaum in the position of the Party's Secretary-General. As the Secretary-General of the Party Dr. J. Kirschbaum displayed not only zeal and agility but also a vision and sense of judgment so important in such a responsible job. Under his able administration the rejuvenated Party was launched on its new course under the new social and political conditions. �SLOVAKIA 87 Unfortunately Dr. Kirschbaum did not stay long in his Party post. In the first half of 1940 Slovak political life underwent dramatic changes due to the polarization of political thinking among the leaders of Slovakia. There were some who claimed that the present, as well as the future, of Slovakia must be linked with that of Germany in all respects. These close ties would postulate even the ideological remoulding of the Slovak life and outlook in the National Socialist pattern. This group, headed by Prime Minister Dr. Vojtech Tuka and the Commandant of the Hlinka Guards Alexander Mach, was resolutely opposed not only by President Dr. Tiso and the rest of the ministers but also by the overwhelming majority of ranli::. and file Party members and the people. The Party Secretariat stood solidly behind the President who insisted that Slovak politics must not slavishly imitate foreign examples but should be rooted in native traditions. Tuk.a and his followers called for German assistance which was soon forthcoming in the shape of the notorious "Salzburg consultations". In August 1940 Hitler and Ribbentrop forced President Tiso to dismiss from their positions of power the two men whom they considered as the chief trouble-makers and major obstructions to the spread of the Nazi ideology in Slovakia, namely Dr. F. nurcansky (Foreign and Interior Minister) and Dr. J. Kirschbaum (Secretary-General of the Party). After his dismissal from the Party job Dr. J. Kirschbaum was called up to do his military service in the Slovak Army (1940-41). A ban was imposed on his further participation in the domestic politics of Slovakia. And so after completion of his military duties he entered the Slovak diplomatic service. He started his diplomatic career as the Legation Counsellor at the Slovak Legation in Rome. After a short apprenticeship in Rome he assumed (in 1942) the position of Slovak Charge d'Affaires in Bern, where he stayed till the end of World War II. On the soil of neutral Switzerland he did his utmost to safeguard Slovak interests in the realm of international politics. Through personal contacts -both official and unofficial-and by all means available �88 SLOVAKIA to him he defended Slovakia's case for independence in the post-war territorial rearrangement of Central Europe. But the enemies of Slovak independence had at their side the victorious Western Powers and the Soviet Union and again it was the case of the "might-is-right" solution. With total disregard for the wishes of the small indigenous peoples it was decided to reimpose the discredited Versailles settlement on the nations of Central Europe. The Slovaks found themselves in an unwilling partnership with the Czechs in the reconstituted Czecho-Slovakia. As a result Dr. J. Kirschbaum like thousands of his countrymen stood face to face with the bitter reality of life in exile. The first years of his life as a political exile he spent in Switzerland where he worked for a short period ( 19461948) as an accredited representative of the Slovak League to the International Refugee Organization in Geneva. He was in continuous contact with the Slovak political leaders in exile and with Slovak organizations in America and elsewhere. It was obvious to them that the struggle for the restoration of Slovak independence must start there and then, no matter how hopeless the situation might look. To assure the maximum effectiveness of this struggle an organized and coordinated action was required. Thus in the summer of 1948 the foundations were laid for a Slovak political representation-The Slovak National Council A· broad-which took upon itself to carry on the struggle for the just and inalienable demands of the Slovak nation. Dr. Jozef Kirschbaum was one of the principal architects of this organization. It included such well-known personalities as Sidor, Pridavok, Culen, Mondok, Cieker, Pauco, Mikus, etc., but-most regretably-not Dr. F. !>urcansky. Dr. J. Kirschbaum stood at the head of the Committee in charge of foreign affairs. For this task he was indeed suitably prepared and equipped. He had the background of diplomatic experience and a deep and intimate knowledge of Slovak politics. His knowledge of the Western world was based on close observations and supplemented by his studies at several Western universities: Paris (Political Science, 1938), Rome (Political Science, 1941-42), Geneva (International Relations, 1946-48) and Montreal (1951-54). �SLOVAKIA 89 In 1949 he emigrated with his family (he married Magdalena Danihel in 1941 and by this time they had three children) to Montreal in Canada. In spite of the difficulties which are the lot of every immigrant in a new country he quickly settled down and resumed his work where he had left off in Europe, including his university studies. In 1952 he obtained an M.A. and in 1954 a Ph.D. degree at the Universite de Montreal. But even at this time his involvement in university activities went far deeper than a simple studentship. In 1951 he started to give a course of lectures at the Universite de Montreal and later at the Universite d'Ottawa and the University of Toronto. His lectures dealt with the broad spectrum of the history of the Western Slavs ('Slavia Occidentalis') and also with specific Slovak topics. As time went by he became even more deeply concerned with Slovak emigre politics. After 1950 the centre of Slovak p olitical activities shifted from Europe across the Atlantic and Montreal became their focal point. Here resided K . Sidor, K. culen, F. Tiso, F. Mondok, K. Murin and J . Kirschbaum who in 1952 was elected the chairman of the Political Committee of the Slovak National Council Abroad. One worrying feature of the Slovak political life in exile was its bifurcation into two organizations struggling for the same aims but in bitter rivalry against each other. For a man like Dr. J. Kirschbaum it was a particularly heart-breaking experience since the rival organization was led by his former chief and friend, Dr. F. !>urcansky. I t took many years of patience and endurance to heal this split. Major credit for this achievement should go to Dr. J. Kirschbaum. It was largely through his effort that in 1960 the Slovak community both at home and abroad learned with satisfaction about the formation of a joint organization-The Slovak Liberation Council. Dr. !>urcansky became the President of the Council's E xecutive Committee and Dr. J . Kirschbaum became the President of its Assembly. On purpose I have not said anything about the journalistic and literary activities of Dr. J . Kirschbaum. They would form an extensive chapter all by themselves and one cannot do them justice within the framework of this �90 SLOVAKIA brief biographical sketch. I only wish to remind the reader that on top of all the accomplishments recorded in the preceding paragraphs he should superimpose an impressive literary and journalistic output. This activity began when Dr. J. Kirschbaum was 14 years old and it is still continuing. In the period of the past 45 years Dr. Kirschbaum wrote (by a modest estimate) something like 1200 articles on a wide variety of topics (political commentaries, editorials. literary criticism and history, Slavic studies, linguistics. political science) in five languages (Slovak, French, English, German, Spanish) as well as four scholarly books, two of them in English ('Slovakia: Nation at the Crossroads of Central Europe', 1960, and 'Slovaks in Canada', 1967). In the last few years Dr. Kirschbaum has expended much of his time and energy in organizing and promoting the work of the Slovak World Congress. This relatively new body (founded in 1970) embraces all Slovak political, cultural, fraternal and other organizations and societies to speak on their behalf for the Slovak cause in the free world. Dr. J. Kirschbaum is one of the Vice Presidents of the Slovak World Congress and at the moment is putting the finishing editorial touches to a Symposium on Slovak history and culture. The book will contain the lectures and discussions which were delivered at the special conference successfully arranged by Dr. Kirschbaum to coincide with the General Assembly of the Slovak World Congress in Toronto (June 1971). Karl Marx who knew vastly more about life in exile than he knew about world revolution once wrote that emigre life is "a school of scandal and of meanness". Dr. Kirschbaum would probably agree with him. More than once he became an innocent victim of vicious attacks, intrigues and malicious gossip from the enemies of Slovak independence (who wanted to eliminate him from Slovak politics for obvious reasons) as well as from jealous and frustrated compatriots (who had no obvious reasons at all). But all this "sound and fury"-unpleasant and distractful as it must have been-did not sway Dr. Kirschbaum from his firm determination to work selflessly and untiringly for the just Slovak cause. Which only confirms my personal conviction about life in exile, namely that �91 SLOVAKIA exile brings out the best in a noble and purposeful man and the worst in those who are weak and insecure. Dr. Jozef Kirschbaum can look back on his past years, and in particular the years in exile, with contentment and satisfaction. We who watched his efforts and striving at a close distance and followed them with good wishes and admiration, we know he tried his utmost and did his best. His achievements when measured against a background of harrowing and unfavorable circumstances will irritate his detractors but will inspire many of his countrymen both at home and abroad, at present and in the future. AD MULTOS ANNOS! F. V n u k, Australia • • • SLOVAK LEAGUE OF AMERICA - - - supports freedom and independence of Slovakia; promotes a better understanding and appreciation of the Slovak nation, its history, culture, traditions, and desires; makes America better known to Slovakia and Slovakia better known to America in the interest of world peace, freedom and security; has a scholarship program for college and university students; promotes cooperation among all American-Slovak organizations and publications for the promulgations of Slovak ethnic heritage. is a charter member of the Slovak World Congress. Life membership: $100.00 For further information, write to: Slovak League of America 313 Ridge Avenue Middletown, Pa. 17057 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 1973, Vol. 23 Description An account of the resource Vol. 23 (No. 46), 1973. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Slovak League of America Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1973 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document 82 SLOVAKIA Dr. J. M. Kirschbaum A BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH ON THE OCCASION OF HIS SIXTIETH BIRTHDAY It is next to impossible to condense into a short biographical essay a life of such many-sided activity, so rich in events and experiences as that of Dr. J.M. Kirschbaum. It can be said of him and many of his contemporaries that their lives epitomise the Slovak history of the past half century in both its triumphant and tragic aspects. But nowhere is this symbolism so obvious and so clearly reflected as in the work and achievements of Dr. J. M. Kirschbaum. All his adult life has been spent in a dedicated service of the Slovak cause which, in turn, has in him its most ardent and articulate advocate. He was born on March 25th, 1913 in Dolne Vestenice, a well-known fruit-growing district of Central Slovakia. His father fought for the liberation of Slovakia in the Czecho-Slovak Legion during the First World War and returned from Siberia only in 1920. The years of fighting and deprivation sapped his health and he died in 1923 when the boy was ten years old. As a student of great promise and intellectual ability young Jozef Kirschbaum was sent to continue his schooling at the Lyceum (High School) in Nitra. I may add that at that time it was unusual for a village boy to pursue higher studies since the course was quite costly and demanding. Straight from the beginning J. Kirschbaum was an outstanding student whether at the Nitra Lyceum (1923-25) or later at the famous Jesuit college "Stanislavov" in Ruzomberok. In the days of Kirschbaum's stay at Ruzomberok the town had in the minds of most of the Slovak countryfolk the aura of a true capital city of Slovakia. Here resided as parish priest Fr. Andrej Hlinka, the leader of the Slovak People's Party and a fearless tribune of his people. Not even young students could escape the political atmosphere SLOVAKIA 83 and the powerful influence of Hlinka's dynamic personality. For a young idealistic Slovak man Hlinka's political aims in their forceful simplicity must have been an irresistible attraction. There is no doubt that there and then was planted the seed of his future political commitments and involvements. After completion of his high school studies (at Kosice in 1933) Jozef Kirschbaum enrolled in the Law Faculty of the Bratislava University. Here he found himself right from the start in the thick of feverish political activities. The University halls and colleges were recruiting grounds and battle arenas where the new generation of political leaders were testing their skills and sharpening their tools. Kirschbaum and his contemporaries represented the first generation which grew up and was educated in the post-war Slovakia and was not exposed to the humiliating experiences of magyarization. They were the proud products of their teachers and professors (largely the Czechs) but in one respect they were to disappoint their tutors. They boldly asserted their Slovak nationality and refused to accept the hints and insinuations that they should consider themselves as a new breed of "Czechoslovaks". The youth of Slovakia (e.g. at their massive gathering at Trencianske Teplice in summer of 1932) even more vigorously than their fathers claimed for the Slovak nation those rights and privileges which every free nation should enjoy and which the Slovaks were once promised but since denied. In particular they demanded a fair deal for themselves and their countrymen: that the country's economy would pass into Slovak hands; that the Slovaks would get a proportional number of jobs in the Army, in the State and Public Service; that the Slovak language would be recognized and respected as the official language in Slovakia, etc. In the forefront of this struggle was the Slovak People's Party and one of its most energetic detachments was the academic youth where J. Kirschbaum was soon to play a leading role. His extensive involvement in politics-which inevitably had anti-Czech connotations-was frowned upon his Czech professors and the University authorities who would not allow him to graduate even though he had fulfilled all the 84 SLOVAKIA academic requirements with great distinction. Eventually he was awarded his Doctor of Law degree at a private ceremony in the summer of 1938. By this time Dr. J. Kirschbaum was already a wellknown public figure. His name frequently appeared in the Slovak press not only in connection with his activities but also as that of author of many articles, comments and penetrating observations. He was a regular contributor to several dailies and periodical of the time. The years 1938-39 passed into Slovak national history as the year of Slovakia's encounter with destiny. The evergrowing determination of the Slovak nation to be master in its own house manifested itself so patently that the further denial of political justice was no longer possible. The artificial edifice of "czechoslovakism " crumbled and the rigid centralist form of government was replaced by a federalist system. The post-Munich Czecho-Slovakia became a federated state and within its framework Slovakia obtained its overdue autonomy. The Slovak People's Party as the biggest political party in Slovakia and the most consistent advocate of autonomy assumed political responsibility for the future development of Slovakia. The first Slovak autonomous government formed in October 1938 consisted of two Hlinka followers (Dr. Jozef Tiso and Dr. Ferdinand !>urcansky), two Agrarians (Jan Lichner and Pavo! Teplansky) and one Nationalist (Matus cernak). These three parties represented-acco rding to the 1935 election results-almost two thirds of the Slovak electorate. The subsequent political activity of Dr. J. Kirschbaum must be viewed against this background. From the University lecture rooms he stepped straight into the turmoil of high-level politics. The situation facing the Slovak leaders was critical and very demanding. The People's Party had just lost its leader (Andrej Hlinka died in August 1938). Immediately after it had been granted autonomy Slovakia had to fight for its survival. Its greedy neighbors staked their territorial claims and Slovakia was forced to cede large portions of its territory to Hungary and 5maller ones to Poland and Germany. Truncated and harassed the country was even more determined to prove its vitality in spite of all threats and SLOVAKIA 85 drawbacks. To achieve this, national unity was necessary. The political leaders thought that such a unity could be accomplished ( and convincingly demonstrated to outsiders) by the formation of a united political party for all Slovaks. This coalition-like party was formed in November 1938. It bore the dual name, Hlinka Slovak People's Party-The Party of Slovak National Unity and soon it was to be the real testing ground of the young Kirschbaum's abilities. But before this happened Dr. Kirschbaum had to prove his skill elsewhere. In the first months of Slovak autonomy he served as secretary of Minister f>urcansky (at the Ministry of Transport), and at the same time was the commandant of the Academic Hlinka Guards and the Editor-in-Chief of the radical fortnightly, "Nastup". In addition he was frequently seen and heard at many public meetings and demonstrations and his articles-which appeared regularly in "Nastup" and the daily press-were widely read. In the historic days of March 1939 when the Czechs by a military 'putsch' tried to quash Slovak autonomy and the future of Slovakia again hung in the balance, Dr. J. Kirschbaum-like his chief Dr. !>urcansky-considered the declaration of independence as the only viable solution. With fearless courage (the Czech military authorities issued an order for his arrest) he commuted between Dr. t>ucansky in Vienna and the Slovak political leaders in Bratislava (Karol Sidor and the deposed Prime Minister Dr. Jozef Tiso) in an attempt to arrange some coordinated political action. In these days of uncertainties he calmly organized-in defiance of Czech military orders--an impressive and welldisciplined march of University students through the streets of Bratislava. The authorities did not dare interfere and the demonstration turned out to be a significant moral booster for the suspense-packed hours preceding the declaration of independence. It is not surprising that in spite of his youth (he was barely 26) he figured on the list of the first Slovak government as proposed by Dr. t>urcansky, where he was allotted the Transport portfolio. But when-in the wake of the Slovak declaration of independence--the new government of Slovakia was an- 86 SLOVAKIA nounced, Kirschbaum's name was not included. But it was not because of his age. It is more probable that Dr. J. Tiso-the new Prime Minister and the leader of the Party of the Slovak National Unity - had for him a more challenging and exacting task. He appointed Dr. J . Kirschbaum the Secretary-General of the Party. The work imposed on his young shoulders by this appointment was enormous. The Slovak People's Party of the pre-1938 period was administered very haphazardly. Fr. Hlinka as the undisputed leader of a widespread popular movement did not see any great need and hence paid little attention to the organizational and bureaucratic details of the Party's day-to-day existence. This could do while the Party was in opposition and Hlinka's word was law. But after Hlinka's death the Party became the dominating influence in the government of the country and in addition was swelled by the influx of new members (including former members of those parties which united with it in November 1938) it was necessary for the Party to have its own statutes, modern organizational structure and an effective administrative machinery. By the Constitutional Law of July 1939 the Party was assigned a new and important role in the political, cultural and social life of independent Slovakia. The constructive implementation of this role was the job of the General Secretariat where Dr. J. Kirschbaum and an able team of dedicated and enthusiastic helpers were hard at work. At the Party Congress in Trencin (September 30thOctober 1st, 1939) Dr. J. Kirschbaum presented the new proposals for the organizational changes in the structure and administration of the Party. They were unanimously approved by the Congress and even his jealous critics had to admit that Dr. Kirschbaum and his team had done a thorough and creditable job. The Congress confirmed (also unanimously) Dr. Kirschbaum in the position of the Party's Secretary-General. As the Secretary-General of the Party Dr. J. Kirschbaum displayed not only zeal and agility but also a vision and sense of judgment so important in such a responsible job. Under his able administration the rejuvenated Party was launched on its new course under the new social and political conditions. SLOVAKIA 87 Unfortunately Dr. Kirschbaum did not stay long in his Party post. In the first half of 1940 Slovak political life underwent dramatic changes due to the polarization of political thinking among the leaders of Slovakia. There were some who claimed that the present, as well as the future, of Slovakia must be linked with that of Germany in all respects. These close ties would postulate even the ideological remoulding of the Slovak life and outlook in the National Socialist pattern. This group, headed by Prime Minister Dr. Vojtech Tuka and the Commandant of the Hlinka Guards Alexander Mach, was resolutely opposed not only by President Dr. Tiso and the rest of the ministers but also by the overwhelming majority of ranli::. and file Party members and the people. The Party Secretariat stood solidly behind the President who insisted that Slovak politics must not slavishly imitate foreign examples but should be rooted in native traditions. Tuk.a and his followers called for German assistance which was soon forthcoming in the shape of the notorious "Salzburg consultations". In August 1940 Hitler and Ribbentrop forced President Tiso to dismiss from their positions of power the two men whom they considered as the chief trouble-makers and major obstructions to the spread of the Nazi ideology in Slovakia, namely Dr. F. nurcansky (Foreign and Interior Minister) and Dr. J. Kirschbaum (Secretary-General of the Party). After his dismissal from the Party job Dr. J. Kirschbaum was called up to do his military service in the Slovak Army (1940-41). A ban was imposed on his further participation in the domestic politics of Slovakia. And so after completion of his military duties he entered the Slovak diplomatic service. He started his diplomatic career as the Legation Counsellor at the Slovak Legation in Rome. After a short apprenticeship in Rome he assumed (in 1942) the position of Slovak Charge d'Affaires in Bern, where he stayed till the end of World War II. On the soil of neutral Switzerland he did his utmost to safeguard Slovak interests in the realm of international politics. Through personal contacts -both official and unofficial-and by all means available 88 SLOVAKIA to him he defended Slovakia's case for independence in the post-war territorial rearrangement of Central Europe. But the enemies of Slovak independence had at their side the victorious Western Powers and the Soviet Union and again it was the case of the "might-is-right" solution. With total disregard for the wishes of the small indigenous peoples it was decided to reimpose the discredited Versailles settlement on the nations of Central Europe. The Slovaks found themselves in an unwilling partnership with the Czechs in the reconstituted Czecho-Slovakia. As a result Dr. J. Kirschbaum like thousands of his countrymen stood face to face with the bitter reality of life in exile. The first years of his life as a political exile he spent in Switzerland where he worked for a short period ( 19461948) as an accredited representative of the Slovak League to the International Refugee Organization in Geneva. He was in continuous contact with the Slovak political leaders in exile and with Slovak organizations in America and elsewhere. It was obvious to them that the struggle for the restoration of Slovak independence must start there and then, no matter how hopeless the situation might look. To assure the maximum effectiveness of this struggle an organized and coordinated action was required. Thus in the summer of 1948 the foundations were laid for a Slovak political representation-The Slovak National Council A· broad-which took upon itself to carry on the struggle for the just and inalienable demands of the Slovak nation. Dr. Jozef Kirschbaum was one of the principal architects of this organization. It included such well-known personalities as Sidor, Pridavok, Culen, Mondok, Cieker, Pauco, Mikus, etc., but-most regretably-not Dr. F. !>urcansky. Dr. J. Kirschbaum stood at the head of the Committee in charge of foreign affairs. For this task he was indeed suitably prepared and equipped. He had the background of diplomatic experience and a deep and intimate knowledge of Slovak politics. His knowledge of the Western world was based on close observations and supplemented by his studies at several Western universities: Paris (Political Science, 1938), Rome (Political Science, 1941-42), Geneva (International Relations, 1946-48) and Montreal (1951-54). SLOVAKIA 89 In 1949 he emigrated with his family (he married Magdalena Danihel in 1941 and by this time they had three children) to Montreal in Canada. In spite of the difficulties which are the lot of every immigrant in a new country he quickly settled down and resumed his work where he had left off in Europe, including his university studies. In 1952 he obtained an M.A. and in 1954 a Ph.D. degree at the Universite de Montreal. But even at this time his involvement in university activities went far deeper than a simple studentship. In 1951 he started to give a course of lectures at the Universite de Montreal and later at the Universite d'Ottawa and the University of Toronto. His lectures dealt with the broad spectrum of the history of the Western Slavs ('Slavia Occidentalis') and also with specific Slovak topics. As time went by he became even more deeply concerned with Slovak emigre politics. After 1950 the centre of Slovak p olitical activities shifted from Europe across the Atlantic and Montreal became their focal point. Here resided K . Sidor, K. culen, F. Tiso, F. Mondok, K. Murin and J . Kirschbaum who in 1952 was elected the chairman of the Political Committee of the Slovak National Council Abroad. One worrying feature of the Slovak political life in exile was its bifurcation into two organizations struggling for the same aims but in bitter rivalry against each other. For a man like Dr. J. Kirschbaum it was a particularly heart-breaking experience since the rival organization was led by his former chief and friend, Dr. F. !>urcansky. I t took many years of patience and endurance to heal this split. Major credit for this achievement should go to Dr. J. Kirschbaum. It was largely through his effort that in 1960 the Slovak community both at home and abroad learned with satisfaction about the formation of a joint organization-The Slovak Liberation Council. Dr. !>urcansky became the President of the Council's E xecutive Committee and Dr. J . Kirschbaum became the President of its Assembly. On purpose I have not said anything about the journalistic and literary activities of Dr. J . Kirschbaum. They would form an extensive chapter all by themselves and one cannot do them justice within the framework of this 90 SLOVAKIA brief biographical sketch. I only wish to remind the reader that on top of all the accomplishments recorded in the preceding paragraphs he should superimpose an impressive literary and journalistic output. This activity began when Dr. J. Kirschbaum was 14 years old and it is still continuing. In the period of the past 45 years Dr. Kirschbaum wrote (by a modest estimate) something like 1200 articles on a wide variety of topics (political commentaries, editorials. literary criticism and history, Slavic studies, linguistics. political science) in five languages (Slovak, French, English, German, Spanish) as well as four scholarly books, two of them in English ('Slovakia: Nation at the Crossroads of Central Europe', 1960, and 'Slovaks in Canada', 1967). In the last few years Dr. Kirschbaum has expended much of his time and energy in organizing and promoting the work of the Slovak World Congress. This relatively new body (founded in 1970) embraces all Slovak political, cultural, fraternal and other organizations and societies to speak on their behalf for the Slovak cause in the free world. Dr. J. Kirschbaum is one of the Vice Presidents of the Slovak World Congress and at the moment is putting the finishing editorial touches to a Symposium on Slovak history and culture. The book will contain the lectures and discussions which were delivered at the special conference successfully arranged by Dr. Kirschbaum to coincide with the General Assembly of the Slovak World Congress in Toronto (June 1971). Karl Marx who knew vastly more about life in exile than he knew about world revolution once wrote that emigre life is "a school of scandal and of meanness". Dr. Kirschbaum would probably agree with him. More than once he became an innocent victim of vicious attacks, intrigues and malicious gossip from the enemies of Slovak independence (who wanted to eliminate him from Slovak politics for obvious reasons) as well as from jealous and frustrated compatriots (who had no obvious reasons at all). But all this "sound and fury"-unpleasant and distractful as it must have been-did not sway Dr. Kirschbaum from his firm determination to work selflessly and untiringly for the just Slovak cause. Which only confirms my personal conviction about life in exile, namely that 91 SLOVAKIA exile brings out the best in a noble and purposeful man and the worst in those who are weak and insecure. Dr. Jozef Kirschbaum can look back on his past years, and in particular the years in exile, with contentment and satisfaction. We who watched his efforts and striving at a close distance and followed them with good wishes and admiration, we know he tried his utmost and did his best. His achievements when measured against a background of harrowing and unfavorable circumstances will irritate his detractors but will inspire many of his countrymen both at home and abroad, at present and in the future. AD MULTOS ANNOS! F. V n u k, Australia • • • SLOVAK LEAGUE OF AMERICA - - - supports freedom and independence of Slovakia; promotes a better understanding and appreciation of the Slovak nation, its history, culture, traditions, and desires; makes America better known to Slovakia and Slovakia better known to America in the interest of world peace, freedom and security; has a scholarship program for college and university students; promotes cooperation among all American-Slovak organizations and publications for the promulgations of Slovak ethnic heritage. is a charter member of the Slovak World Congress. Life membership: $100.00 For further information, write to: Slovak League of America 313 Ridge Avenue Middletown, Pa. 17057  Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Dr. J. M. Kirschbaum: A biographical sketch on the occasion of his sixtieth birthday Description An account of the resource F. Vnuk Slovakia, Vol. 23 (No. 46), 1973 pp. 82-91 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Vnuk, František, 1926- Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1973 SNK